KEMENTERIAN PENDIDIKAN DAN KEBUDAYAAN

UNIVERSITAS NEGERI SEMARANG (UNNES)

Kantor: Gedung H lt 4 Kampus, Sekaran, Gunungpati, Semarang 50229
Rektor: (024)8508081 Fax (024)8508082, Purek I: (024) 8508001 Website:
www.unnes.ac.id - E-mail: unnes@unnes.ac.id

FORMULIR

FORMAT BAHAN AJAR

No. Dokumen
FM-02-AKD-07

No. Revisi
00

Hal
1 dari 1

Tanggal Terbit
1 September 2012

BAHAN AJAR
MATA KULIAH
SEMESTER

: ALJABAR LINEAR ELEMENTER 1

: GASAL 2016-2017

PROGRAM STUDI PENDIDIKAN MATEMATIKA

FAKULTAS MATEMATIKA DAN ILMU PENGETAHUAN ALAM
UNIVERSITAS NEGERI SEMARANG
TAHUN 2016

WEEK 1
MATRICES
Definition
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. The numbers in the array are called the entries in the
matrix.
Example:
1 2
3 0 , 2
1 4

2
1
1 0 3 , 3
2
0 0

1
0 , 3 , 4
0

The size of a matrix is described in terms of the number of rows (horizontal lines) and columns
(vertical lines) it contains. The first matrix of example above has 3 rows and 2 columns. So, its size is
3 by 2, written 3 x 2. In a size description the first number denotes the number of row and the second
number denotes the number of columns.

A matrix with only one column is called a column matrix (or a column vector), denote by boldface
lowercase letters. A matrix with only one row is called a row matrix (or a row vector). The 1 x 1
matrix is both a row matrix and a column matrix.

We use capital letters to denote matrices and lowercase letters to denote numerical quantities (scalars).
Scalars will be real numbers (unless stated otherwise).

The entry in row I and j of a matrix A will be denoted by aij or (A)ij .

Thus a general m x n matrix might be written as
11 12 1
21 22 2
=
=

11
1 2
The notation

is used when we want to emphasize the size and

is used when we dont

want to emphasize the size.

Types of matrices
Let A = be a matrix.
1. A matrix A is called a square matrix of order m if A has m rows and m columns.
The entries a11, a22, , ann are said to be the main diagonal of A.
2. A matrix A is called a lower triangular if all the entries above the main diagonal are zero.
3. A matrix A is called an upper triangular if all the entries below the main diagonal are zero.
4. A matrix A is called a triangular if a matrix A is either upper triangular or lower triangular.

5. A matrix A is called a diagonal matrix if a matrix if a matrix A is both lower and upper triangular.
6. A matrix A is called a scalar matrix if a matrix A is a diagonal matrix and the main diagonal
entries are same.
7. A matrix is called an identity matrix if A is a square matrix with is on the main diagonal and 0s
off the main diagonal (or A is a scalar matrix with 1s on the main diagonal).
An identity matrix is denoted by I.
If it is important to emphasize the size, we shall write in for the n x n identity matrix.

A matrix A is called a zero matrix if all of the entries are zero. A zero matrix is denoted by O. if it
is important to emphasize the size, we shall write Opxq for the p x q zero matrix.
Definition
Two matrices are defined to be equal if they have the same size and their corresponding entries are
equal.
In matrix notation, if A = (aij) and B = (bij) have the same size, then A = B

aij = bij i and j.

OPERATION ON MATRICES
Definition
If A and B are matrices of the same size, then the sum A + B is the matrix obtained by adding the
entries of B to the corresponding entries of A, and the differences A B is the matrix obtained by
subtracting the entries of A.

Matrices of different sizes cannot be added or substracted. In matrix notation, if A = (aij) and B = (bij)
have the same size, then (A + B)ij = aij + bij i and j and (A + B)ij = aij + bij i and j.

