Engg.

Chemistry

Non-Conventional Energy Sources and Storage Devices

Unit-4 Non-Conventional Energy Sources and Storage Devices

Lesson plan
Topics

Lecture
numbers

Introduction Types of Batteries ,

Characteristics of batteries& Primary Alkaline

battery
Secondary batteries- Lead Acid accumulator
Nickel Cadmium battery & Lithium batteries
Fuel cells- Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells
Solar cells and wind energy
Nuclear energy - Fission and fusion reactions ,
Light water
nuclear reactor , Breeder reactor

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Engg. Chemistry

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Learning Objectives
At the end of the lecture, Student will be able to
Define battery or Electro Chemical cell, Differentiate electrochemical cell
from electrolytic cell and State the types of batteries.
State the characteristics batteries.
Explain the principle, working, applications and limitations of the following
1. The primary alkaline batteries
2. Lead Acid accumulator
3. Nickel Cadmium battery
4. Lithium batteries and lithium ion batteries
5. Fuel cells - Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells.
6. Solar energy
7. Wind energy and
8. Nuclear energy: fusion reaction and fission reactions
9. The breeder reactor and light water nuclear reactor

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Introduction
Do you know?
How old are the batteries?
Prehistoric batteries: The Egyptians are said to have electroplated antimony onto
copper over 4300 years ago.
It is believed that the Parthians who ruled Baghdad (circa 250 BC) used batteries to
electroplate silver. Clay jar with iron rod surrounded by copper cylinder filled with
vinegar as an electrolytic solution produces 1.1 volts DC was used circa. 250 BC to
640 ADO.

In 1780, the Italian anatomist and physiologist Luigi Galvani created an electric
circuit consisting of the frogs leg (FL) and two different metals and published a
report on animal electricity in 1791.
Italian physicist Alessandro Volta realized that cardboard soaked in salt water was a
suitable replacement to frogs moist tissues and the frogs muscular response could
be substituted by another form of electrical detection. He was able to spot electric
current through this system, also called Galvanic cell.
In 1800, the battery was invented by Volta by piling voltaic cells over each other, in
a series. This voltaic pile gave a voltage of about 50 volts for a 32-cell pile, with an
enhanced net emf.

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Volta's experimentations at the French National Institute in November of 1800 in

which Napoleon Bonaparte was present.

In 1802, Dr. William Cruickshank designed the first electric battery capable of mass
production. Cruickshank arranged square sheets of copper soldered at their ends,
intermixed with sheets of zinc of equal size. These sheets were placed into a long
rectangular wooden box that was sealed with cement. Grooves in the box held the
metal plates in position. The box was filled with an electrolyte of brine, or watered
down acid.
Daniel cell (by John Frederic Daniell) in 1836, batteries began to provide more
reliable currents and were adopted for industrial use.
Benjamin Franklin coined the term battery to refer to an arrangement of multiple
Leyden jars, after a battery of cannons.
These fragile wet cells were replaced by dry cell batteries, developed in the end of
19th century.

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BATTERIES NEVER DIE....THEY ARE MURDERED!.......by over charging and

discharging

Batteries can also be subjected to premature death by:

Over-charging
Over-discharging
Short circuiting
Drawing more current than it was designed to produce
Subjecting to extreme temperatures
Subjecting to physical shock or vibrations

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Why do mobile phones suffer by a sudden complete discharge?

NiCd batteries suffer from a so-called "memory effect" if they are recharged before they have been
fully discharged.
The battery "remembers" the point where its recharging began and during subsequent use suffers a
sudden drop in voltage at that point and the battery will be discharged fully.

Which batteries are called as THE CELL OF FUTURE?

Lithium-ion batteries is the fastest growing and most promising battery chemistry because of its
advantages over the other batteries are called as THE CELL OF FUTURE.

3. Why do cars have starting troubles in cold whether?

At very low temperatures the electrolyte may freeze giving a lower voltage as ions movement is
impeded. Battery becomes dead. In winter season, cars have starting troubles in cold whether and
can be recovered by warming the electrolyte.

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Where is the worlds largest wind farm?

