S.

no TOPIC
.

DATE SIGN

1.

Design a prototype that implements the cache

Management for a mobile computing environment.

2.

Design a system: The challenges of developing high performance,

High reliability and high quality software systems are too much
For ad-hoc and informal engineering techniques that might have
Worked in the past on less demanding systems. New techniques
For managing these growing complexities are required to
Meet todays time to market, productivity and quality demands.

3.

To study a peer to peer decentralized network system and resource

management with in that system.

4.

Write programs that implement the few sorting algorithms.

5.

Write a program that implements the bubble sort for n data.

6.

Study of a cellular architecture.

Index
Mobile Computing

Mobile Computing
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Practical 1
AIM:Design a prototype that implements the cache management for a mobile
computing environment.
TITLE : WORK INSTRUCTION SHEET: Mobile Computing Lab
Tools/Libraries:
Software Used : MS Office
Hardware Used: Standard PC
Pre Condition : One server with Cache Manager and many clients.
Post Condition: Cache manger prototype is built.
Introduction
With the explosive growth of wireless techniques and mobile devices such as
laptops, personal digital assistants, people with battery powered mobile devices wish to
access various kinds of services at any time any place. However, existing wireless
services are limited by the constraints of wireless networks such as narrow bandwidth,
frequent disconnections, and limitations of the battery technology. Thus, mechanisms to
efficiently transmit information from the server to a massive number of clients (running
on mobile devices) have received considerable attention.
Caching frequently accessed data items on the client side is an effective technique
to improve performance in mobile environment Average data access latency is reduced as
some data access requests can be satisfied from the local cache thereby obviating the
need for data transmission over the scarce wireless links. Due to the limitations of the
cache size, it is impossible to hold all the accessed data items in the cache. As a
result,cache replacement algorithms are used to find a suitable subset of data items for
eviction. Cache replacement algorithms have been extensively studied in the context of
operating system virtual memory management and database buffer management. In this
context, cache replacement algorithms
usually maximize the cache hit-ratio by attempting to cache the items that are most likely
to be accessed in the future.
The System Models :Mobile Computing Model: In a mobile computing system, the geographical area is divided into small regions,
called cells. Each cell has a base station (BS) and a number of mobile terminals (MTs).
Inter-cell and intra-cell communications are managed by the BSs. The MTs communicate
with the BS by wireless links. An MT can move within a cell or between cells while
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retaining its network connection. An MT can either connect to a BS through a wireless

communication channel or disconnect from the BS by operating in the doze (power save)
mode. The mobile computing platform can be effectively described under the
client/server paradigm. A data item is the basic unit for update and query. MTs only issue
simple requests to read the most recent copy of a data item. There may be one or more
processes running on an MT. These processes are referred to as clients (we use the terms
MT and client interchangeably). In order to serve a request sent from a client, the BS
needs to communicate with the database server to retrieve the data items.
The Cache Invalidation Model: Frequently accessed data items are cached on the client side. To ensure cache
consistency, a cache management algorithm is necessary. Classical cache invalidation
strategies may not be suitable for wireless networks due to frequent disconnections and
high mobility of mobile clients. It is difficult for the server to send invalidation messages
directly to the clients because they often disconnect to conserve battery power and are
frequently on the move. For the clients, querying data servers through wireless links for
cache invalidation is much slower than wired links because of the latency of the wireless
links. As a solution, we use the IR-based cache invalidation approach [4] to maintain
cache consistency.
In this approach, the server periodically broadcasts an Invalidation Report (IR) in which
the changed data items are indicated. Rather than querying the server directly regarding
the validation of cached copies, the client can listen to these IRs over wireless
channelsand use the information to invalidate its local cache. More formally, the server
broadcasts an IR e very L seconds. The IR consists of the current timestamp Ti and a list
of tuples (dx,tx) such that tx>(Ti-w*L)_, where dx _ is the data item id, tx _ is the most
recent update timestamp of dx , and w is the invalidation broadcast window size. In other
words, IR contains the update history of the past _ broadcast intervals.

The Caching Scenarios:

Caching recently accessed data in the server can significantly improve the
performance of a mobile computing system. However, when the service handoff occurs
and a new server takes over the running applications, the cache of the new server does
not contain any data entry that was accessed by prior transactions. The new server thus
loses its advantages for cache access after service handoff. In order to maintain the use of
cache after service handoff, the new server should employ proper cache schemes that are
suitable for such a mobile computing environment. This is the very problem we shall
address in this paper.
Generally speaking, three caching scenarios are considered in this study. The first one is
to access cache data in the server (to be referred to as FLB, standing for from local
buffer). Since the server processes the transactions from mobile users, the buffer of the
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server contains recently used data. Second, one may utilize a coordinator buffer to cache
data for the mobile computing system (to be referred to as FCB, standing for from the
coordinator buffer). As mentioned above, the mobile computing system is of a
distributed server architecture, in which data sharing can be achieved by allowing a
coordinator to have a coordinator buffer keeping data to be shared by all servers. It has
been reported that a coordinator buffer is useful in improving the system performance and
scalability. The third scheme is to access cache data from the prior server of running
transactions (to be referred to as FPS, standing for from the previous server cache).
Clearly, this scheme is included for our evaluation due to the very nature of mobile
computing.

A cache retrieval problem in mobile computing system.

