Chapter 1

Vector Calculus
This slide will cover:
- Introduction of Vector Calculus
- Elementary of Vectors
- Del operator
- Grad/Div/Curl operator
1

1.1 Elementary Vector Analysis

Definition 1.1 (Scalar and vector)
Scalar is a quantity that has magnitude
but not direction.
For instance mass, volume, distance

Vector is a directed quantity, one with

both magnitude and direction.
For instance acceleration, velocity, force
2

SPEED
Describe how fast an
object is moving.
Eg. A car is travels at
60km/h.

VELOCITY
Describe how fast & in
what direction the
object is moving.
Eg. A car is travels at
60km/h to the north.

ACCELERATION
The rate at which the
velocity of a moving
object changes with
time.

DEFINITION:If r(t) is a position function of a particle moving along a curve in 2-space or

3-space, then the instantaneous velocity, instantaneous acceleration and
instantaneous speed of a particle at time t are defined by
dr
Velocity v(t )
dt
dv d 2 r
Acceleration a(t )
2
dt dt
ds
Speed v(t )
dt
3

2-space

POSITION
VELOCITY

3-space

r (t ) x(t ) i y (t ) j
~

v(t )

r (t ) x(t ) i y (t ) j z (t ) k

dx dy
i
j
~
dt
dt ~

ACCELERATION

d 2x d 2 y
a(t ) 2 i 2 j
dt ~ dt ~

SPEED

dx dy
v(t )
dt dt

v(t )

dx dy
dz
i
j k
dt ~ dt ~ dt ~

d 2x d 2 y
d 2z
a (t ) 2 i 2 j 2 k
dt ~ dt ~ dt ~
2

dx dy dz
v(t )
dt dt dt

Example 1
The position of a moving particle at time t is given
by x 4t + 3, y t2 + 3t, z t3 + 5t2. Obtain
The velocity and acceleration of the particle.
The magnitude of both velocity and acceleration
at t 1.

Solution
The parameter is t, and the position vector is

r(t ) (4t 3) i (t 2 3t ) j (t 3 5t 2 ) k .
~

The velocity is given by

dr
~

dt

4 i ( 2t 3) j (3t 2 10t ) k .
~

The acceleration is

d2 r
dt

~
2

2 j (6t 10) k .
~

 At t 1, the velocity of the particle is

d r (1)
~

dt

4 i ( 2(1) 3) j (3(1) 2 10(1)) k

~

4 i 5 j 13 k .
~

and the magnitude of the velocity is

d r (1)
~

dt

42 52 132
210 .
7

 At t 1, the acceleration of the particle is

d 2 r (1)
~

dt

2 j (6(1) 10) k
~

2 j 16 k .
~

and the magnitude of the acceleration is

d 2 r (1)
~

dt 2

22 162
2 65.
8

1.1.1 Basic Vector System

Unit vectors , ,
9

1.1.2 Magnitude of vectors

Let P = (x, y, z). Vector OP

is defined by

OP p x i y j z k

[x, y, z]
with magnitude (length)

OP p

x y z
2

10

1.1.3 Calculation of Vectors

1. Vector Equation

Two vectors are equal if and only if the

corresponding components are equals

Let a a1 i a2 j a3 k and b b1 i b2 j b3 k .
Then
a b a1 b1 , a2 b2 , a3 b3

11

2. Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

a b (a1 b1 )i (a2 b2 ) j (a3 b3 )k

3. Multiplication of Vectors by Scalars

If is a scalar, then
b (b1 )i (b2 ) j (b3 )k

12

Example

Given p 5i j - 3k and q 4i - 3j 2k . Find

a) p q
b) p - q
c) Magnitude of vector p

d) 2q - 10p
13

Vector Products
If a a1 i a2 j a3 k and b b1 i b2 j b3 k ,
~

1) Scalar Product (Dot product)

a b a1b1 a2b2 a3b3

~ ~
or a . b | a || b | cos , is the angle between a and b
~ ~

2) Vector Product (Cross product)

