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NutritionforSeriousAthletes
DanBenardot,PhD,RD
TheLaboratoryforEliteAthletePerformance
GeorgiaStateUniversity
Pageii
LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData
Benardot,Dan,1949
Nutritionforseriousathletes/DanBenardot.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN08801183341.AthletesNutrition.I.Title
TX361.A8B451999
613.2'024'796dc21
99046572
ISBN0880118334
Copyright 2000byDanBenardot
Allrightsreserved.Exceptforuseinareview,thereproductionorutilizationofthiswork
inanyformorbyanyelectronic,mechanical,orothermeans,nowknownorhereafter
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Permissionnoticesformaterialreprintedinthisbookfromothersourcescanbefoundon
pagexiii.
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Pageiii
Myfamilyissimplywonderful.Ilovethemandappreciate
allthebigandlittlethingstheydoforeachotherandforme.
Deborah,Jacob,andLeahthisbookisforyou.
Pageiv
CONTENTS
Foreword
vi
Preface
viii
Acknowledgments
xi
Credits
xiii
PartI
TheNutritionToolbox
Chapter1
BalancingEssentialNutrients
Findingtherightmixfortrainingandracing
Chapter2
StayingHydrated
Drinkingguidelinesbefore,during,andafterexercise
73
Chapter3
AssessingBodyComposition
Achievinganoptimalbodyfatlevelforyoursport
99
Chapter4
TrainingWithSupplements
Determiningwhichergogenicaidscanimproveperformance
PartII
TailoringNutritiontoYourTraining
123
Chapter5
EatingforAnaerobicPower
Strategiesforstrength,speed,andexplosiveness
141
Chapter6
EatingforAerobicPower
Strategiesforendurance,stamina,andlongtermgains
159
Pagev
Chapter7
TimingofMealsandSnacks
Keepingyourenergylevelshighwhenyouneedthemmost
179
Chapter8
EatingontheRoad
Planningmealsawayfromhome
PartIII
PerformanceNutritionPlans
201
Chapter9
PowerSports
PlansforBaseball,Bodybuilding,Football,Gymnastics,Hockey,Trackand
Field,Swimming,andWrestling
213
Chapter10
EnduranceSports
PlansforDistanceRunning,Triathlon,LongDistanceSwimming,and
Cycling
249
Chapter11
CombinedPowerandEnduranceSports
PlansforBasketball,FigureSkating,Soccer,andTennis
273
AppendixA
SampleMealPlans
289
AppendixB
FoodSourcesofEssentialNutrients
296
Endnotes
312
Index
331
AbouttheAuthor
337
Pagevi
FOREWORD
Rarelyisabookwrittenbyanauthorwhohastheacademictrainingandpracticalexperiencenecessarytobecalledarealexpert.Dr.DanBenardotistheexception.
FromhisearlydaysoftoilinginnutritionandexerciselaboratoriestohismorerecentsuccessesonthefloorofthegymnasticsvenueduringtheOlympicGames,Dr.
Benardothasproventobetheworld'sforemostauthorityonsportsnutrition.Fromchapter1tothefinalappendix,athletes,coaches,students,andteacherswillfind
thisbooktobetheauthorityonsportsnutrition.
Onthisdawnofanewmillennium,scholarswilllookbackonthe20thcenturyasatimeofgreatadvances.Duringthelasthalfofthecentury,astronautstookoffinto
spaceandevenwalkedonthemoon.TheBerlinWallcrumbledandwithitsodidCommunism.WesawthebreakupoftheSovietUnion.WesawtheAtlantaBraves
winaWorldSeries.WeexperiencedagoldmedalperformancebytheUnitedStatesWomen'sArtisticGymnasticsTeamduringthe1996AtlantaOlympicGames.
Advancesinthediagnosisandtreatmentofdiseasearefartoomanytolisthere.Onethingthathasnotchanged,however,isthewayathletescontinuetosearchfora
winningtrainingprogram,whichincludesnutrition.