Above figure illustrates a scenario for cache retrieval when service handoff occurs. In the
beginning, served by server A, mobile user 1 submits a transaction to server A. According
to the transaction properties, server A will use either FCB or FLB to pre-cache some data
in its cache when the transaction starts to process. Suppose that server A uses FCB to precache data and mobile user 1 moves to a new service area which is covered by server B.
The running applications of mobile user 1 will be transferred to server B for execution.
Then, server B may use one of the three schemes: FPS (i.e., server A), FCB (i.e.,
coordinator buffer) and FLB (i.e., from its own local buffer) for cache access. Clearly, the
employment of proper cache schemes has a significant impact to the system performance
and should be determined in light of the transaction properties and execution efficiency.
The design and analysis of a dynamic and adaptive cache retrieval scheme (referred to
DAR) that can adopt proper cache methods based on some specific criteria devised to
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deal with the service handoff situation in a mobile computing environment is the object
of this study.
The study on cache retrieval for a mobile computing system is different from that for a
traditional database system not only in the related cost model but also due to the
occurrence of service handoff.
Cache Retrieval Methods:
In a mobile computing system, mobile users submit transactions to the servers for
execution, and the transactions request data pages from servers to process. In some
applications, if data pages are referenced by transactions, these data pages have a
tendency of being referenced again soon. This property is called temporal locality. For
applications with temporal locality, the data pages which these transactions access can be
further divided into two types of pages, namely, pages with intratransaction locality and
pages with inter-transaction locality. Intra-transaction locality refers to the feature that the
same data pages are usually referenced within a transaction boundary, meaning that these
pages present temporal locality within a transaction. In contrast, inter-transaction locality
refers to the feature that the same data pages are usually shared by some consecutive
transactions.
Description of Three Caching Methods:We now describe three caching methods. As can be seen later, depending on the
transaction properties, FLB, FPS and FCB have their own advantages.
i) FLB (Caching from Local Buffer)Clearly, since the server has its own local buffer, it could get cache data from its local
buffer directly. In general, the server will fetch cache data due to cache miss in the
beginning of transaction execution. This is usually called cache warm-up.
ii) FPS (Caching from the Previous Server)For a transaction with higher intra-transaction locality and lower inter-transaction
locality, getting the cache data from the previous server is useful and effective for mobile
computing. Let server SA contains the cache pages 44, 26 and 17, and the coordinator
contains the cache pages 44, 39 and 40 after server SC writes its cache buffer. These
transactions also share one page 44. Under the assumption that the characteristics of
workload are of high temporal locality and with few common pages, the mobile user
requests the cache pages 44, 26 and 18. As such, when service handoff occurs, getting the
cache data from the previous server will be more effective than other schemes.
iii) FCB (Caching from Coordinator Buffer)If the transaction property is update-intensive and transactions possess higher intertransaction locality, getting cache data from the coordinator buffer will be cost-effective.
Let the sharing pages are 44 and 39. Assume that the mobile user is using the data pages
44, 39 and 18. When server SB which the mobile user is with gets the cache data from the
coordinator, server SB will have the most recent pages 44 and 39, and only incur
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onecache miss for page 18 and one cache replacement for page 40. Clearly, FCB
performs better than FPS in this case.
Three Phases of a Transaction:
As pointed out earlier, DAR, the dynamic and adaptive cache retrieval scheme we
shall devise in this paper will employ proper cache methods to deal with the service
handoff situation. The transaction processing can be divided into three phases, namely the
initial phase, the execution phase and the termination phase
During the initial phase, the transaction sets up the processing environment (explicitly,
the transaction identification, local variables, and cache entry table are created). The
server creates the cache entry table, and two cache methods, FCB and FLB, will be
considered. Note that since the transaction just started, FPS is not proper for this initial
phase. These two methods will be evaluated to decide which one to be used for the initial
phase. The second phase is the execution phase when the server is processing the
transaction. If the server needs to do the service handoff when a mobile unit enters
a new service area, the running transactions will migrate to a new server. The new server
should then take over the running transactions seamlessly. As the new server sets up
the running environment, cache data will be retrieved by the new server using three
schemes: FLB, FCB and FPS.
We will evaluate these three schemes based on the corresponding transaction properties.
The last phase of a transaction is the termination phase. In this termination phase, as the
transaction execution finishes, the transaction will do the coordinator buffer write as well
as activate the cache invalidation scheme to invalidate other caches in this mobile system.
In essence, the dynamic and adaptive cache retrieval scheme (DAR) we devise will
utilize the transaction properties and take the corresponding cost into consideration (i.e.,
cache miss and replacement) to evaluate effective cache retrieval methods in each
transaction-processing phase.
Dynamic and Adaptive Cache Retrieval SchemesIn this section, we shall first evaluate the performance of cache retrieval methods (i.e.,
FLB, FCB and FPS), and then use the results obtained to devise DAR. Explicitly, cache
retrieval methods for the initial phase are examined in Section 1 and those for the
execution phase are examined in Section 2. Decision rules for DAR are derived in
Section 3.
1 Caching Schemes for the Initial PhaseConsider the example scenario in Figure 5 where a short transaction is executed by a
mobile computer. The transactions are update-intensive and have many sharing
pages. The transaction properties are taken into consideration to decide which scheme to
use. Qualitatively speaking, since the transaction is update-intensive and has intertransaction locality, FCB tends to perform better.
Due to the inter-transaction locality, the buffer in the coordinator maintains many sharing
pages and the server is thus very likely able to get pages from the coordinator buffer. On
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the other hand, when intertransaction locality is absent, FLB tends to perform better than
FCB because that cache retrieved from FCB will incur cache replacement, which does
not happen when FLB is used.
2 Caching Schemes for the Execution PhaseWe now consider caching schemes for a transaction in the execution phase. With the
transaction execution time being long enough, the transaction processing will migrate to a
new server due to the movement of a mobile unit. It can be seen from the examples in
Section 2 that temporal locality is a very important factor to be evaluated for determining
which caching scheme to employ.
3 Deriving Decision Rules for DARBy taking into consideration the transaction properties and the costs of cache miss and
cache replacement, DAR will select an appropriate method in each phase of transaction
processing. We shall conduct formula analysis and provide criteria for using DAR.
Intra-transaction page probability represents the percentage of pages that demonstrate the
intra-transaction locality, whereas inter-transaction page probability represents the
percentage of pages that demonstrate the inter-transaction locality. The attributes of
intertransaction page, such as read or update, depend on the update probability for intertransaction pages. Each transaction is assumed to process an average of T pages. Also, the
size of cache in the server buffer is S. CM and CR denotes the cache miss and the cache
replacement cost of each page, respectively. A description of symbols is given below:

1Decision Rule
for the Initial phase
The number of inter-transaction pages among transactions can be expressed as T*. Then
we consider the cache miss and cache replacement cost between FCB and FLB. Clearly,
the FLB has CM*T caches miss cost.
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On the other hand, using FCB to retrieve cache, the cache contains T inter-transaction
pages and some other pages, which are not available in the cache. Clearly, accessing these
pages incurs cache miss and replacement cost. This cost can be expressed as (CM+CR)
(T-T ). To facilitate our presentation, we denote the minimal number of inter-transaction
pages as , and use as a threshold to determine whether FCB or FLB should be used.
Formally, is determined from following formula:
(CM+CR)(T-)< CM*T
The minimal number of inter-transaction pages indicates that if the T is larger than ,
one should use FCB. Otherwise FLB should be used. In brief, the decision rule is as
follows.
Decision Rule for the Initial Phase:
Determine the minimal number of inter-transaction pages from
(CM+CR)(T-)< CM*T
If (T >) then
Using FCB
else
Using FLB.
2 Decision Rules for the Execution phase
According to the transaction properties, we evaluate the FPS and FCB to decide which
one to employ. Specifically, the number of intra-transaction pages in a transaction is T
and the number of inter-transaction pages in a transaction is T . We denote the minimal
number of pages with temporal locality as . In general, if T+T is less than , meaning
that temporal locality are not prominent, FLB is used. However, if the transaction
property has prominent temporal locality (i.e., T+T is larger than ), we shall select
the schemes from FCB or FPS. Specifically, use FPS if /> (meaning that
intratransaction locality is the major temporal locality), and use FCB if /< (meaning
that inter-transaction locality is the major temporal locality). Use FPS or FCB to retrieve
cache, the cache contains intra-transaction, inter-transaction pages and some other pages
which are not available in the cache. Hence, the extra page access incurs cache miss and
replacement cost. Therefore, similarly to the derivation in Section 3.1, we can determine
as follows.

(T-)(CM+CR)<CM*T

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Once the corresponding thresholds, i.e., , and , are determined for DAR, one can
employ these decision rules derived in the initial phase and in the execution phase for the
selection of proper cache methods.
Decision Rule for the Execution Phase
Determine the minimal number of temporal locality pages from
(CM+CR)(T-)< CM*T
If ( T+T ) >) then
Using FLB
else

/>_=> using FPS

/<=> using FCB
Conclusion:- We examined in this several cache retrieval schemes to improve the
efficiency of cache retrieval. In particular, we analyzed the impact of using a coordinator
buffer to improve the overall performance of cache retrieval. In light of the temporal
locality of transactions, we devised a Dynamic Adaptive cache Retrieval scheme (DAR)
that can adopt proper cache methods based on some specific criteria devised to deal with
the service handoff situation in a mobile computing environment. The performance of
these cache retrieval schemes was analyzed and a system simulator was developed to
validate our results. It was shown by results that temporal locality had a significant
impact on the performance of cache retrieval methods.
Specifically, FPS performed best for transactions with prominent intertransaction
locality whereas FCB outperformed others for transactions with prominent intertransaction locality. By adaptively adopting the advantages of different cache retrieval
methods, DAR performed very well and was particularly effective for a mobile
computing environment.

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Practical 2
AIM: Design a system : The challenges of developing high performance, high reliability
and high quality software systems are too much for ad-hoc and informal engineering
techniques that might have worked in the past on less demanding systems. New
techniques for managing these growing complexities are required to meet todays time
to market , productivity and quality demands.
TITLE : WORK INSTRUCTION SHEET: Mobile Computing Lab
Tools/Libraries: .
Software Used : MS Office
Hardware Used: Standard PC
Pre Condition : Study of Ad Hoc Network
Post condition: System is designed using informal engineering techniques.
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Introduction:
With the increasing trends of networking and mobility come many Interesting
opportunities and difficult problems. Mobile computing allows a user to use a computer
as if they were physically attached to a network but are actually freely moving around in
the environment. Unfortunately, to support this mobility places several restrictive
restraints on the system including weight and size limitations, battery restrictions, and
lower bandwidth communications. Algorithms that implement mobile communications
must recognize these factors and guarantee a level of usage satisfactory for the users. The
main problems associated with networking including naming and routing are even more
difficult in a mobile environment as the mobile units are allowed to move. Ad hoc mobile
networks are temporary networks of intercommunicating mobile units which interact
without using an established connection infrastructure either because an infrastructure
does not exist or it is not practical to use it. Ad hoc mobile networks are even more
complex than mobile networks involving fixed stations because mobile units may act as
hosts causing problems due to mobile unit migration and lesser reliability.
Ad Hoc Mobile Networking
Ad-hoc networks are mobile networks that operate in the absence of any fixed
infrastructure, employing peer-to-peer communication to establish network connectivity.
These networks have a wide range of applications such as disaster relief and field
operations, war front activities, and communication between automobiles on highways. Group communication or multicast is a
natural requirement for many of these applications and the reliability of the multicast
protocol could affect their performance significantly. Ad-hoc networks function under
severe constraints such as mobility of nodes, insufficient power and memory on mobile
devices,
and bandwidth restriction of the wireless medium.
An ad hoc mobile network is a collection of intercommunicating mobile hosts forming a
temporary network without using as established network infrastructure. Such temporary
networks have applications in remote
areas or disaster zones where no infrastructure exists. Also, small temporary networks are
useful in situations where an existing infrastructure is too expensive or provides weaker
performance than direct connections.
These situations include exchanging files between two users, connecting laptops at a
conference, or even temporary networks of vehicle-mounted transmitters.
Adhoc N/W Architecture:

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An ad hoc wireless network system enables a group of wireless terminals to

