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g
w
constants
speci c heat capacity at constant
pressure
difference in values of cp calculated by
equation (10) and by equations (6), (7)
and (1) expressed as a percentage
speci c enthalpy
molecular weight
kmol of air used per kmol of fuel
number of carbon atoms in one
molecule of fuel
number of hydrogen atoms in one
molecule of fuel
number of oxygen atoms in one
molecule of fuel
pressure
non-dimensional speci c heat capacity
[equation (8)]
fuelair ratio by mass
speci c gas constant
speci c entropy
characteristic ratio, depends on fuel
and temperature [equation (7)]
temperature
mass fraction
The MS was received on 17 April 2000 and was accepted after revision
for publication on 6 September 2000.
A02100
IMechE 2001
Dcair
I 0, I1, I2, R
Subscripts
air
fuel
combust
air
fuel
combustion products
INTRODUCTION
376
A GUHA
2.1
2.2
n
X
i0
Ai
T
1000
1a
IMechE 2001
Table 1
Dry air
A0
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
O2
N2
CO2
H2O
0.992 313
1.006 450
1.075 132
0.408 089
1.937 043
0.236 688 1.047 869 0.252 297
2.027 201 0.967 916
1.852 148
3.729 558
0.341 859 2.405 549
3.338 905
6.083 152 4.934 172
0.523 944
2.039 166 3.652 122
8.893 933
3.284 147 0.888 984 1.163 088
2.332 470
7.097 112 1.095 203
0.442 621
0.381 364 0.819 451
3.234 725
0.145 737 0.074 788 0.052 763
0.118 783
0.794 571
0.081 873
T=100
2.3
cp;combust
1:5
For H2O:
377
8
X
i0
T
Ai
1000
i
7
rfa X
T
Bi
1 rfa i0
1000
1c
0:25
cp 7:9472 10:196 67 T=100
2.4
1b
Van Wylen et al. [5] have given the accuracy and range
of validity of equation (1b) which is reproduced in
Table 2.
A02100
Table 2
Gas
Range (K)
N2
O2
CO2
H2O
3003500
3003500
3003500
3003500
0.43
0.30
0.19
0.43
IMechE 2001
378
A GUHA
2.5
THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3.1
cp;air
1 rfa
where
MCO2 cp;CO2 nH MH2 O cp;H2 O
Mfuel cp;air
2 Mfuel cp;air
nH nO MO2 cp;O2
nC
4
2 Mfuel cp;air
S nC
Combustion equation
Mfuel
rfa Mair
nH nO
nair
3.3
where
1
mcombust Mfuel 1
rfa
IMechE 2001
379
where
I0
Fig. 1
Speci c heat of various gases as a function of temperature. rc p is calculated from equations (8) and (1)
and is plotted as solid lines [ equation (9c);
equation (9b)]
rcp
cp;gas T=cp;air T
cp;gas =cp;air T 1200K
1:01
150
T
A02100
IMechE 2001
11b
11c
R air
1 rfa
12
where
R combust speci c gas constant of combustion products
R air speci c gas constant of air
R, another characteristic number for the speci c fuel, is
calculated from
Mair nH nO
13
R
Mfuel
4
2
Equation (12) is exact; some properties of equation
(12) have been discussed in Appendix 2. The ratio of
speci c heats, gcombust, can be calculated from
gcombust
9a
cp;combust
cp;combust R combust
14
9b
9c
cp;air
1 rfa
1
18:0566nC 8:3485nH 15:1616nO
Mfuel
11a
10
380
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Table 3
Fuel
Equivalent
R
formula
I0
I1/10 4 I2/10 4
(K1)
(K2)
Methane
Propane
Octane
Benzene