i
j k
~

a b a1 a2
~
~
b1 b2

a3
b3

a2b3 - a3b2 i - a1b3 - a3b1 j a1b2 - a2b1 k

~

14

Example
Given a 2 i 3 j - k and b i 2 j k ,
~

determine a .b, a b .
~ ~

15

1.2 Differentiation of Vectors

Let A be a vector depending on parameter u,

A(u ) a x (u ) i a y (u ) j a z (u ) k
~

The derivative of A(u) is obtained by

differentiating each component separately,

dA

da y
dax
daz

i
j
k
du
du ~ du ~ du ~
~

16

 The nth derivative of vector A(u) is given by

~

dn A

n
n
n
d
a
d
a
d
az
y
x
~

i
j
k.
n
n ~
n
n ~
du
du
du ~ du

dn A
~
n

The magnitude of

is

du

d A
du

~
n

d a x d a y d az
n n n
du du du
n

17

Example
If A 3u 2 i - 2u j 5 k
~

hence
dA
~

du
d2 A
du

~
2

18

Differentiation of Two Vectors

If both A(u) and B(u) are vectors, then
~

dA
d
a)
(c A) c ~
du ~
du
dA dB
d
b)
( A B) ~ ~
du ~ ~
du du
dB dA
d
c)
( A . B) A . ~ ~ .B
~ du
du ~ ~
du ~
dB dA
d
d)
( A B) A ~ ~ B
~
du ~ ~
du du ~
19

1.2.1 Partial Derivatives of a Vector

If vector A depends on more than one

~

parameter, i.e

A(u1 , u2 ,, un ) a x (u1 , u2 ,, un ) i
~

a y (u1 , u2 ,, un ) j
~

a z (u1 , u2 ,, un ) k
~

20

Partial derivative of A with respect to

~
given by

u1 is

a y
a x
a z

i
j
k,
u1 u1 ~ u1 ~ u1 ~
~

2 A

2a y

az
x
~

i
j
k
u1u2 u1u2 ~ u1u2 ~ u1u2 ~
2

e.t.c.
21

Example
If F 3uv2 i (2u 2 - v) j (u 3 v 2 ) k
~

then
F
~

u
F
~

v
2 F
v

~
2

3v 2 i 4u j 3u 2 k ,
~

6uv i - j 2v k ,
~

6u i 2 k ,
~

2 F
u

2 F
~

uv

~
2

4 j 6u k ,
~

2 F
~

vu

6v i

~
22

Exercise
If F 2u 2 v i (3u - v 3 ) j (u 3 3v 2 ) k
~

then
F
~

u
2 F

~
2

u
2
F
uv

F
~

v
2 F

~
2

v
2
F
vu

23

1.3 Integration of Vectors

The concept of vector integral is the same as
the integral of real-valued functions except
that the result of vector integral is a vector.

If A(u ) a x (u ) i a y (u ) j a z (u ) k
~

then

A(u ) du a x (u ) du i

a ~

a y (u ) du j a z (u ) du k .
a

24

Example
If F (3t 2 4t ) i (2t - 5) j 4t 3 k ,
~

calculate F dt.
1

Answer

F dt
~

(3t 4t ) dt i (2t - 5) dt j 4t 3 dt k
2

[t 3 2t 2 ]13 i [t 2 - 5t ]13 j [t 4 ]13 k

~

42 i - 2 j 80 k .
~

25

Exercise
If F (t 3 3t ) i 2t 2 j (t - 4) k ,
~

calculate

F dt.

0 ~

Answer
1

F dt

0 ~

(t 3t ) dt i 2t dt j (t - 4) dt k
3

7
2
7
i j- k.
4~ 3 ~ 2 ~
26

Exercise
Let A 2t ,3 - t , 2t 1 and B 2 - t , t , -3t
a) Find A 2 B. Then, differentiate with respect to t.
b) Find 3A - B. Then, integrate with respect to t.
c) Given A B =6, calculate all possible values for t.

Ans:
a) 0, -1, 4 .
7 2
9 2
2
b) t - 2t c1 ,9t - 2t c2 , t 3t c3 .
2
2
c) t 2.8541@ t -3.8541

Del Operator Or Nabla

(Symbol )
Operator is called vector differential operator,
defined as

i
j k .
x ~ y ~ z ~

Vector Field :
Is a function that associates a vector
to each point in a region of 2-space
or 3-space. A vector field in the
plane, for instance, can be visualized
as a collection of arrows with a given
magnitude and direction each
attached to a point in the plane.

Scalar Field:
A scalar field associates a scalar value to every point in a
space. The scalar may either be a mathematical number, or
a physical quantity.
Eg: temperature, volume.

Gradient
Gradient: represents the slope of the tangent of the graph of the function.
*slope = rate of change of a function.
Gradient of scalar field: is a vector field that points in the direction of the
greatest rate of change of the scalar field.

Consider a room in which the temperature is given by a scalar field, T, so

at each point (x,y,z) the temperature is T(x,y,z). (assume that the
temperature does not change over time). At each point in the room, the
gradient of T at that point will show the direction the temperature rises
most quickly.