autonomously construct a network and communicate with each other without any
intermediary land lines. This research focuses on path-control systems and techniques for
improving the performance of TCP communications in ad hoc networks. While it's true
that many path-control systems already exist for ad hoc networks, the focus of our
research is finding ways of raising TCP communication performance while taking the
path-control system into Account.
Reliability In Ad-Hoc N/Ws :
(anonymous gossip protocol ):
In recent years, a number of applications of ad-hoc net-works have been proposed. Many
of them are based on the availability of a robust and reliable multicast protocol. The
proposed protocol for enhancing works in two phases. In the first phase, any suitable
protocol is used to multicast a message to the group, while in the second concurrent
phase, the gossip protocol tries to recover lost messages. Our proposed gossip protocol
iscalled Anonymous Gossip(AG) since nodes need not know the other group members for
gossip to be successful. This is extremely desirable for mobile nodes, that have limited
resources, and where the knowledge of group membership is difficult to obtain. This
method can be implemented on top of any of the tree-based and mesh-based protocols
with little or no overhead, and without affecting the scalability of the underlying protocol.
MAODV is a reactive protocol that dynamically creates and maintains a multicast tree for
each group. It is an adaptation of AODV, a unicast routing protocol.Each node running
MAODV maintains two routing tables: Route Table(RT) and Multicast Route
Table(MRT).The Route Table is used for recording the next hop for routes to other nodes
in the network. Each entry in RT contains a destination IP address, a destination sequence number, hop count to the
destination, IP address of next hop, and the lifetime of this entry. The destination
sequence number tracks the freshness of the route to that destination. A source node S
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trying to send a message to a node B, first looks for a route to B in its RT. If a valid route
is not found, S broadcasts a route request message called RREQ. A node receiving this RREQ message can
unicast a route reply RREP to S if it is the destination node or if it has a fresh enough
route to B. Otherwise the node broadcasts the RREQ to its neighbors. The source node S
selects the shortest among the freshest routes from the received RREPs and adds the entry
in the Route Table. Nodes relaying the RREQs and the RREPS add the reverse and
forward route entries into their Route Table respectively. The Multicast Route Table
contains entries for multicast groups of which the node is a router (i.e., a node in the
multicast tree). Each entry in this table contains the multicast
group IP address, the group leader IP address, the group sequence number, hop count to
the group leader, the next hops, and the lifetime. The next hops are the nodes in the
multicast tree to which this node is connected. Each next
hop entry has an enabled flag to indicate a potential but not yet activated entry. The next
hop that is closer to the group leader is called the upstream node. A node S that is not a
part of the multicast tree can join the multicast group by broadcasting a RREQ message
with the join flag set. Any node in the multicast tree can respond to a Join RREQ by
unicasting an RREP back to S. These RREQs and RREPs are processed similar to unicast
routing.
In addition, nodes receiving Join RREQs also add entries with enabled flag false in their
MRT. The node S selects a suitable route from the RREPs and sends an activation
message called MACT along this route. All nodes receiving the MACT message change
the enabled flag to true in their
entries. Any group member, which is a leaf node in the multicast tree can leave the group
by sending a MACT message to its upstream node with the prune flag set. A
nodereceiving a Prune MACT deletes the sender from its next hop table. If it is a nongroup member that has now become a leaf node, it leaves the group by sending a Prune
MACT to its upstream node. Non-leaf nodes can leave a multicast group but must
continue to function as routers in the multicast tree. When a link breakage occurs between
two nodes U and D of a multicast tree, only the downstream node D attempts to repair
this link. This restriction is necessary to prevent formation of loops. D sends an RREQ
with an extension containing the hop count to the group leader. Any
multicast tree member closer to the group leader than D can reply to this RREQ. In case
D receives no replies within a certain time even after a few rebroadcast of the RREQ, the
network is assumed to be partitioned and a new group leader is selected in the
downstream sub-tree.
Performance Enhancement ThruIncrd Reliability:
The simulation results show that AG can improve the reliability of multicast routing
protocols without the use of acknowledgements, and without adding significant overhead
to them. Goodput is defined as the percentage of nonduplicate messages received through
gossip replies to the total number of messages received through gossip replies. In other
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words goodput gives a measure of the redundant traffic more the goodput, more the
number of useful messages carried by gossip replies and lesser is the redundancy. In our
simulations goodput is measured at different group members for two values each of
transmission range and maximum speed. In general the gossip rate should be tuned so
that the network does not get congested and the goodput is nearly 100 percent.
Performance decreases dramatically with the increasing size of the network. There is also
degradation in performance with increase in mobility. The reasons for the poor
performance can be attributed to two main aspects of the protocol.
1. Buffer size,
in practice, is bounded, a situation could arise when old messages are
still stored in most of the node buffers. This gives rise to a situation where newer
messages cannot be accommodated since older messages have to be stored to provide the
strong guarantees.
2. Use of ack messages. This proves to be very expensive in wireless networks where the
physical layer is bandwidth constrained.
The advantage of this protocol is the reliability it provides for high-speed networks. On
the other hand this protocol is extremely expensive since it generates a large number of
messages, and may easily congest the network.
Performance In Adhoc N/Ws :
TCP performance in ADHOC n/ws can be increased using AODV routing dynamics.
.Many previous studies show that TCP performance in multi-hop wireless networks is
poor .TCP throughput often decreases dramatically with the number of hops . The
primary reason is link-layer packet losses caused by contention between data packets
traveling in the same direction, and collisions between data packets and TCP ACK
packets traveling in opposite directions.
AODV
In an ad hoc network, mobile nodes must communicate with each other to determine
appropriate routes to use. One approach is the Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector
(AODV) routing protocol. In AODV, mobile nodes advertise their presence in the
network by broadcasting HELLO beacons periodically (e.g., once per
second) to their neighbours. AODV uses three types of control packets for managing
network routes. A Route Request (RREQ) packet is initiated by a sender that has no
known route to a desired destination. A Route Reply (RREP) packet is returned by a node
with a known route to the destination indicated in an RREQ. Each RREQ carries a
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(monotonically-increasing) sequence number so that the matching RREP can be

determined. When an RREP is received in response to an RREQ, the sender 2 records the
route received, and uses it for subsequent data packets sent to that destination. A Route
Error (RERR) packet is returned by a node along a (formerly working) route that is no
longer valid (perhaps because of node movement). AODV is designed to maintain fresh
routes. A node updates its AODV routing table whenever it receives a control packet
(RREQ, RREP, or RERR) with a higher
sequence number than it has recorded in its routing table for a given destination.
Modification Done In Aodv
Frequent route breakages are undesirable. Route breakages trigger RERR packets and a
renewed route discovery process, temporarily stalling the TCP data transfer for that
sender.
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION SHOWING
ENHANCEMENT IN TFRC PERFORMANCE:

This graph shows effect of through put and offered load

Qos In Adhoc N/W :
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Quality of service (QoS) is the performance level of service offered by the network to the
user. The goal of QoS provisioning is to achieve a more deterministic network behavior
so that information carried by the network can be better delivered and network resources
can be better utilized. A network or a service provider can offer different kinds of services
to the users. After accepting a service request from the user a network has to ensure that
the service requirements of the users flow are met throughout the duration of the flow.
The network has to provide a set of service guarantees while transporting a flow.