Methyl alcohol
Ethyl alcohol
Gasoline
Diesel
Kerosene
Carbon monoxide
Sample natural gas
Pure carbon
Hydrogen
CH4
C3H8
C8H18
C6H6
CH4O
C2H6O
C7H17
C12.9H23.9
C12H23.5
CO
C1.07H4.1
C
H2
3.216
2.749
2.585
2.031
2.082
2.204
2.657
2.420
2.465
1.186
3.161
1.505
8.349
5.575
4.054
3.521
1.715
2.788
2.909
3.753
2.982
3.129
0.000
5.397
0.000
22.30
1.811
1.317
1.144
0.557
1.358
1.260
1.219
0.969
1.016
0.517
1.753
0.000
7.243
6.736
7.348
7.563
8.291
3.368
4.686
7.470
7.780
7.721
3.849
6.808
8.981
0.000
Fig. 3
Fig. 2
Fig. 4
IMechE 2001
Fig. 5
CALCULATION OF ENTHALPY
Fig. 7
381
relation
h2;combust h1;combust
T2
T1
cp;combust dT
15
7.1
T2
T1
cp;air
1 Srfa
dT
1 rfa
16
7.2
Fig. 6
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382
7.3
A GUHA
therefore, given by
17
where
w
s2;combust s1;combust
CALCULATION OF ENTROPY
19
dT
T
T1
p2
R combust ln
p1
cp;combust
20
dT
T
T1
p2
R combust ln
p1
S2;combust S1;combust w
cp;air
21
Table 4
Accuracy of the recommended method for calculating enthalpy changes of combustion products
Enthalpy
change
calculated
from
equation
Fuelair (16) Dh1
ratio
(MJ/kg)
Enthalpy
change
calculated
from
equation
(17) Dh2
(MJ/kg)
Relative
difference
Dh1 Dh2
Dh
Kerosene, C12H23.5
(T1 600 K, 0.00
T2 1000 K, 0.01
DT 400 K) 0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.4390
0.4457
0.4523
0.4588
0.4651
0.4714
0.4390
0.4458
0.4525
0.4591
0.4655
0.4718
0.0000
0.2162
0.4219
0.6175
0.8046
0.9828
Kerosene, C12H23.5
(T1 1200 K, 0.00
T2 2000 K, 0.01
DT 800 K) 0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.9743
0.9934
1.0121
1.0304
1.0484
1.0660
0.9743
0.9929
1.0111
1.0290
1.0466
1.0638
0.0000
0.4687
0.9109
0.1329
0.1725
0.2100
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.4390
0.4498
0.4605
0.4709
0.4811
0.4911
0.4390
0.4500
0.4608
0.4714
0.4818
0.4920
0.0000
0.4001
0.7740
0.1124
0.1453
0.1762
Methane, CH4
(T1 1200 K, 0.00
T2 2000 K, 0.01
DT 800 K) 0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.9743
1.0045
1.0342
1.0632
1.0918
1.1197
0.9743
1.0040
1.0331
1.0616
1.0896
1.1170
0.0000
0.5544
0.1066
0.1541
0.1981
0.2391
Methane, CH4
(T1 600 K,
T2 1000 K,
DT 400 K)
T2
A02100
103
103
103
103
103
103
103
102
102
102
103
103
102
102
102
103
102
102
102
102
IMechE 2001
Table 5
383
Property
Proposed equation
Comment
Gas constant
R combust 1 Rrfa
R air
1 rfa
cp;combust 1 rfa I0 I1 T I2 =T 2
cp;air
1 rfa
gcombust
h2;combust h1;combust
w
h2;air h1;air
S2, combust S1, combust wDcair R combust ln( p2 /p1) w is again given by equation (18).
cp;combust
cp;combust R combust
Dcair
T
2
T1
cp;air
dT
T
CONCLUSION
IMechE 2001
384
A GUHA
REFERENCES
1 Walsh, P. P. and Fletcher, P. Gas Turbine Performance,
1998 (Blackwell Science, Oxford).
2 James, D. W. COBRA vital statistics, James Engineering
(Turbines) Limited, Clevedon, Avon.
3 Cassedy, E. S. and Grossman, P. Z. Introduction to
Energy, 1990 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge).