Thereismuchconfusionaboutpropernutritionandhowimportantitistothesuccessfulathlete.Itseemsthatthereisadailyintroductiontothemarketofsomenew
enduranceproducing,powerenhancingmeganutrientthatwilltransformanaverageathleteintoasuperstar.Thisbookmakesnosuchclaims.Instead,thereaderis
introducedfirsttothescienceofnutritionandwhatweknowaboutthevalueofvitamins,minerals,andabalanceddiet.Eachchapterconcludeswitheitherpractical
applicationsorrecommendations.Youwillseenocommercialsheremarketingasingleproductclaimingtoenhanceperformance.Youareintroduced,however,tothe
realstory(basedonscientificfactasweknowittoday)ofsuccessfulnutrition.
Pagevii
Asanaddedbonus,Dr.Benardotincludesintheappendixesasectionhelabels"SampleMealPlans."Thissectionaloneisworththepriceofthebook!Itisamust
readfortheseriousathlete.
Forthebetterpartoffourdecades(myprofessionallifeandthatsegmentIwascalledan"athlete"),Ihavehadaninterestintherelationshipbetweenphysicalactivity
andnutrition.Asaprofessor,Ihavebeenaskednumeroustimestorecommendagoodtextthatwasreadable,understandable,andcouldanswerthetoughquestions.
ThisisthebookthatIcanfinallyrecommendwithoutanyhesitation.
WALTERR.THOMPSON,PHD,FACSM,FAACVP
PROFESSOROFKINESIOLOGYANDHEALTH
PROFESSOROFNUTRITION
DIRECTOR,CENTERFORSPORTSMEDICINE,SCIENCE&TECHNOLOGY
GEORGIASTATEUNIVERSITY
ATLANTA,GA
Pageviii
PREFACE
Thisbookismeantforallathleteswhotaketheirsportseriouslyandthosewhoworkwiththem.Thenumberofpeopleinvolvedinorganizedsportsisswelling,and
theageatwhichpeopleareinvolvedattheelitelevelsofsportisexpandingatbothendsoftheagecontinuum.Asthisinvolvementgrows,sodoesthequantityof
misinformationaboutwhatshouldbedonetoassurethatnutritionalneedsaremetforbothathleticperformanceandhealth.Youdon'thavetolooktoofartofind
"nutritional"productsthataremarketedwiththeideathattheirconsumptionwillleadtoimprovedperformance.Thesportsmedicineliteratureisfilledwithcasesof
athleteswhohaveusedsomeoftheseproductswithdisastrous(attimesfatal)results.Tocompoundthepotentialforproblems,thereisatendencyformanybeginning
athletestotrytoachievetoomuchtooquickly,withtrainingparadigmsthatmimicthoseofthemosthighlytrainedandseasonedprofessionals.Elitegymnastsoften
reachtheirperformancepeakataroundage16,and5yearoldboysareinfullfootballuniformbeingcheeredonbyequallyserious5yearoldgirls.Women'ssoccer
intheUnitedStates,followingtherecentgoldmedalofthepopularU.S.Women'steamatthe1999WorldCup,islikelytocreateasoccerboomforgirlsofallages
andmayevenincreasetheinvolvementofboysinsoccerprograms.The1998HawaiiIronmanTriathloncompetitionhadathletesintheir60sand70swhowere
seriousagegroupcompetitors.Thiswouldhavebeenunheardofseveralyearsago,andtherapiditywithwhichthisphenomenonhasoccurredhascreatedaneedfor
informationinsportsnutritionforthesediversepopulationsthatwouldnothaveexistedjustafewshortyearsago.
Therecertainlyismoreinformationavailableforathletes,butthereliabilityofmuchofthisinformationisinquestion.Itisdifficultforanathleteinterestedinoptimizing
performancetobecompletelyrationalindeterminingwhatconstitutesinformationandwhatconstitutesmisinformation.Walkingintoa"nutrition"centerthatsells
vitaminsandotherhealthproductscanleaveapersonmoreconfused(certainlymore
Pageix
financiallystrained)thanbeforetheywalkedin.Whenthere'samoneymotive,youcanbevirtuallycertainyou'renotgettinganunbiasedaccountofwhat'sright.When
you'retoldthattheactivefootballplayerneedsmoreprotein,you'relikelytobelieveitbecauseit'sbecomecommonknowledgethatthereisarelationshipbetween
highproteinintakeandhighachievementinsport.Thenextleapofjudgmentissimple.Ifmoreproteinisneeded,thenwhynotthebuildingblocksofprotein,amino
acids.Andthenit'sashortleaptohearing,"TheaminoacidsIsellarebetterthantheaminoacidstheysell...."Thetruthis,thecommonlyheldbeliefsaboutprotein
arebigmyths,andmostofthemoneyspentonproteinandaminoacidpillsismakingsomeonericherbutprobablyisn'tmakingtheathleteanybetter.