The black are represent the greatest rate of change,

the blue arrow represent the gradient.

1.4.1 Grad (Gradient of Scalar Functions)

If x,y,z is a scalar function of three variables
and is differentiable, the gradient of is
defined as

grad
i
j
k.
x ~ y ~ z ~

* is a scalar function
* is a vector function
31

Example
If x 2 yz 3 xy 2 z 2 , determine grad at P (1,3,2).
Solution
Given x 2 yz 3 xy 2 z 2 , hence

2 xyz 3 y 2 z 2
x

x 2 z 3 2 xyz 2
y

3x 2 yz 2 2 xy 2 z
z

32

Therefore,

i
j
k
x ~ y ~ z ~
(2 xyz 3 y 2 z 2 ) i ( x 2 z 3 2 xyz 2 ) j
~

(3x 2 yz 2 2 xy 2 z ) k .
~

At P (1,3,2), we have
(2(1)(3)(2) 3 (3) 2 (2) 2 ) i ((1) 2 (2) 3 2(1)(3)(2) 2 ) j
~

(3(1) 2 (3)( 2) 2 2(1)(3) 2 (2)) k .

~

84 i 32 j 72 k .
~

33

Exercise

If x 3 yz xy 2 z 3 ,
determine grad at point P (1,2,3).

34

Solution
Given x 3 yz xy 2 z 3 , then

z
Grad
At P (1,2,3), 126 i 111 j 110 k .
~

35

Grad Properties
If A and B are two scalars, then

1) ( A B) A B
2) ( AB ) A(B) B(A)

36

Directional Derivative
Recall that if a function ( x, y, z ), then the partial derivatives

,
and
x y
z
the rates of change of in x -, y - and z - directions
of unit vectors i , j and k .
By using Directional Derivative, we can generalize the partial
derivatives to calculate the slope (rate of change of a scalar field) in a
particular direction.

Directional derivative Da (x0 , y0 , z0 ) a grad

A
where a , which is a unit vector in the direction of A.
A

* a 1

Theorem : If is a differentiable function of (x0 , y0 , z0 ), and if

a u1 i u2 j u3 k is a unit vector, then the directional derivative
Da (x0 , y0 , z0 ) exists and is given by:
Da (x0 , y0 , z0 )

(x0 , y0 , z0 )u1
(x0 , y0 , z0 )u2 + (x0 , y0 , z0 )u3
x
y
z
Can be written as the dot
product of two vectors

Da (x0 , y0 , z0 )

(x0 , y0 , z0 )u1
(x0 , y0 , z0 )u2 + (x0 , y0 , z0 )u3
x
y
z

(x0 , y0 , z0 ), (x0 , y0 , z0 ), (x0 , y0 , z0 )

x
y
z

grad a

u1 , u2 , u3

Example
Compute the directiona l derivative of x 2 z 2 xy 2 yz 2
at the point (1,2,-1) in the direction of the vector
A 2i 3 j - 4k.
~

39

Solution
Directional derivative of in the direction of

a
~

Da (x0 , y0 , z0 ) a . grad
~

where grad
i
j k and a ~ .
~
x ~ y ~ z ~
A
~

Given x 2 z 2 xy 2 yz 2 , hence
(2 xz 2 y 2 ) i (4 xy z 2 ) j ( x 2 2 yz ) k .
~

40

At (1,2,-1),
(2(1)( -1) 2(2) 2 ) i (4(1)( 2)
~

(-1) 2 ) j ((1) 2 2(2)( -1)) k .

~

6 i 9 j - 3k .
~

Also, given A 2 i 3 j - 4 k , then

~

A 2 2 32 (-4) 2
~

29 .
41

2
3
4
Therefore, a
i
jk.
~
29 ~
29 ~
29 ~
A
~

Then, Da (x0 , y0 , z0 )
a .
~

2
3
4
i
jk .(6 i 9 j - 3 k )
29 ~
29 ~
29 ~ ~ ~ ~
2
3
4
(6)

(9)

(-3)
29
29
29

51

9.470462.
29

The rate of change of x 2 z 2 xy 2 yz 2 at a point (1, 2, -1) in the direction

42
of unit vector A 2 i 3 j - 4 k is 9.47.
~

Example 2

Gradient : is a vector field that

points in the direction of the
greatest rate of change of the
scalar field.

Given a function f ( x, y ) 2 x3 y 3 y 2 .
i) What is the direction along which f ( x, y ) decrease
most rapidly at the point (3,2)?
ii) Find a direction u such that u f (1,1) 5.