4 Whittle, F. Gas Turbine Aero-Thermodynamics, 1981
(Pergamon, Oxford).
5 van Wylen, G., Sonntag, R. and Borgnakke, C. Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics, 4th edition, 1994
(John Wiley, New York).
6 Kurzke, J. GasTurb 8.0 for Windows, Manual, 1998
(MTU, Munchen).
7 Denton, J. D. An improved time-marching method for
turbomachinery ow calculation. Trans. ASME, J. Engng
Power, 1983, 105, 514524.
8 Denton, J. D. and Dawes, W. N. Computational uid
dynamics for turbomachinery design. Proc. Instn Mech.
Engrs, Part C, Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science,
1999, 213 (C2), 107124.
9 Gordon, S. and McBride, B. J. Computer program for
calculation of complex chemical equilibrium compositions
and applications: I. Analysis. NASA Reference Publication
1311, October 1994.
10 Reynolds, W. C. STANJAN: the element potential method
for chemical equilibrium analysis. Thermosciences Division, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford
University, Palo Alto, California, 1986.
11 Guha, A. Optimisation of aero gas turbine engines.
Aeronaut. J., 2001 (to appear).
12 Guha, A. Performance of gas turbines with real gas effects.
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs, Part A, Journal of Power and
Energy, 2001, 215(A4) (in preparation).
13 Hill, P. G. and Peterson, C. R. Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion, 2nd edition, 1992 (AddisonWesley, Reading, Massachusetts).
APPENDIX 1
Effects of dissociation
The analysis presented in the main body of the paper has
not included dissociation; this is also the method adopted
by other workers. Even the detailed in-house computer
softwares of aero-engine manufacturers seem to follow
the method described in Section 2.2 [1]. Kurzke [6] used
one of the most sophisticated NASA computer programs
[9] to calculate the property tables of combustion
products provided as a data set to the program GasTurb
[6], but chose to include only N2, O2, CO2, H2O and Ar in
the combustion products as has been done here. (The
calculation of the temperature increase due to combustion
A02100
IMechE 2001
Mfuel
nH nO a b c
O2
air nC
Mair rfa
4
2
2 4 2
nH b
c H2 O bOH cH2
2
2
22
IMechE 2001
cp;air
1 rfa
23
1
18:0566 nC 8:3485 nH 15:1616 nO
Mfuel
4:2927a 4:6367b 11:321c
24a
I01
0:002 23 nH b 2c
Mfuel
24b
I02
1 077 768:4 nC a
Mfuel
24c
nC aCO2 aCO
Fig. 8
385
I00
1
18:0566 nC 12:234 nH 15:1616 nO
Mfuel
4:2927a 0:7511b 3:5497c
25a
I01
5:0616 104 nH b 2c
Mfuel
25b
I02
1 077 768:4 nC a
Mfuel
25c
The two slightly variant equation sets result from the fact
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 215 Part A
386
A GUHA
cp;air
1 rfa
26
APPENDIX 2
Gas constant of combustion products
Such calculations are usually performed either by
detailed combustion analysis as a part of specialized
computational tools or by in-house empirical formulae
[1]. As an example, Walsh and Fletcher [1] suggest the
use of the following equations (their equations F3.22,
p. 115):
R combust 287:05 0:009 90rfa 1 107 r2fa
kerosene
2
R combust 287:05 8:0262rfa 3 107 rfa
diesel
2
R combust 287:05 212:85rfa 197:89rfa
Fig. 9
if R > 1
A02100
IMechE 2001
R combust R air,
R combust < R air,
387
if R 1
if R < 1
Examples are:
Methane CH4:
28:97 4
1:811,
16 4
hence R combust > R air
Diesel C12.9H23.9:
28:97 23:9
0:969,
178:7 4
hence, R combust < R air
Kerosene C12H23.5:
28:97 23:5
1:015,
167:7 4
hence R combust R air
Fig. 10
rfa !0
A02100
IMechE 2001
R combust
2
1 R 1rfa 1 Rrfa
R air
28