Partoftheproblemisthatsportsnutritioninformationisexpandingsorapidlythatwhatwemayhaveassumedtobefactafewshortyearsagowenowknowtobe
fiction.AreviewofpositionpapersfromtheAmericanDieteticAssociationandtheAmericanCollegeofSportsMedicineunderscoresthispoint.Afewshortyears
agotheseorganizationsproperlyrecommended(itwasthestateoftheartatthetime)thatsportsbeveragesshouldhaveanenergyconcentrationthatdidnotexceed
2.5percent.Thesesameorganizations,givenmoreandbetterinformation,nowbothrecommendthatsportsbeveragesshouldhaveanenergyconcentrationthatdoes
notexceed8percent(athreefoldincreaseinenergyconcentration!).Thefirstrecommendationwasbasedongastricemptyingtime(thestandardtechniqueusedinthe
past),whilethecurrentrecommendationisbasedonintestinalabsorptiontime(thecurrentandbettermeansofdeterminingthisissue).Tocompoundtheconfusion,
manyathletestoleratehigherconcentrationsofenergyinsportsbeveragesthanthecurrentrecommendations,andmanyhavedifficultiesconsumingtherecommended
level.Therecommendationsgivenaretypicallybasedonthecommonresponsetoasubstanceorprotocol,butthereisahugeindividualdifferencearoundthat
commonresponse.Therefore,whengeneralrecommendationsareprovidedinthisbookandothers,theyshouldbeconsideredthestartingpointindeterminingwhat's
rightforyouortheathleteyou'reworkingwith.Alltoooftenthesegeneralrecommendationsaretakenassetinconcretefact.
Relyingonthelaymediaasthesolesourceofinformationmayalsobedangeroustoyourhealth.Thisisnotbecausetheinformationprovidedisnecessarilywrong,but
itmaynotrelatespecificallytoyou.Itiscommonforthemediatoprovideacasestudyofwhata
Pagex
singlesuccessfulathletedoestostayhealthyandstrong,buttransferringthatinformationtoothersmaybeabigmistake.Here'sthatathletewhohastrainedforsix
hourseachdayforyears,hasaterrificcoach,andtakesanutrientsupplement.Weare,ofcourse,ledtobelievethatthissuccessisattributabletothenutrient
supplement.I'llputmymoneyonanexcellenttrainingregimen,afavorablegeneticmakeup,andwhatmustalsobeaprettyterrificfoodintake.
Despiteaboominsportsnutritioninformationinrecentyears,therestillaremanyquestionsthatarenoteasilyanswered.Are15yearoldelitegymnastslikelyto
experiencethesameproblemsasthe19yearoldswhohavebeencompetinglonger?Aretheyatthesameordifferentdevelopmentalstages?Shouldadolescent
femalesfearnotachievingmensesuntiltheyreachtheageof16,17,or18?Isitappropriatefora5yearoldtoconsumeasportsbeverageduringagame,justlike
thebigboys?Isthereaproblemwiththeenergyrestrictionshighschoolwrestlersundergotomakeweight,whenmanyofthesesamewrestlersareinwhatshouldbe
theiradolescentgrowthspurt?Whathappenstothebonesofayoungskaterwhensheeatsjustenoughtosatisfyherimmediateneeds,butnotenoughtosatisfyher
developmentalneeds?Doesthehighproteinintakecommoninbodybuilding,weightlifting,andfootballrepresentapotentialforprematurekidneyfailure,sincethere
isaninevitableincreaseintheamountofnitrogenouswastethatmustbeexcreted?Ordoesitjustrepresentanothersourceofenergythatisburnedwithoutshortor
longtermdifficulty?Wheredorunners,whogooutfortheirmorningrunbeforebreakfast,getthefueltomaketheirmuscleswork?