Definition
If A is any matrix and is any scalar, then the product A is the matrix obtained by multiplying each
entry of A by .
In matrix notation, if A = (aij) then ( A)ij = aij

Definition
If A = (aij) is an p x q matrix and B = (bij) is an q x n matrix, then the product AB is an p x r matrix
whose entry (AB)ij =

=1

The definition of matrix multiplication requires that the number of columns of the first factor A be the
same as the numbers of rows of the second factor B in order to form the product AB.
If this condition is not satisfied, the product is undefined.

PROPERTIES OF MATRIX OPERATIONS

Theorem
Assuming that the sizes of the matrices are such that the indicated operations can be performed, the
following rules of matrix arithmetic are valid:
1. A + B = B + A commutative law for addition
2. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C

associative law for addition

3. A(BC) = (AB)C associative law for multiplication

4. A(B + C) = AB + AC

left distributive law

5. (B + C)A = BA + CA

right distributive law

6. + = +
7.

+ = +

8.

9. = =
Proof 4
Suppose that A = (aij)p x q, B = (bij)q x r, C = (cij)q x r
We want to show that corresponding entries of A(B + C) and AB + AC are equal; that is [A(B + C)]ij
= [AB + AC]ij i and j. from the definition of matrix addition and matrix multiplication we have

=1

=
=1

=
=1

=1

=1

For matrices, AB and BA need not be equal.

Equality can fail to hold for three reasons.
The first, AB is defined but BA is undefined.
The second, AB and BA are both defined but have different size.
The third, AB BA eventhough both AB and BA are defined and have same sizes.
=

1 0
1 2
, =
2 3
3 0
1 2
3 6
, =
11 4
3 0

WEEK 2
INVERSE OF A MATRIX
Definition
If A is a square matrix, and if a matrix B of the same size can be found such that AB = BA = I, then A
is said to be invertible and B is called an inverse of A.
Example
3
1
1
The matrix = 2
3
0
is 0 thus BA I.
0
The matrix =

5
2 5
is an inverse of =
since AB = I and BA = I.
1 3
2
4 0
5 0 is not invertible because for any 3 x 3 matrix B, the third column of BA
6 0

PROPERTIES OF INVERSE
Theorem
If B and C both inverses of the matrix A, then B = C.
Proof
Since B is an inverse of A, we have BA = I.
Multiplying both sides on the right by C gives (BA)C = I.C = C.
But (BA)C = B(AC) = B.I = B, so that B = C.
If A is invertible, then its inverse will be denoted by the symbol 1 .
Theorem

The matrix =

is invertible if ad bc 0 and 1 =

Proof

Suppose A =

Since AB = I then

,B=

+
+

and AB = BA = I.

+
1 0
=
.
+
0 1

+ = 1
+ = 0
and (2)
+ = 0
+ = 1

Therefore, (1)

By solving equation (1), we get the solution is p= and r = .

In a similar way, the solution of equation (2) is q = and s = .

Thus, B =

So, if B satisfies AB = BA = I then ad- bc 0.

1

The Matrix B is an inverse of A. Thus, A-1 =

Theorem
If A and B are invertible matrices of the same size, then
1. AB is invertible
2. AB-1 = B-1A-1
Proof
Obvious that (AB)(B-1A-1) = A(BB-1)A-1 = AIA-1 = AA-1 = I.
A similar argument shows that (B-1A-1)(AB) = I.
Thus AB is invertible and (AB)-1 = A-1B-1.
A product of any number of invertible matrices is invertible, and the inverse of the product is
the product of the inverses in reserve order.

Definition
If A is a square matrix, then we define the non-negative integer powers of A0= I, An =A.A. .A (n >
0)

n factors

Moreover, if A is invertible, then we define the negative integer powers to be A-n =( A-1)n = A-1.A-1
A-1

n factors

Theorem
If A is a square matrix and r and s are integers, then ArAs = Ar+s and (Ar)s = Ars.
The proof is left as an exercise.