After receiving a service request from the user, the first step is to find a suitable loopfree path from the source to the destination that will have the necessary resources
available to meet the QoS requirement of the desired service. This process is known as
QoSrouting.After finding a suitable path a resource reservation protocol is employed to
reserve necessary resources along that path.

Characteristics of adhoc wireless n/ws such as lack of central coordination,mobility of

hosts,and limited availability of resources make QoS provisioning very challenging.
REAL- TIME TRAFFIC SUPPORT IN AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS
Real time applications require mechanism that guarantee bounded delay and delay jitter.
Real-time applications can be classified as hard real-time applications and soft real-time
applications. A hard real-time application requires strict QoS guarantees. Some of the
hard real-time applications include nuclear reactor control systems; air traffic control
systems and missiles control systems. In these applications failure to meet the required
delay constraints may lead to disastrous results. On the other hand soft hand applications
can tolerate degradation in the guaranteed QoS to a certain extent. Some of the soft realtime applications are voice telephony, video-on-demand and video conferencing. In these
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the loss of data and variation in delay and delay jitter may degrade the service but do not
produce hazardous results. The research community is currently focusing on providing
QoS support for applications that require soft real-time guarantees.
Qos Parameters In Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
QoS parameters differ from application to application. For example, in case of
multimedia applications bandwidth. Delay jitter delays are the key QoS parameters
whereas military applications have stringent security requirements. For applications such
as emergency search and resque operations availability of the network is the key QoS
parameter. Applications such as group communication in a conference hall require that
the transmissions among nodes consume as little energy as possible. Hence battery life is
the key QoS parameter.

Issues And Challenges In Providing Qos In Ad Hoc Wireless Networks

Ad hoc wireless networks have certain unique characteristics that pose several difficulties
in provisioning QoS. Some of the characteristics are:
Dynamically varying network topology: Since the nodes in an ad hoc wireless network
do not have any restriction on mobility,the network topology changes dynamically.Hence
the admitted QoS sessions may suffer due to frequent path breaks, thereby reestablished
over new paths.
Imprecise state information: In most cases , the nodes in an ad hoc wireless network
maintain both the link-specific state information and flow specific state information.The
link specific state information includes bandwidth delay , delay jitter, loss rate, error
rate,stability,cost and distance values for each link.The flow specific information includes
session ID,source address, destination address and QoS requirements of the flow(such as
maximum bandwidth requirement, minimum bandwidth requirement, maximum delay
and maximum delay jitter). The state information is inherently imprecise due to dynamic
changes in network topology and channel characteristics.

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Lack of central coordination: Ad hoc wireless networks do not have central controllers to
coordinate the activity of the nodes.This further complicates QoS provisioning in ad hoc
wireless network.
Error-prone shared radio channel: The radio channel is a broadcast medium by
nature.During propagation through the wireless medium, the radio waves suffer from
several impairments such as attenuation, multipath propagation and interference.
Hiden terminal problem: This problem occurs when packets originating from two or more
sender nodes which are not within the direct transmission range of each other collide at a
common
Reciver node .it necessitates the retransmission of packets.which may not be acceptable
for flows that have stringent Qos requirements.
Limited resource availability : Resourses such as bandwidth ,battery life storage space
,and processing capability are limited in adhoc wireless networks.hence,efficient resource
managament mechanisms are required for optimal utilization of these scarce resources.
Insecure medium : Due to broadcast nature of the wireless medium,communication
through a wireless is highly insecure.
Design Issues
Hard state versus soft state resource reservation:
In hard state, resources are reserved at all intermediate nodes along the path from source
to destination throughout the duration of the QoS session. if this path is broken, these
resources have to be released by deallocation mechanism. in soft state, reservation is
maintained for small time interval. They get refreshed.
Stateful versus stateless approach:
In stateful approach, each node maintains either global state information, or local state
information.In stateless approach, no such info is available. If global state info is
available,the source node can use centralized routing algo to route packets to the
destination.In latter,distributed routing algo is used.

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Hard QoS versus soft QoS approach:

If qos requirement of a connection are guaranteed to be met for the whole duration of
session,is termed as hard qosapproach.If these requirement are not guaranteed for the
entire session,approach is termed as soft QoS approach.

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Practical 3
AIM: To study a peer to peer decentralized network system andresource management
with in that system.
TITLE : WORK INSTRUCTION SHEET: Mobile Computing Lab
Tools/Libraries: .
Software Used : MS Office
Hardware Used: Standard PC
Pre Condition : Study peer to peer network
Post Condition : Resources are managed.
Peer to Peer comunication system

There is no Client-Server architecture.

There is no central node that manages the whole network.
All the individual nodes manages their own network.
All the nodes perform several task by their own.
There is an END TO END communication.

Types of peer to peer networks

There are three types of peer to peer networks:

Pure P2P
Hybrid P2P
Mixed P2P
Pure p2p :
there is no central node that manages the whole network.
There is no central router.
In this node plays the role of both client and server.
Hybrid p2p:

In this central node exist.

All the communication which take place between peers depends upon central
node

In this the working and the work load of the server is entirely different from the
client server.
Mixed p2p:

it contain both the features of pure p2p and hybrid p2p.

Peer to peer in mobile computing

Advances in wireless technology and mobile computing have provided a major impetus
toward development of MobileAd-hoc Networks (MANET) and Personal-Area Networks
(PAN). These networks are self-organizing networks comprisedof wireless nodes .ad -hoc
networks are short -lived networks. Examples of ad-hoc networks is
Bluetooth .
The combination of mobile devices and ad-hoc networks allows the creation of highly
dynamic, self-organizing, mobile peer-to-peer (p2p systems. In such systems, mobile
hosts continuously change their physical location and establish peering relationships
among each other based on proximity.
The Challenges of MobilePeer-to-Peer Computing
A mobile P2P system inherits many of the features of ad-hoc networks:
Self-organizing: as side effect of the movement of devices in physical space, the
topology of a mobile P2P system.
constantly adjusts itself by discovering new communication links.
Fully decentralized: each peer in a mobile peer-to-peer system is equally important and
no central node exists.
Highly dynamic: Since communication end-points can move frequently and
independently of one another, mobile P2P systems are highly dynamic.
Low cost: wireless ad hoc networks are built from low-cost transceivers and do not
incur charges for provider access and air-time.
The unique character of mobile peer-to-peer systems represents a significant challenge
for the designer.
Challenges
Naming
Traditional (non mobile) P2P systems are characterized by an increasing decentralization
and autonomy of hosts.
Because accessing these decentralized resources means operating in an environment of
unstable connectivity and
unpredictable IP addresses, P2P systems often operate outside the DNS system. The same
must be true for mobile p2p systems. Additional reasons for not relying on the DNS
system are:
In ad-hoc networks, access to a central DNS server cannot be assumed
Not all mobile devices support IP networking and thus do not have IP addresses
Some mobile p2p applications, in particular for face-to-face collaboration, require the
ability to identify not only peers,but also the people who run and use these peers.
Peer and Resource Discovery
One of the things that makes current P2P system so powerful is that they take advantage
of resources -- storage, cycles,content, human presence -- available at the edges of the
Internet. In a mobile P2P system mobile peers take advantage of resources provided by