Thesequestionsshouldnotleadyoutomisunderstandthethrustofthisbook.Exerciseandinvolvementinsportcanbe,shouldbe,andusuallyarewonderfulthings.
Thephilosophicalbasisforthisbookisthatsportinvolvementshouldleadtoanenhancementoflifetimehealthratherthanalifetimeofproblems,andthatwhatisdone
nutritionallycanmakeatremendousdifferenceinseeingtoitthatthisiswhathappens.Doingthingsrightnutritionallywillalsomakeanenormouslypositivedifference
inaseriousathlete'sabilitytotrainandcompete.Theaimhereistoprovideyouwithinformationthatcanmakeyoumoreassuredthatnutritionisnotalimitingfactor
inperformanceandhealthandtoprovideyouwithaframeworkformakingtherightnutritionaldecisions.
Pagexi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ThelongerIstayinacademethemoreIhavecometorealizethatnothingIdoisdonealone,evenifithasonlymynameonit.Ihavemanycolleagueswhoarealways
therewithgoodscience,innovativeideas,solutionstoproblems,andexperiencesthatcomplementmyown.
Dr.DavidMartin,withwhomIcodirecttheLaboratoryforEliteAthletePerformance,hasanencyclopedicknowledgeofdistancerunningandrunners.Our
collaborationhaslinkedDavid'sexperienceandknowledgeofcardiopulmonaryphysiologyandaerobicathleteswithmybackgroundandexperienceinnutritionand
anaerobicathletes.Theresulthasbeenalaboratorythatbringsabroadspectrumofexperienceandinnovationtoeveryathlete,regardlessoftheathleticdiscipline.
Besidesthepositivenatureofworkingcloselywithsomeonewhoisanextraordinaryacademicianandscientist,workingwithDavidhasbeenpurefun.
Dr.WalterThompson,theauthoroftheforwardforthisbook,hasthewonderfulabilitytobringscientistsfromdifferentdisciplinestogether,and,inhiscapacityas
DirectoroftheCenterforSportsMedicine,Science&Technology,hedoesjustthat.Hismultidisciplinarycapabilitiesareillustratedbyhisprofessorialstatusintwo
departments(KinesiologyandHealthandNutrition),andhisinclusiononnumerousnationalcommittees.Ihaveneverheardhimsaynotoagoodidea,regardlessof
thebarrierstogettingitaccomplished.Ifitneededmanpower,equipment,space,orsomeonetoselltheideatoahigherpower,hehasalwaysfoundawaytogetit
done.
Dr.Mildred(Missy)Codyisafoodscientistwithoutrival,andshe'smanagedtocouplethisexpertisewithanunderstandingofelectroniccommunicationsthatis
simplyastounding.Theseskillsareusefultoallofusworkingoninformationdissemination,butMissyisalsoascientist'sscientist.Whenweneedasolid,balanced
viewofthebestprocedurestolearnmoreaboutaproblemourathleteshavebeenexperiencing,Missyhasalwaysbeentherewithatreasureofideas.IfIneedto
brainstormwithsomeone,she'stheoneandshe'sthebest.
Pagexii
Dr.SatyaJonnalagadda,althoughrelativelynewtothefaculty,hasestablishedherselfasapowerfulassetindeterminingthenutritionalneedsoftheathleteswework
with.Ifthere'salimitationinassessmenttimeoranassessmentsettingthatmaynotbeideal,sheknowsthetechniquetousetogettheinformationweneed.What
makesherevenbetteristhateveryonelikestoworkwithher.Havingapleasantworkenvironmentisakeytogettingworkdone,andherpresencemakesgetting
moreworkdoneeasy.
