Notes in Instrumentation & Process Control Prepared: Engr. B.

Domingo – Coloma, ChE 1

THE INPUT – OUTPUT MODEL and TRANSFER FUNCTION

In some cases, fundamental models can involve a large number of equations.

Example is a distillation tower with 40 trays and ten components would require over
400 differential equations.
There is a need for a method for “compressing” the model which can be
achieved by using the input-output model.
A very common manner for presenting input-output models, which finds
considerable application in process control, is the transfer function. The transfer
function is a model based on laplace transforms with special assumptions as
follows:
The Transfer Functions of a system is defined as the laplace transform of the
output variable, Y(t), divided by the laplace transform of the input variable, X(t),
with all initial conditions equal to zero.

Transfer Function = G(s) = Y(s)

X(s)
The assumptions of Y(0) = 0 and X(0) = 0 are easily achieved by expressing the
variables in the transfer functions as deviations from the initial conditions. Thus,
all transfer functions involve variables that are expressed as deviations from an
initial steady state. All derivatives are zero if the initial conditions are at steady
state.
Note that the transfer function relates one output to one input
variable. IF more than one input or output exists, an individual transfer function is
defined for each input-output relationship. The effects of several inputs can be
summed to determine the net effect on the output.
The overall behavior of a complex system can be modeled considering only
the input and output variables by the use of transfer functions and block diagrams.

Use of Laplace Transforms: The laplace transform provides the engineer with a
powerful method in analyzing process control systems.
L [f(t)] = F(s) =  f(t)e-stdt
The laplace transform converts a function in the time domain to a function in the s
domain, in which s can take complex values. The laplace transform of a function
T(t) will be designated by T(s).

Ex.1: Laplace transform of a constant, C.

L (c) = ∫ ce-st dt = c(-1/s) ∫-se-st dt = -(c/s) e-st]  = -(c/s)(e - eo) = - c/s

Ex.2: Exponential: eat

L [eet] = F(s) = ∫eat . e-st dt = ∫e-(s-a)t dt = -1 [e-(s-a)t] = -1 [0 – 1] = 1 .

(s-a) (s-a) s–a

Notes in Instrumentation & Process Control Prepared: Engr. B. Domingo – Coloma, ChE 2

Ex.3: Derivative of a function: d f(t) ans. [s F(s)]

dt
L [ d f(t)/dt] = ∫ [df(t) /dt]. e-st dt = - ∫f(t)(-s)e-st.dt + f(t)e-st] = -s F(s) – f(t)]t=o
= s F(s) with f(t) at t = 0 equals zero

Laplace of common function in process control:

1. Unit step function: u(t) = 0 t<0 L[u(t)] = 1/s

1 t0

2. A pulse of magnitude H and duration T: f(t) = 0 t <0, t  T

H 0tT
L[f(t)] = H (1 – e-st)
s
3. A unit Impulse function, (t)

L[(t)] = 1

4. A sine wave of unity amplitude and frequency : sin t

sint = eit – e-it ; L[sint] =  .

2i s + 2
2

5. Other functions:

f(t) L[f(t)] f(t) L[f(t)]

t 1 tne-at n! .
s2 (s+a)n+1
tn n! cost s
sn+1 s + 2
2

e-at 1 . e-at sint  .

s+a (s+a)2 +2
te-at 1 . e-at cost s+a .
(s+a)2 (s+a)2 +2

Deviation Variable, x’ :
The subscript s represents the initial steady-state value of the variable. The
deviation variable will always be designated with a prime (’).
X – xs = x’ where xs = initial steady-state value
A deviation variable simply translates the total variable by a constant value, and the
total value of the variable easily recovered by adding the initial steady-state value
xs to its deviation value x’.
Notes in Instrumentation & Process Control Prepared: Engr. B. Domingo – Coloma, ChE 3

Properties shown by the laplace transform:

1. Linearity
2. Real differentiation theorem
3. Real integration theorem
4. Real translation theorem
5. Final value theorem
6. Complex differential theorem
7. Complex translation theorem
8. Initial value theorem

Some properties shown by the transfer function

1. Order: The order of the system is the highest derivative of the output variable
in defining differential equation, when expressed as a combination of all
individual equations. For transfer functions of physical systems, the order can
be easily determined to be the highest power of s in the denominator.
2. Pole: A pole is defined as a root of the denominator of the transfer function,
thus, it is the same as a root of the characteristic polynomial. Important
information on the dynamic behavior of the system can be obtained by analyzing
the poles, such as: a) the stability of the system
b) the potential for periodic transients.
The analysis of poles is an important topic on feedback systems since feedback
control affects the poles.