mobile peers that are physically close. Because of the unpredictable movement of mobile
devices, discovering resources becomes a challenge.
In ad-hoc networks, device discovery is part of the network; resource discovery, however,
is the task of the peer system.
Data Sharing and Synchronization
A mobile ad hoc information system is basically a highly dynamic, decentralized
distributed system with weaklyconnected mobile hosts. In order to cooperate to the fullest
extent peers need to be able to share and synchronize data.
Security
The security implications of mobile p2p systems, in which one can potentially track every
movement of an individual as well as examine what they are doing, must be taken
seriously. In wireless ad-hoc networks users may not even be aware to which devices
they are connected. Someone in the next room or on the floor above may connect to
someone else's mobile device and gain access to private data such as stored e-mail, and
meeting schedules. Thus, not only must encryption be employed to avoid eavesdropping,
but also robust authentication procedures need to be established for connecting both
trusted and non-trusted devices with each other. This, however, is made difficult by the
fact that this must occur in a completely decentralized environment with no or
intermittent connection to a trusted authority.
Decentralization
One of the major concepts of peer-to-peer computing is decentralization.This includes
distributed storage, processing, information sharing, etc.Decentralization means having
no client server architecture i.e having no central node. Even control information can be
held in a distributed manner rather than centrally. The advantage of decentralization is an
increased extensibility, higher system availability and improved resilience. On an
application level decentralization can also imply a transferral of ownership and control
(of data, information and computational resources) to the application users. However,
there are also problems related to this property. In a completely decentralised and
dynamic system it is difficult to get or maintain a global view of the system
Resource management support
our general approach for resource management involvesproviding hard, soft and non realtime guarantees for localresources such as CPU and memory. In contrast, soft and non
real-time guarantees are provided for communication resources. A static analysis is
carried out for the hard
guarantees which takes into account even the most rare eventwith a hard deadline. In the
case of soft guarantees, most ofthe analysis is carried out at run-time.

Resource management component framework

Overview. The resource management CF encompasses both a task model and a resource
model. The task model permits the user to model resource management of both coarseand fine-grained interactions. Hence, the task model allows for the high-level analysis
and design of resource management for event systems. There is a close relationship
between the task model and the resourcemodel. Tasks have an associated pool of
resources which is defined by the resource model. More specifically, the resource model
allows us to model different types of resources at multiple levels of
abstraction. Both coarse- and fine-grained resource configuration and reconfiguration are
feasible. Further details of the task and resource models are given below
.
The task model.
From the programmatic point of view, a task may involve either a single invocation
sequence
or multiple invocation sequences. The simplest case for a sequence is where only one
operation is invoked. A task is defined as a logical unit of computation which has an
amount of resources allocated. Examples of tasks are activities performed by the system
such as transmitting audio over the network or compressing a video image, which has an
amount of resources assigned for its execution. The task model is concerned with both
application services and middleware services. Thus, we take a task-oriented approach for
managing resources in which services are broken into tasks and are accommodated in a
task hierarchy. Top-level tasks are directly associated with the services provided by a
distributed system. Lower-levels of this hierarchy include the partition of such services
into smaller activities, i.e. Sub- tasks. Sub-tasks are denoted as follows: task.sub-task.subsub-taskThis approach offers resource management modelling of both coarse- and finegrained interactions. The former is achieved by defining coarse-grained tasks (i.e. tasks
spanning components and address spaces boundaries) and the latter isdone by using task
partitioning. A task may span the boundaries of a component, an address space and even
those of a node. Composite tasks include two or more sub-tasks and may involve either a
single or multiple operation invocation sequences. In the former case, sub-tasks are
interleaved whereas in the latter case sub-tasks are disjoint. Sub-tasks that are not further
partitioned are called primitive tasks and are only related to a single operation invocation
sequence. However, distributed tasks involve two or more nodes. It should be noted that
sub- tasks may also be composite and even distributed. Finally, different tasks may be
interconnected. For instance, a component running one task may invoke another
component concerned with a different task. Such a
method invocation represents a task switching point. Thus, a task switching point
corresponds to a change in the associated resource pool to support the execution of the
task that has come into play.
Resource model.
The most important elements of the resource model are abstract resources, resource
factories and resource managers [19]. Abstract resources explicitly represent system
resources. In addition, there may be various levels of abstraction in which higher-level

resources are constructed on top of lower-level resource managers are responsible for
managing passive resources such as memory or disk. Furthermore, resource schedulers
are a specialization of managers and are in charge of managing processing resources such
as threads or virtual processors (or kernel threads). Lastly, the main duty ofresource
factories is to create abstract resources this purpose, higher-level factories make use of
lower-level factories to construct higher-level resources. The
resource model then consists of three complementary hierarchies corresponding to the
main elements of the resource model.
MOBI-DIC:MOBILEDIscovery of loCal Resources
inPeer-to-Peer Wireless Network
in this we examine management of databases distributed among moving objects. The
objects are interconnected by a Mobile Ad Hoc Network. Several inherent characteristics
of this environment,including the dynamic and unpredictable network topology, the
limited peer-to-peer communication bandwidth, and the need for incentive for peer-topeer cooperation, impose challenges to data manage-ment. In this paper we discuss these
challenges in the context of a database that represents resource information. The
information is disseminated and queried by the moving objects in search of resources.We
are currently building such a resource discovery engine called MOBI-DIC: mobiles
DIscoveryofLoCal Resources.MOBI-DIC will enable quick building of matchmaking or
resource discovery services in many ap-plication domains, including social networks,
transportation, mobile electronic commerce, emergency
example, in a large professional, political, or social gathering,the technology is useful to
automatically facilitate a face-to-face meeting based on matching profiles.