Ihaveothercolleagues,includingMs.MerylSheard,Dr.JeffreyRupp,Dr.AndrewDoyle,Dr.JerryBrandon,andMs.DeborahRuppwho,ontheoccasionswe've
hadtoworktogether,havealwayscontributedmorethantheywereaskedto.Theyhavebeenwonderful,andtheircollegialityhasmademyworkthatmucheasierto
do.Thephysician/scientistsIworkwithontheF.I.G.MedicalCommission,Dr.KostasMarkou,Dr.NeoklisGeorgopoulos,andDr.MichelLeglisehavebeen
extraordinaryintheircommitmenttoyoungathletesandtheenergytheyputintomakingthingsbetterforthem.Ofcourse,Ialsohavehadnumerousgraduatestudents
(toomanytonamehere)whohaveassistedineveryaspectofthelabandwhomakedoingwhatIdopossible.They'vealwaysbeenagreatgroup.
TheathletesIhavehadthepleasureofworkingwitharenotonlyfirstclassathletes(literally!),butthey'realsofirstclasspeople.Bright,energetic,enthusiastic,and
inquisitive,theseathletesarethemotivationbehindwhatIdo.Therearenobetterpeopleontheplanet,andIamthankfulsomanyofthemhaveletmegetaglimpseof
theiruniqueworld.
ThestaffatHumanKineticshasbeenwonderfultoworkwith.Particularly,MartinBarnard,whooriginallyproposedthatIwritethisbook,andCassandraMitchell,
whohasdonesomuchtoguidemealongtheway.
Thereisnoquestionthatmanyoftheideasinthisbookoriginatedfromthesepeople.Theideasmayhavecomewhilehavingadiscussionoveracupofcoffee,froma
questionatadissertationdefense,orwhenlisteningtooneofthemdiscussanissuewithanathlete.OnewayoranotherIknowforcertainthesepeoplewerewithme
everystepofthewaywhenevermyfingerstouchedakeyboardtoworkonthisbook,andIamprofoundlythankful.
Pagexiii
CREDITS
Figures
Figure2.1isreprintedbypermissionfromM.Hargreaves,1996,''Physiologicalbenefitsoffluidandenergyreplacementduringexercise,"Australianjournalof
nutritionanddietetics53(4Suppl):S3S7.
Figure2.2isreprintedbypermissionfromM.Hargreaves,1996,"Physiologicalbenefitsoffluidandenergyreplacementduringexercise,"Australianjournalof
nutritionanddietetics53(4Suppl):S3S7.
Tables
Table1.5isadaptedfromB.W.TobinandJ.L.Beard,1997,Iron.InSportsNutrition,editedbyI.WolinskyandJ.A.Driskell,(BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress),148.
CopyrightLewisPublishers,animprintofCRCPress.
Table2.3isadaptedbypermissionfromH.O'Connor,1996,"Practicalaspectsoffluidreplacement,"Australianjournalofnutritionanddietetics53(4Suppl):
S27S34.
Table3.1isadaptedbypermissionfromJ.H.WilmoreandD.L.Costill,1988,Trainingforsportandactivity:thephysiologicalbasisoftheconditioning
process,3rded.(Champaign,IL:HumanKinetics),appendix.
Table4.1isadaptedfromL.Bucci,1993,Nutrientsasergogenicaidsforsportsandexercise(BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress),11.CopyrightLewisPublishers,an
imprintofCRCPress.
Table5.1isadaptedbypermissionfromB.Saltin,J.Henriksson,E.Nygaard,P.Anderson,andE.Jansson,1977,"Fibertypesandmetabolicpotentialsofskeletal
musclesinsedentarymenandendurancerunners,"Ann.NYAcad.Sci,301:329.
Table5.3isadaptedbypermissionfromM.H.Williams,1993,"Nutritionalsupplementsforstrengthtrainedathletes,"SportsScienceExchange47(6):6.
Table5.4isadaptedbypermissionfromM.H.Williams,1993,"Nutritionalsupplementsforstrengthtrainedathletes,"SportsScienceExchange47(6):6.
Table6.2isadaptedfromR.MurrayandC.A.Horswill,1998,Nutrientrequirementsforcompetitivesports.InNutritioninexerciseandsport,3rded.,editedby
I.Wolinsky(BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress).CopyrightLewisPublishers,animprintofCRCPress.