3. Zero: A zero is a root of the numerator of the transfer function.

4. Order of numerator and denominator: Physical systems conform to specific
limitations between the orders of the numerator and denominator, that is, the
order of the denominator must be larger- than the order of the numerator. This
limitation results from the observation that real physical systems do not contain
pure differentiation as would be required for a system with numerator order
greater than denominator order.
5. Casuality: The direction of the cause-effect relationship is essential to control
system design. This direction is presented in the transfer function by identifying
the variable in the denominator as an input (cause) and an output (effect). In
designing feedback control strategies, the variable chosen to be adjusted must
be an input, and the measured controlled variable used for determining the
adjustment must be an output. When the physical system is casual, the order of
the denominator is greater than that of the numerator and the value of the
transfer function as s  ∞ is equal to 0 (zero). Such a transfer function is
referred to as Strictly Proper.
6. Steady-State Gain: The steady-state gain is the steady state value of Y/X
for all systems whose outputs attain steady state after an input perturbation X.
The steady-state gain is normally represented by K, often with the subscript and
can be evaluated by setting s = 0 in the (stable) transfer function. This is exact
for linear systems and gives the linearized approximation for non-linear systems.
Notes in Instrumentation & Process Control Prepared: Engr. B. Domingo – Coloma, ChE 4

In modeling, the initial steps involve balances based on fundamental

principles, which can be applied to each process of a complex plant. Then the
transfer function of each system is determined by taking the laplace transform of
the linearized model. The block diagram can be constructed to present the
interactions among the individual transfer functions and the overall transfer
function for the integrated system can be derived through block diagram
manipulation.
The overall transfer function can be used to determine some important
properties of the system without solving the defining differential equations. These
properties include: (1) The final value of the output variable. (2). The stability of
the response and (3). The response of the output to sine input

Determining this information with the entire dynamic response has two
advantages:
1. It reduces the effort to establish these system properties.
2. It assists in understanding the ways in which equipment design, operating
conditions and control systems affects these properties.

Naturally, information about the entire transient is not obtained by analyzing the
poles of the transfer function of by the frequency response calculations. The
complete transfer response can be obtained if needed from analytical or numerical
solution of the algebraic equations.
Closed-Loop Temperature Response of a Tank Heater Closed Loop Response of Liquid Level
Notes in Instrumentation & Process Control Prepared: Engr. B. Domingo – Coloma, ChE 5

Rules for Block Diagram Algebra

Notes in Instrumentation & Process Control Prepared: Engr. B. Domingo – Coloma, ChE 6

Exercises:
1. Derive the laplace transform and the transfer function of a
a) continuously-stirred mixing tank (CSMT). Draw the block diagram.
b) Two CSTR’s in series with V1 = V2
Notes in Instrumentation & Process Control Prepared: Engr. B. Domingo – Coloma, ChE 7

2. Derive the transfer function of the stirred tank heater below and
draw corresponding block diagram.
Fi, Ti
Q = UAt(Tst – T) = Heat supplied by
Steam
T, V F, T

Tst
Steam
Soln: Formulate the fundamental model
TMB: d(V) = Fi  - F  ; but  = k and Fi = F ; dV = 0
dt dt
Energy Bal: with PE and KE changes negligible
dE = Ein + Q – Eout ; For liquids: dE = dH and H = mCp∆T
dt dt dt H = VCp(T – Tref)
E = internal energy and H = enthalpy
When Tref = 0, H = VCpT ; dH = VCp dT
dt dt
dE = dH = VCp dT = mi Cp Ti – m CpT + Q ; mi = Fi 
dt dt dt

VCp dT = Fi Cp Ti – F CpT + Q but  = k , Cp = k, and Fi = F

dt

Divide by VCp : dT = F (Ti – T) + Q .

dt V VCp

Heat supplied by the steam is: Q = UAt(Tst – T) ; Tst = temp of steam

dT = Fi (Ti – T) + U At(Tst – T); dT = – Fi + UAt T + F .Ti + UAt Tst

dt V VCp dt V VCp V VCp

dT + T F + UAt = FTi + UAt Tst let  = V and k = UAt

dt V VCp V VCp F VCp

dT + 1 + k T = Ti + kTst let a = 1 + k
dt   
Notes in Instrumentation & Process Control Prepared: Engr. B. Domingo – Coloma, ChE 8

The Fundamental model is: dT + a T = Ti + kTst

dt 
In deviation form:
dT’ + a T’ = Ti’ + kT’st
dt 

Take Laplace Transform:

sT(s) + aT(s) = Ti(s) + k Tst(s)

T(s)[a + s] = 1 Ti(s) + k Tst(s)


T(s) = (1/) . Ti(s) + k . Tst(s) ⇥ Input – Output Model

s+a s+ a

Individual Transfer Function:

G1 = T(s) = 1/ . and G2 = T(s) = k .