Denmark Building World's Largest Wind Farm
Denmark is currently building the world's largest wind farm, and it's expected to be finished in
August of this year (2009). Crews will install 91 wind turbines in the shallow waters of the North
Sea. The electric energy produced will supply over 200,000 homes with constant power. Each
windmill is nearly 375 feet high, with wings that measure 147 feet.

Do you know the world's largest wind turbine?

Enercon E-126 - E-126 by German company Enercon is record-breaking. The tower is 138 meters
high (453 feet) and its walls are 45 centimeters (18 inches) thick, the diameter of the rotor is 126
meters (413 feet) and the blades feature an improved trailing edge that boosts production. Rated at
6 megawatts.

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The two nuclear power stations are in Tamilnadu.

The Madras Atomic Power Station (MAPS) KALPAKKAM

Kudankulam Nuclear Power Station (KKNPS)

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Energy Storage Devices Battery

Battery is one or more electrochemical cells, which store chemical energy and make it available as
electric current.
Electrochemical cell or voltaic cell

Types of Batteries

There are two types of batteries:
1. Primary batteries (disposable batteries): Primary batteries irreversibly transform chemical
energy to electrical energy and discarded when they are exhausted..
Ex.: zinc-carbon batteries and alkaline batteries
2. Secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries): Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is,
they can have their chemical reactions reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell,
restoring their original composition.
Ex.: Lead acid betteries, Nickel-cadmium (NiCd), Nickel-zinc (NiZn), Nickel metal hydride
(NiMH) and Lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells
3. Flow cell: Reactants, products and electrolytes are continuously passing through the cell.
Ex. H2-O2 fuel cell

4. Reserve batteries achieve very long storage time (on the order of 10 years or more) without
loss of capacity, by physically separating the components of the battery and only assemling
them at the time of use.

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The following are the important characteristics of Batteries

Voltage

Current

Capacity Charge-Discharge

Storage density

Power density

Cycle life

Shelf-life

Self-discharge

Tolerance to service condition: Temperature and vibration

Battery Cells

EODV

Primary battery:
DRY CELL (or) Leclanches cell
Metal cap

Metal bottom
Net reaction
2MnO2(s) + 2NH4+ (aq) + Zn2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq)
--- Mn2O3 (s) + [Zn(NH3)2] Cl2 (s) + H2O
Electrolyte NH4Cl is acidic; Zn dissolves in NH4Cl, even not in use. This leads to self discharge
and the cell run down slowly.

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Alkaline Dry Cells

It can overcome the self discharging problem by using alkaline potassium hydroxide in place
of acidic ammonium chloride in the electrolyte.

Net reaction:
Zn (s) + 2MnO2 (s) +H2O (l) - Mn2O3 (s) + Zn(OH)2 (s)
They are used in remote controls, flash lights, clocks, transistor, radios where the power drain is
not too heavy.

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Secondary batteries
LEAD ACID BATTERIES (or) LEAD STORAGE CELL

Lead-acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston are the oldest type of
rechargeable battery.

Cell reaction is reversible:

Anode: spongy lead (Pb)
Cathode: a grid of lead-di-oxide (PbO2 packed on lead)
Electrolyte:

21% dil. H2SO4 (specific gravity 1.2 at 25o c) with density of 1.3 g/cm3
Separator: glass fibre separator permit ions not electrons

Cell representation:

Pb|PbSO4 | H2SO4 | PbO2| PbSO4

Voltage: 2v at a conc of 21.4% H2SO4 at 25o C

6 cells are connected to produce 12v.

Density of the electrolyte should be = (or) >1.2 g/cm3
Discharging

Pb + PbO2 + 2SO42- + 4H+  2PbSO4 +2H2O
Charging

2PbSO4 + 2H2O+ 2e-  Pb + PbO2 + 2SO42- + 4H+
Specific gravity (SG) of H2SO4 is going below 1.2, the battery is to be recharge
Starting trouble at Cold climate: At very low temperatures the electrolyte may freeze giving a
lower voltage as ion movement is impeded. Due voltage drop, batteries become dead. They can be
recovered its ability by warming the electrolyte.

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Ni-Cd batteries

Secondary batteries- rechargeable alkaline battery

Cell reaction is reversible.