Table6.4isadaptedbypermissionfromK.FosterPowellandJ.B.Miller,1995,"Internationaltableofglycemicindex,"Americanjournalofclinicalnutrition62:
871S893S.
Pagexiv
Table6.5isadaptedfromR.MurrayandC.A.Horswill,1998,Nutrientrequirementsforcompetitivesports.InNutritioninexerciseandsport,3rded.,editedby
I.Wolinsky(BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress).CopyrightLewisPublishers,animprintofCRCPress.
Table8.1isadaptedbypermissionfromJ.MielcarekandS.Kleiner,1993,Timezonechanges.InSportsnutrition:aguidefortheprofessionalworkingwith
activepeople,D.Benardot,ed.,(Chicago:TheAmericanDieteticAssociation),195196.
Table8.2isadaptedbypermissionfromE.R.BurkeandJ.R.Berning,1996,Trainingnutrition:thedietandnutritionguideforpeakperformance(Carmel,IN:
Cooper),134.
Table9.1isadaptedbypermissionfromD.R.Lamb,1995,"Basicprinciplesforimprovingsportperformance,"SportsScienceExchange55(8):2.
Table10.1isadaptedbypermissionfromF.I.Katch,V.L.Katch,andW.D.McArdle,1993,Introductiontonutrition,exercise,andhealth,4thed.(Philadephia:
Lea&Febiger),179.
Table11.2isadaptedbypermissionfromC.WilliamsandC.W.Nicholas,1998,"Nutritionneedsforteamsport,"SportsScienceExchange11(3):70.
Photos
ClausAndersen240,281
EricBerndt/NewEnglandStock198
GusBower67
BrianDrake/SportsChrome34,224,284
JayForeman/UnicornStockPhotos21
RichardB.Levine171,244
DennisLight/LightPhotographic220
CraigMelivin/SportsChrome234
JohnMora203
VictahSailer105,207,229
RobertSkeoch/ThePictureDesk147
RobTringali/SportsChrome215
TrozzoPhotography117
RonVesely151
AnealS.Vohra/UnicornStockPhotos259
TerryWild129
Page1
PART1
THENUTRITIONTOOLBOX
Page3
1
BalancingEssentialNutrients
SheTookSoManySupplementsThatSheForgottoEat
Shewasyoung.Shewassmart.Shewasstrong.Shewasfast.Shewasgoodlooking.
Shehadbigcompanysupport.Shewastheenvyofthetrackworld.Inspiteofallofthis,
shewasmiserablethatshewasgettingolderandbigger,thatherbreastsandhipswere
larger,andthatshedidn'tsmashanyrecordsatherlastmeet.So,inspiteofherhistory
ofsuccesses,shedidwhatalltoomanyathletesdotogaincontroloverthebiological
clockthatneverstopsticking.Shestarted"dieting."Bythetimeshecamethroughmy
lab,hertimeshadslippedawaywithherweight,andshefoundherselfinadownward
funnelofeatingthatkeptsuckingherlowerandlower.Thefirstthingshesaidwhenshe
walkedintothelabwas,"ThedayIgraduatedfromhighschoolmymetabolism
stopped!"Shehaddecidedthatthebestwaytogaincontroloverheragerelated
biologicalchangeswastoeatless(bigmistake),andtotakesupplementstoobtainthe
nutrientssheneededtostayhealthyandstrong(anotherbigmistake).
Theresultsweredisastrousonmanylevels,mainlybecauseshehadchangedmuchof
whathadmadehersuccessful.Shehadbeenaneater.Sheateallthetime.Sheate
beforehermorningrun,afterhermorningrun,atmidmorning,atnoon,atmidafternoon,
beforeherlateafternoonrun,afterherlateafternoonrun,intheearlyevening,andinthe
lateevening.Shelearnedfromtheverybeginningthatthiswastheverybestwaytoget
theenergyandnutrientssheneededtomeettheneedsofherexplosivepowerand
magnificentendurance.Butshehadforgottenwhathealthwouldn'tsufferbecauseshe
wastaking"supplements."