Ti(s) s+a Tst(s) s+a

T(s) = G1 Ti(s) + G2 Tst(s) ⇥ dynamic response of the tank heater

Transfer Block Diagram:

Ti(s)
G1 = 1/ .

s+a
+ T(s)
+
G2 = k
Tst(s)
.

s+a
Notes in Instrumentation & Process Control Prepared: Engr. B. Domingo – Coloma, ChE 9

EXERCISES:

1. For each of the block diagrams in figure below, derive the overall input – output
transfer function X1(s)/Xo(s). These are two of the most commonly occurring
and important block diagrams used in feedback control.
a)
+ e G1 G2 G3 G4
Xo(s) X1(s)

Soln:
e = Xo(s) – X1(s) and X1(s) = e.G1G2G3G4 ; let GT = G1G2G3G4

X1(s) = e.GT ; X1(s) = [Xo(s) – X1(s)] GT

X1(s) [ 1 + GT] = Xo(s) GT ; X1(s) = GT . Xo(s)
1 + GT
X1(s) = GT = G1G2G3G4 . Ans
Xo(s) 1 + GT 1 + G1G2G3G4

b)
+ e +
G1 G2 G3 G4
Xo(s) X1(s)
–
–

Soln:
Simplify inner loop: Let Ga = G2G3

G2G3 . Ga .
1 + G2G3 1 + Ga

Block diagram of the inner loop: with Gb = Ga .

1 + Ga
+ Gb

Block diagram with the inner loop simplified

Notes in Instrumentation & Process Control Prepared: Engr. B. Domingo – Coloma, ChE 10

+ e
G1 Gb G4
Xo(s) X1(s)

Let G1GbG4 = Gc
G2G3 .
X1(s) = Gc = G1GbG4 = G1 1+G2G3 G4
X0(s) 1 + Gc 1 + G1GbG4 1+ G2G3 . G4
1+G2G3
= G1G2G3G4 .
1 + G2G3 + G1G2G3G4

G1G2G3G4 .
Xo(s) 1 + G2G3 + G1G2G3G4 X1(s)

Gd d(s)

c. +
+ e Gc x0(s) G1 + x1(s) G2 x2(s) G3 x3(s) G4
SP(s) X4(s)
– xm(s)
Notes in Instrumentation & Process Control Prepared: Engr. B. Domingo – Coloma, ChE 11

LAPLACE-DOMAIN ANALYSIS OF CONVENTIONAL FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS

Consider a two-heated tanks:

To T2
T1 T2

To (L) GL = 1 .
(s+1)(5s+1)

T2 (Y)

Q(M) GM = 1/2160 .
(s+1)(5s+1)

 The dynamics of this open-loop system depend on the roots

of the open-loop characteristic equation.
 i.e. on the roots of the open loop transfer functions
 The roots are the poles of the open loop transfer functions.
 If all the roots lie in the left half of the s plane, the system
is open-loop stable.
 For the two-tank heaters, the poles of the open-loop
transfer functions are: s = -1 and s = -1/5, so the system
is open-loop stable.
Notes in Instrumentation & Process Control Prepared: Engr. B. Domingo – Coloma, ChE 12

CLOSED-LOOP CHARACTERISTIC EQN and CLOSED LOOP TF

Consider adding a feedback controller in the two-heated tank:

To T2

T1 T2

Temp
Q transmitter

I/P
T controller SP
Transducer

Transfer Block Diagram:

Process

To GL = 1 .
(s+1)(5s+1)

Q GM = 1/2160 .  T2
(s+1)(5s+1)

Gv Controller
GT

Gc
Notes in Instrumentation & Process Control Prepared: Engr. B. Domingo – Coloma, ChE 13

C - PV
e
 SP

Consider the feedback controller on the process:

 The controlled variable is converted to a process variable
signal PV by the sensor/transmitter element GT.
 The feedback controller compares the PV signal to the desired
set point signal SP, feeds the error (e) through a feedback
controller transfer function Gc, and sends out a controller
output signal C.
 The controller output signal changes the position of a control
valve, which changes the flow rate of the manipulated
variable Q (M).
 Use an analog electronic system with 4 to 20 mA control
signals.
 The temperature sensor has a span of 100 oF
 The GT = PV = 16 mA
T2 100 oF
 The controller output signal C goes to an I/P transducer that
converts 4 to 20 mA to a 3 to 15 psig air pressure signal to
drive the control valve through w/c steam is added to the
heating coil.
 Assume that the valve can pass enough steam to add 500,000
Btu/min to the liquid in the tank when the valve is wide open.
 The transfer function between Q and C (lumping together the
transducer and the control valve) is given by:
Gv = Q = 500,000 Btu/min
C 16 mA
 From the transfer block diagram, the output T2 is given by:
T 2 = G L . T o + GM . Q
 And Q is related to T2 by:
Q = C.Gv = eGcGv = (SP – PV)GcGv = SP.GcGv – PV.GcGv
Notes in Instrumentation & Process Control Prepared: Engr. B. Domingo – Coloma, ChE 14

Q = GcGv.SP – GcGvGT.T2
Therefore:
T2 = GL.To + GcGvGM.SP - GcGvGTGM.T2
T2[1 + GcGvGTGM] = GL.To + GcGvGM.SP

T2 =GL .To + GcGvGM SP

1 + GcGvGTGM 1 + GcGvGTGM
 The above transfer functions describe the closed-loop system,
and they are called closed-loop transfer functions.
 The two inputs are To and the SP, the controlled variable is T2

 The closed-loop TF for the 2-tank heater process can be

calculated from the open-loop process TF and the feedback
controller TF.
 Consider a proportional controller with controller transfer
function equal to its gain, Kc. So, GC = Kc.
Kc = mA/mA (dimensionless)
GL = 1 oF/oF ; GM = (1/2160) oF/Btu/min
(s+1)(5s+1) (s+1)(5s+1)

Gv = 500,000 Btu/min ; GT = 16 mA
16 mA 100 oF
 The closed-loop TF for load changes is:
T2 = GL .

To 1 + GMGvGcGT
1 oF/oF .

(s+1)(5s+1) .

o
= 1 + (1/2160) F/Btu/min 500,000 Btu/min Kc . 16 mA
(s+1)(5s+1) 16 mA 100 oF
= 1 oF/oF = 1 oF/oF .

(s+1)(5s+1) + 500Kc/216 5s2 + 6s + 1 +500Kc/216

 The Closed-loop TF for Set Point Changes is:

Notes in Instrumentation & Process Control Prepared: Engr. B. Domingo – Coloma, ChE 15

T2 = GMGVGC .

SP 1 + GMGvGcGT
1/2160 oF/Btu/min 500,000 Btu/min Kc
(s+1)(5s+1) 16 mA .

= 1 + (1/2160) oF/Btu/min 500,000 Btu/min Kc . 16 mA

(s+1)(5s+1) 16 mA 100 oF
T2 = 50,000 Kc/216/16 oF/mA
SP 5s2 + 6s + 1 +500Kc/216

Between PV and SP; (T2/SP)*GT

PV = [50,000 Kc/216/16][16/100]
SP 5s2 + 6s + 1 +500Kc/216
= 500 Kc/216 .

2
5s + 6s + 1 +500Kc/216

Steady state gain of the closed-loop TF (PV/SP) is not unity.

 i.e., there is a steady-state offset → always present for a
Proportional controller
PV/SP ratio at steady state can be calculated by letting s → 0.
lim PV = 500 Kc/216 = 1 .

t→ SP 1 + 500 Kc/216 (216/500Kc) + 1

The result shows that the bigger the controller gain, the smaller
the offset.
The characteristic equation for the system is:
1 + GMGVGCGT = 0 (applies for SISO system)
 This shows that the closed-loop dynamics depends upon the
process open loop TF.
 Recall the closed-loop transfer function:
T2 = GL .To + GcGvGM SP
1 + GcGvGTGM 1 + GcGvGTGM
Notes in Instrumentation & Process Control Prepared: Engr. B. Domingo – Coloma, ChE 16

 The 1st TF is the closed-loop regulator TF

 The 2nd TF is the closed-loop servo TF
 The ideal regulator TF is zero, and the ideal servo TF is
unity (i.e., PV should always track the new SP at all times).
 Both of these can be achieved if Gc is infinitely large.

GcG1G2G3G4 .
1 + GcG1G2G3G4