Peer-to-Peer File and Content Sharing Applications

Among the systems that feature most prominent in the peer-to-peer domain are user
applications running on top (or at the edge) of the Internet allowing a large group of users
to interact and share resources. Most popular are file or content sharing applications such
as Napster, Gnutella, Mojo Nation, donkey and Free net.
Napster was the first major system enabling the direct exchange and sharing of content.
While the actual exchange of content in Napster is between peers, the discovery of the
peers, however, is highly centralized (i.e. it is stored in a central directory) [2][4].
Gnutella provides a purely distributed file sharing solution without a central node. In the
strict sense Gnutella is not an application but a protocol used to search for and share files.
To find content and other peers a user has to know the IP address of at least one other
Gnutella node

Protection and Security

A number of security and protection issues are linked to peer-to-peer technology and
applications.
Traditional security mechanisms to protect data and systems such as firewalls cannot
protect peer-to- peer systems since they are essentially globally distributed. On the
contrary, such mechanisms can inhibit peer-to-peer communication. Therefore new
security concepts are required that protect systems from intruders and attacks while still
allowing interaction and distributed processing in peer-to-peer systems. Data can be
protected by the use of encryption schemes such as public-key-private-key encryption. In
order to protect IPR (Intellectual Property Rights) while still allowing the public use
of content, signatures can be added to the data (e.g. techniques such as watermarking and
steganography). . Other protection issues are related to privacy within a peer-to-peer
system. Peer-to-peer systems are open by nature. The authorship, the publisher and
consumer interactions (such as storage of material and query for certain topics) should be
protected. Systems can be classified according to the privacy they provide.
Multicasting and flooding can be used to protect the identity of a receiver/ requestor.
Spoofing can be used to protect both, sender and receivers. A covered path can also be
used in this context.

Practical 4
AIM:Write program that implement the few sorting algorithms (Bubble, selection
etc.) n data. It stops the operation when the counter for sorting index is at 100, 1000,
10000 and so on, stores the contents of the registers, program counter and partially
sorted list of data, etc. It resumes the operation after 30 sec. from the point of the
termination.
Solution:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<dos.h>
//Procedure for print work.
void printwork(intarr[1200])
{
int i;
printf("\nSorted series is:");
for(i=0;i<1200;i++)
{

printf("%d\t",arr[i]);
}
}
//Procedure for implementation of bubble sort.
void bubblesort(intarr[1200],intstart,int end)
{
inti,j,temp=0;
for(i=end-2;i>=0;i--)
{
for(j=0;j<=i;j++)
{
if(arr[j]>arr[j+1])
{
temp=arr[j];
arr[j]=arr[j+1];
arr[j+1]=temp;
}
}
}
if(end==10)
{
printf("\n10 Element sorted successfully.");
delay(3000);
bubblesort(arr,0,100);
}
if(end==100)
{
printf("\n100 Element sorted successfully.");
delay(3000);
bubblesort(arr,0,1000);
}
if(end==1000)
{
printf("\n1000 Element sorted successfully.");
delay(3000);
bubblesort(arr,0,1200);
}
if(end==1200)
{
printwork(arr);
}
}
//Procedure for implementation of selection sort.

void selectionsort(intarr[1200],intstart,int end)

{
inti,j,temp=0;
for(i=start;i<end-1;i++)
{
for(j=i+1;j<end;j++)
{
if(arr[j]<arr[i])
{
temp=arr[i];
arr[i]=arr[j];
arr[j]=temp;
}
}
}
if(end==10)
{
printf("\n10 Element sorted successfully.");
delay(3000);
selectionsort(arr,0,100);
}
if(end==100)
{
printf("\n100 Element sorted successfully.");
delay(3000);
selectionsort(arr,0,1000);
}
if(end==1000)
{
printf("\n1000 Element sorted successfully.");
delay(3000);
selectionsort(arr,0,1200);
}
if(end==1200)
{
printwork(arr);
}
}
void main()
{
intarr[1200],i,choice;
randomize();
for(i=0; i<1200; i++)
{
arr[i]=rand()%1000;

}
printf("Random generated series\n");
for(i=0;i<1200;i++)
{
printf("%d\t",arr[i]);
}
menu:
printf("\n
MENU:\n");
printf("Enter 1 for bubble sort.\n");
printf("Enter 2 for Selection sort.\n");
printf("Enter your choice:");
scanf("%d",&choice);
if(choice==1)
{
bubblesort(arr,0,10);
}
else if(choice==2)
{
selectionsort(arr,0,10);
}
else
{
printf("Enter valid choice.");goto menu;}getch();}
Output:

Practical 5
AIM:Write a program the implement the bubble sort for n data. It stops the
operation when the counter for sorting index is at 100.1000.10000 and so on, stores
the contents of the registers, program counter and partially sorted list of data, etc. It
transfers the code and data across the network on the new destination and resumes
the operation from the point of termination on the previous node. Finally the result
from the last node in the itinerary is send back to the process-initiating node.
Solution:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>

//Procedure for print work.

void printwork(intarr[1200])
{
int i;
printf("\nSorted series is:");
for(i=0;i<1200;i++)
{
printf("%d\t",arr[i]);
}
}

//Procedure for implementation of bubble sort.

void bubblesort(intarr[1200],intstart,int end)

{
inti,j,temp=0;

for(i=end-2;i>=0;i--)
{
for(j=0;j<=i;j++)
{
if(arr[j]>arr[j+1])
{
temp=arr[j];
arr[j]=arr[j+1];
arr[j+1]=temp;
}
}
}
printwork(arr);
}

void main()
{
intarr[1200],i,choice;
randomize();
for(i=0; i<1200; i++)
{
arr[i]=rand()%1000;
}
printf("Random generated series\n");
for(i=0;i<1200;i++)
{

printf("%d\t",arr[i]);
}
printf("Press any key to start sorting...");
getch();
bubblesort(arr,0,1200);
getch();
}

Output:

Practical 6
AIM: Study of a cellular architecture.
A cellular network is a radio network distributed over land areas called cells, each
served by at least one fixed-location transceiver known as a cell site or base station.
When joined together these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area.
This enables a large number of portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, pagers, etc.) to
communicate with each other and with fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in the
network, via base stations, even if some of the transceivers are moving through more than
one cell during transmission.
Cellular networks offer a number of advantages over alternative solutions:

increased capacity

reduced power use

larger coverage area

reduced interference from other signals

An example of a simple non-telephone cellular system is an old taxi driver's radio system
where the taxi company has several transmitters based around a city that can
communicate directly with each taxi.
In a cellular radio system, a land area to be supplied with radio service is divided into
regular shaped cells, which can be hexagonal, square, circular or some other irregular
shapes, although hexagonal cells are conventional. Each of these cells is assigned
multiple frequencies (f1 - f6) which have corresponding radio base stations. The group of
frequencies can be reused in other cells, provided that the same frequencies are not
reused in adjacent neighboring cells as that would cause co-channel interference.
The increased capacity in a cellular network, compared with a network with a single
transmitter, comes from the fact that the same radio frequency can be reused in a different
area for a completely different transmission. If there is a single plain transmitter, only one
transmission can be used on any given frequency. Unfortunately, there is inevitably some

level of interference from the signal from the other cells which use the same frequency.
This means that, in a standard FDMA system, there must be at least a one cell gap
between cells which reuse the same frequency.

Cell signal encoding

To distinguish signals from several different transmitters, frequency division multiple
access (FDMA) and code division multiple access (CDMA) were developed.
With FDMA, the transmitting and receiving frequencies used in each cell are different
from the frequencies used in each neighbouring cell. In a simple taxi system, the taxi
driver manually tuned to a frequency of a chosen cell to obtain a strong signal and to
avoid interference from signals from other cells.
The principle of CDMA is more complex, but achieves the same result; the
distributed transceivers can select one cell and listen to it.
Other available methods of multiplexing such as polarization division multiple
access (PDMA) and time division multiple access (TDMA) cannot be used to separate
signals from one cell to the next since the effects of both vary with position and this
would make signal separation practically impossible. Time division multiple access,
however, is used in combination with either FDMA or CDMA in a number of systems to
give multiple channels within the coverage area of a single cell.

Frequency reuse
The key characteristic of a cellular network is the ability to re-use frequencies to increase
both coverage and capacity. As described above, adjacent cells must utilize different
frequencies, however there is no problem with two cells sufficiently far apart operating
on the same frequency. The elements that determine frequency reuse are the reuse
distance and the reuse factor.
The reuse distance, D is calculated as

where R is the cell radius and N is the number of cells per cluster. Cells may vary in
radius in the ranges (1 km to 30 km). The boundaries of the cells can also overlap
between adjacent cells and large cells can be divided into smaller cells .
The frequency reuse factor is the rate at which the same frequency can be used in the
network. It is 1/K (or K according to some books) where K is the number of cells which
cannot use the same frequencies for transmission. Common values for the frequency
reuse factor are 1/3, 1/4, 1/7, 1/9 and 1/12 (or 3, 4, 7, 9 and 12 depending on notation).

Directional antennas
Although the original 2-way-radio cell towers were at the centers of the cells and were
omni-directional, a cellular map can be redrawn with the cellular telephone towers
located at the corners of the hexagons where three cells converge.Each tower has three
sets of directional antennas aimed in three different directions with 120 degrees for each
cell (totaling 360 degrees) and receiving/transmitting into three different cells at different
frequencies. This provides a minimum of three channels (from three towers) for each cell.
The numbers in the illustration are channel numbers, which repeat every 3 cells. Large
cells can be subdivided into smaller cells for high volume areas

Broadcast messages and paging

Practically every cellular system has some kind of broadcast mechanism. This can be
used directly for distributing information to multiple mobiles, commonly, for example
in mobile telephony systems, the most important use of broadcast information are to set

up channels for one to one communication between the mobile transceiver and the base
station. This is called paging.
The details of the process of paging vary somewhat from network to network, but
normally we know a limited number of cells where the phone is located (this group of
cells is called a Location Area in the GSM or UMTS system, or Routing Area if a data
packet session is involved). Paging takes place by sending the broadcast message to all of
those cells. Paging messages can be used for information transfer. This happens in pagers,
in CDMAsystems for sending SMS messages, and in the UMTS system where it allows
for low downlink latency in packet-based connections.

Movement from cell to cell and handover

In a primitive taxi system, when the taxi moved away from a first tower and closer to a
second tower, the taxi driver manually switched from one frequency to another as needed.
If a communication was interrupted due to a loss of a signal, the taxi driver asked the
base station operator to repeat the message on a different frequency.
In a cellular system, as the distributed mobile transceivers move from cell to cell during
an ongoing continuous communication, switching from one cell frequency to a different
cell frequency is done electronically without interruption and without a base station
operator or manual switching. This is called the handover or handoff. Typically, a new
channel is automatically selected for the mobile unit on the new base station which will
serve it. The mobile unit then automatically switches from the current channel to the new
channel and communication continues.

Example of a cellular network: the mobile phone network

The most common example of a cellular network is a mobile phone (cell phone) network.
A mobile phone is a portable telephone which receives or makes calls through a cell
site (base station), or transmitting tower. Radio waves are used to transfer signals to and
from the cell phone.
Modern mobile phone networks use cells because radio frequencies are a limited, shared
resource. Cell-sites and handsets change frequency under computer control and use low
power transmitters so that a limited number of radio frequencies can be simultaneously

used by many callers with less interference.A cellular network is used by the mobile
phone operator to achieve both coverage and capacity for their subscribers. Large
geographic areas are split into smaller cells to avoid line-of-sight signal loss and to
support a large number of active phones in that area. All of the cell sites are connected
to telephone exchanges (or switches) , which in turn connect to the public telephone
network.
In cities, each cell site may have a range of up to approximately mile, while in rural
areas, the range could be as much as 5 miles. It is possible that in clear open areas, a user
may receive signals from a cell site 25 miles away.
Since almost all mobile phones use cellular technology, including GSM, CDMA,
and AMPS (analog), the term "cell phone" is in some regions, notably the US, used
interchangeably with "mobile phone". However, satellite phones are mobile phones that
do not communicate directly with a ground-based cellular tower, but may do so indirectly
by way of a satellite.