Theorem
If A is an invertible matrix, then:
1. A-1 is invertible and (A-1)-1 = A
2.

An is invertible and (An)-1 = (A-1)n for n =0, 1, 2,

1

3. For any non-zero scalar k, the matrix kA is invertible and (kA)-1 = A-1
Proof
1. Since AA-1 = A-1A = I, the matrix A-1 is invertible and (A-1)-1 = A.
2. As an exercise
1

3. (kA)( A-1) = ()A-1 =

1
.

AA-1 = 1. I = I.

Similarly (kA)( A-1) = I.

1

Thus kA invertible and (kA)-1 = A-1

WEEK 3
TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
Definition
If A is any p x q matrix, then the transpose of A, denoted by AT, is defined to be the q x p matrix that
results from interchanging the rows and the columns of A, that is the first column of A T is the first
row of A, the second column of AT is the second row of A, and so forth.
The next theorem lists the main properties of the transpose operation.
Theorem
If the sizes of the matrices are such that the stated operations can be performed, then:
1. (AT)T =A
2. (A + B)T = AT + BT
3. (kA)T = k (A)T where k is any scalar
4. (AB)T = BTAT
Proof 4
Let A = (aij)pxq and B = (bij)qxr so that the product AB and BTAT can both be formed.
Obvious that (AB)T and BTAT have the same size that is r x p.
((AB)T)ij = (BTAT)ij
((AB)T)ji = (AB)ji =

=1

.(i)

Let (AT)ij = aij and (BT)ij = bij, so aij = aji and bij = bji

=1

Thus (BTAT)ij =

=1

=1

=
=

=1

=1

.(ii)

From (I) and (ii),we obtain ((AB)T)ij = (BTAT)ij

Therefore (AB)T = BTAT.
The transpose of a product of any number of matrices is equal to the product of their transpose in the
reserve order.
The following theorem establishes a relationship between the inverse of an invertible matrix and the
inverse of its transpose.
Theorem
If A is an invertible matrix, then AT is also invertible and (AT)-1 = (A-1)T

Proof
Since AT(A-1)T = (A-1A)T = IT = I
And (A-1)TAT = (AA-1)T = IT =I
We conclude that AT is an invertible matrix and (AT)-1 = (A-1)T.

Definition
If A is a square matrix, then the trace of A, denoted by tr (A), is defined to be the sum of the entries
on the main diagonal of A. The trace of A is undefined if A is not a square matrix.
Exercises
1. Let A be the matrix

2 0
.
4 1

Compute A3, A -3, and A2 2A + I.

3 1
.
2 1

2. Let A be the matrix

In each part find p(A).

(a) p(x) = x 2

(b) p(x) = 2x2 x + 1

(c) p(x) = x3 2x + 4

3. (a) Find 2 x 2 matrices A and B such that (A + B)2 A2 + 2 AB + B2.

(b) Show that if A and B are square matrices such that AB = BA then (A + B)2 = A2 + 2 AB + B2.
(c) Find an expansion of (A + B)2 that is valid for all square matrices A and B having the same
size.
4. Show that if a square matrix A satisfies A2 3A + I = 0, then A-1 = 3I A.
5. Is the sum of two invertible matrices necessarily invertible?
6. Let A and B be square matrices such that AB = 0. Show that if A is invertible, then B =0.
7. (a) Find a nonzero 3 x 3 matrix A such that AT = A.
(b) Find a nonzero 3 x 3 matrix A such that AT = -A.
8. A square matrix A is called symmetric if AT = A and skew-symmetric if AT = -A. Show that if B is
a square matrix, then
(a) BBT and B + BT are symmetric

(b) B - BT is skew-symmetric

1 0 1
9. Let A be a the matrix 1 1 0 .
0 1 1
Determine whether A is invertible, and if so, find its inverse.
Show that if A is invertible and k is any nonzero scalar, then (kA)n = kn An for all integer values of n.