Unit Normal Vector

The normal vector, often simply called the normal to a surface is a

vector which is perpendicular to the surface. When normals are
considered on a closed surface, the normal vector will be always
outward-pointing normal.

Normal vector is denoted by Grad ( ).

Unit vector normal is

Example
Calculate the unit normal vector at (-1,1,1) for
2yz xz xy 0.

45

Solution
Given 2yz xz xy 0. Thus
( z y ) i ( 2 z x ) j ( 2 y x ) k .
~

At (-1,1,1), (1 1) i (2 - 1) j (2 - 1) k
~

2 i j k
~

and 4 1 1 6 .
The unit normal vector is
2 i j k

1
~
~
~
n

(2 i j k )
~

6
6 ~ ~ ~
46

Exercise:
1) Find the unit normal vector for ln xyz x 2 y 2 z

-1
2 2

at the point P (-1, 2, -2).

1 28
31
31
Ans : n
j k
i1.317 27
54
54
2) Let f ( x, y, z ) ln( x 2 2 y 2 3z 2 ), calculate the directional derivative
3
4
12
at the point (-1,2,4) in the direction of u - i j - k.
13 13
13
314
Ans : -0.4238
741
3)Do questions 11, 12 and 13 (tutorial 1)

Divergence

The divergence operator measures the

magnitude of a vector field's source or sink at a
given point.
For example, consider air as it is heated:
-the vector field expands in all directions.
-the divergence of the velocity field would be
positive and the region is called as source.

If it was being cooled, the velocity is negative

and the region is called as sink.
No source
or sink

1.4.4 Divergence of a Vector

If A a x i a y j a z k , the divergence of A is
~

defined as
div A . A
~

i
j k .(a x i a y j a z k )
~
~
~
x ~ y ~ z ~
a x a y a z
div A . A

.
~
~
x
y
z
49

Example
If A x 2 y i - xyz j yz 2 k ,
~

determine div A at point (1,2,3).

~

Answer
a x a y a z

div A . A
~
~
z
y
x
2 xy - xz 2 yz.
At point (1,2,3),
div A 2(1)( 2) - (1)(3) 2(2)(3)
~

13.

50

Exercise
If A x 3 y 2 i xy 2 z j - yz 3 k ,
~

determine div A at point (3,2,1).

~

a x a y a z
Answer
div A . A

~
~
x
y
z

At point (3,2,1),
div A
~

114 .
51

Remarks
A is a vector function, but div A is a scalar function.
~

If div A 0, vector A is called solenoid vector .

~

52

Curl

Is an operator that describes the rotation of a 3dimensional vector field. It is calculated as:

j
~

k
~

curl A A
~
~
x y z
ax a y az
Curl > 0 : COUNTER
CLOCKWISE
ORIENTATION

Curl < 0 : CLOCKWISE

ORIENTATION

Curl = 0 :
IRROTATIONAL

1.4.5 Curl of a Vector

If A a x i a y j a z k , the curl of A is defined by
~

curl A A
~

i
j k (a x i a y j a z k )
~
~
~
x ~ y ~ z ~
i
j
k
~

curl A A
~
~
x
ax

y
ay

.
z
az
54

Example

If A ( y 4 - x 2 z 2 ) i ( x 2 y 2 ) j - x 2 yz k ,
~

determine curl A at (1,3,-2).

~

55

Solution
curl A A
~

y4 - x2 z 2

x2 y2

k
~

z
- x 2 yz

2
2
2

(- x yz ) - ( x y ) i
z
y
~
4

2
2 2
- (- x yz ) - ( y - x z ) j
z
x
~
2
4
2
2 2
( x y ) - ( y - x z ) k
y
x
~
- x 2 z i - (-2 xyz 2 x 2 z ) j (2 x - 4 y 3 ) k .
~

56

At (1,3,-2),
curl A -(1) 2 (-2) i - (-2(1)(3)(-2) 2(1) 2 (-2)) j
~

(2(1) - 4(3)3 ) k
~

2 i - 8 j - 106 k .
~

Exercise

If A ( xy 3 - y 2 z 2 ) i ( x 2 z 2 ) j - x 2 yz 2 k ,
~

determine curl A at point (1,2,3).

~

57

Answer
curl A (- x 2 z 2 - 2 z ) i - (-2 xyz 2 2 y 2 z ) j
~

(2 x - 3xy 2 2 yz 2 ) k .
~

At (1,2,3), curl A -15 i 12 j 26 k .

~

Remark

A is a vector function and

~

curl A is also a vector function.

~

58