WhenIaskedherwhatsupplementsshewastaking,shebroughtinagymbagfullof
everythingfromBcomplextoaminoacidpowders.WhenIexplainedthatmostofthese
supplementswereuselesswithoutsufficientenergyintake,sheaskedwhatsupplement
sheshouldtaketogettheenergysheneededforthesupplementstoworkon!Andthen
astunnedlookappearedonherface,asifshehadjustawakenedtowhatshehadbeen
doingtoherself.Itwaslikethesuddenrealizationthatsmokerssometimesgetwhen
they'repuffingonacigaretteandcomplainingofmakingitupthestairs.It'sjustoneof
thosemomentswhentherealityofthesituationhitsyou.Fromthatmomenton,itwas
easytogetthisworldclassrunnertodotherightthingandstarteatingagain,andshe's
happierandmoresuccessfulasaresult.
Page4
Foodisthecarrierofnutrients,andtogetthenutrientsweneed,werequiretherightfoodexposure.Itisthisbasicfactthatisthebasisofthemostelementary
nutritionalprinciple:eatawidevarietyoffoods.Whilethismayappeartobeasimpleandeasytoaccomplishprinciple,mostpeopletendtoconsumethesamefew
foodsoverandoveragain.Thisoccursbecauseofhabit,timelimitations,workconditions,andbasicfooddesiresanddislikes.However,itisclearthatmonotonous
intakesofthistypewilleventuallyleadtosomedegreeofmalnutritionand,fortheathlete,somelossofperformancepotential.Perhapsitisduetothisgeneral
understandingthateatingawidevarietyoffoodsiscriticaltooptimalnutrition,alongwiththerealizationthatdoingthisisdifficult,thatsomanyathletesresortto
nutrientsupplementsandothernutritionalproducts:theyaretryingtodiminishtheirunderlyingfearthattheysimplydon'teatrighttoperformwell.Athletes,thus,
commonlygofrombeingundernourishedfromfoodstobeingovernourishedfromsupplements.Neitherconditionwillhelpthemaccomplishtheirgoals.However,itis
clearthatmanycoachesandathletesdon'tknowhownutrientsworkandhowthehumanbodydealswithnutritionalmistakes.Thischapterwillreviewtheessential
elementsofnutrients,whattheydo,andhowtheywork.
Thegoalhereistodemonstratetheimportanceofnutritionalbalance,becauseitisalltooclearthatnutritionalimbalance(eithertoomuchortoolittle),isamajor
culpritinpoorathleticperformance.Thebestwaytothinkaboutoptimalnutritionalstatusisbyanalogywithsupplyanddemandmicroeconomicstheory.Everycell
hasanutritionalrequirement.Ifyouprovidetoomuch,itmustexpendenergyandefforttogetridoftheexcess.Ifyouprovidetoolittle,thecellmalfunctions.Every
cellhasanutrientdemand,andit'syourjobtosupplywhatitneedsatthetimeitneedsit.
SixClassesofNutrients
Everyonehasheardofvitaminsandmineralsandknowsthatthesearenutrients.Butthesearenotallthenutrients.Therearesixclassesofnutrientsthatincludewater,
vitamins,minerals,proteins,fats,andcarbohydrates.Weareabletoderiveenergy(fuel)fromfoodsthatcontainthreedifferentcompoundscarbohydrates,proteins,
andfats.Wecanalsoderiveenergyfromalcohol,butregularconsumptionofalcoholcreateshavocwithnormalenergymetabolicprocessesandincreasesthe
potentialfordehydration.Whilemanypeopleattributeenergyprovidingpropertiestovitaminsandminerals,they
Page5
arenotasourceofenergy.Theyare,however,neededtoderiveenergyfromcarbohydrates,proteins,andfatsthatareconsumed.Athleteswhodramaticallyreduce
foodintakebutthinktherewon'tbeaproblembecausethey'retakingtheirvitaminsarewrong.Withnoenergysource,vitaminsdon'thavemuchtoworkon.Water,
discussedinchapter2,isanutrientthatliterallytieseverythingtogether.Watercirculatestheothernutrientstothetissueswheretheyareusedandremovestheby
productsofthistissueutilization.Waterisalsoakeyingredientformaintainingbodytemperatureduringhardphysicalactivity.