Anode: Cadmium rod

Cathode: NiO2

(or)

NiO(OH)

Electrolyte: alkaline KOH

Cell reprsentation: Cd/Cd2+ | KOH | Ni4+ / Ni2+

----------

(NiO2)

(or)
Cd/Cd2+ | KOH | Ni3+ / Ni2+

----------

NiO(OH)

Discharging
Cd (s) + 2NiO2 (s)+ 2H2O -- Cd(OH)2 (s) + 2Ni(OH)2 (s)
(or)
Cd (s) + 2NiO(OH) (s)+ 2H2O -- Cd(OH)2(s) + 2Ni(OH)2 (s)
Charging
Cd(OH)2 (s) + 2Ni(OH)2 (s) - Cd (s) + 2NiO2 (s)+ 2H2O
The nominal output voltage for single cell is 1.4 v
Troubles in Ni-Cd batteries
1. High cost
2. Toxicity due to Cd
3. Overcharging
4. Memory effect
5. Dendrites: Dendritic shorting

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Lithium batteries
Lithium batteries are both disposable and rechargable batteries.

Lithium batteries are called as THE CELL OF FUTURE



It has the greatest oxidation potential and are common in portable consumer electronics
because of their high energy-to-weight ratios, lack of memory effect, and slow selfdischarge, no leakage problems.

Lithium batteries:

 In which lithium ions move between the anode and cathode.

 The lithium ions move from the anode to the cathode during discharge and from the cathode
to the anode when charging.
 Lithium batteries have lithium metal or lithium compounds as an anode.
 Solid state battery
 Rechargeable
 Anode: lithium metal
 Cathode: Transition metal oxides or sulphides
 Ex.:TiS2
 Electrolyte: solid polymer with Li salts -- permits only the passage of ions not the passage of
electrons


CELL REACTION:

 Net reaction: Li+ + TiS2- --- LiTiS2 (Li+ Ti3+S2 )

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Lithium-ion batteries

Rechargeable batteries
In which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge,
and back when charging.
Anode is graphite
Cathode is generally one of three materials: Li intercalated transition metal oxides with variable
valences, such as lithium cobalt oxide LiCoO2, lithium iron phosphate and lithium manganese
oxide LiMn2O4.
Electrolyte is a polymer soaked lithium salt in an organic solvent such as LiPF6, LiBF4 or LiClO4
in an organic solvent, such as ethylene carbonate.
The separator is a polymer soaked in electrolyte between anode and cathode
Intercalation a reaction where (lithium) ions are reversibly removed or inserted into a host
without a significant structural change to the host
 During the charge and discharge processes, lithium ions are inserted and extracted from the
anode and cathode material of the battery.




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Example: Graphite - Lithium cobalt oxide LiCoO2 battery.

 Anode: Graphite electrode
 Cathode: - Lithium cobalt oxide LiCoO2
Electrolyte is a polymer soaked lithium salt in an organic solvent
Charging:
 Net reaction
 LiCoO2 + C6 ------- Li1-XCoO2 + LiXC6
Discharge Chemical Reactions
 Net reaction
Li1-XCoO2 + LiXC6 ------- LiCoO2 + C6
Co in LiCoO2 being oxidized from Co3+ to Co4+ during charging, and reduced from Co4+ to
Co3+ during discharge

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Fuel cells

A fuel cell is an electrochemical conversion device for producing electricity by converting
the chemical energy of a fuel and oxygen into electrical energy.

During the combustion of fuel with O2, the oxidation of fuel liberate electrons (electrical
energy).

So chemical energy can be directly converted into electrical energy without production of
heat.

Types of Fuel Cells

Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM)

Alkaline

Phosphoric Acid

Direct Methanol

Molten Carbonate

Solid Oxide

Alkaline Fuel Cell:

CELL REACTION

Anode:

2H2(g) + 4OH-(aq) - 4 H2O (l) + 4e
Cathode:

O2 (g) + 2 H2O (l) + 4e- - 4 OH-(aq)

Net reaction:

2H2 (g) + O2 (g) - 2 H2O (l)

As long as there is a flow of chemicals into the cell, the electricity flows out of the cell.

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