NutrientBalance
Eachnutrientisequallyessential,andwecan'teliminateanyclassofnutrientfromthefoodsweeatandhopetodowellathletically(muchlesssurviveingoodhealth!).
Criticaltounderstandingnutrientsistheconceptthatnutrientsworktogether,bothwithinnutrientclassesandbetweennutrientclasses.Forinstance,it'simpossibleto
imagineburningfatforenergywithouthavingsomecarbohydratepresentbecause'fatburnsinacarbohydrateflame.'It'salsoimpossibletoimaginehavinghealthyred
bloodcellswithsufficientironintakebutinadequatevitaminB12andfolicacidintake.Havingenoughtotalenergyintake(fromcarbohydrate,protein,andfat)isan
excellentstrategyforoptimizingathleticperformance.However,doingthiswithaninadequatefluidintakewillimpedeyourabilitytoburntheseenergycompoundsby
limitingtheirdeliverytocells,limitingtheremovalofmetabolicbyproductsfromcells,andlimitingyourabilitytocoolyourselffromtheheatcreatedwhenenergy
compoundsareburned.
Ontheotherhand,havingtoomuchofanyonenutrientmaydamagetheopportunityforthenormalnutrientabsorptionandmetabolismofothernutrientsbeing
consumedatanadequatelevel.Forinstance,calciumsupplementsarecommonlytakentohelpensurestrongandhealthybonesthatareresistanttostressfractures(a
commoninjuryinsport)andtoreducetheriskofosteoporosis.However,takingtoomuchcalciumatthesametimeastakingiron,magnesium,andzincmayinhibitthe
absorptionoftheseothernutrients,whichareequallyimportantinmaintaininghealthandathleticperformance.Again,theseareissuesofnutrientbalance.Havingone
nutrientwithouttheothersimplydoesn'twork,andhavingtoomuchofonenutrientmaycausedifficultieswithothernutrients.
Page6
Therefore,whenyoureviewtable1.1andseeasummaryofnutrientsandtheirvariousfunctions,itisdangerousthinkingtobelievethattakingasinglenutrientwill,by
itself,encouragethatfunction.Thinkbalance.
Table1.1NutrientsFunctions
Nutrient
Majorfunctions
Carbohydrate
Energy/muscularfuel(fromstarch,sugars,andglycogen)
Cholesterol/fatcontrol(fromdietaryfiber)
Digestionassistance(fromdietaryfiber)
Nutrient/waterabsorption(fromsugars)
Protein
Energysource(ifcarbohydratesaredepleted)
Deliveryofessentialaminoacids(aminoacidsthebodyneedsbutcan'tmake)
Essentialfordevelopingnewtissue(importantduringgrowthandinjuryrepair)
Essentialformaintainingexistingtissue(helpscontrolnormalwearandtear)
Basicsubstanceinthemanufactureofenzymes,antibodies,andhormones
Fluidbalance(helpscontrolwaterlevelinsideandoutsidecells)
Carrierofsubstancesintheblood(transportsvitamins,minerals,andfatstoand
fromcells)
Fat
Deliveryoffatsolublevitamins(vitaminsA,D,E,andK)
Deliveryofessentialfattyacids(fattyacidsthebodyneedsbutcan'tmake)
Energy/muscularfuel(forlowintensityactivity)
Satietycontrol(helpsmakeyoufeelsatisfiedfromeating)
Substanceinmanyhormones
Vitamins
Tissuefunctionandhealth(vitaminAhelpstheeyeworkcorrectly)
Immunefunction(vitaminsAandCarewellknownforthisfunction)
Energymetabolismcontrol(Bvitamins,inparticular,areinvolvedinhelpingcells
burnenergy)
Nutrientabsorption(vitaminDhelpscalciumandphosphorusgofromthefoodyou
eattoyourbloodstream)
Nervoussystemmaintenace(folicacidandthiaminareimportantinnervesystem
developmentandfunction)
Antioxidants(helpsprotectcellsfromoxidativedamage)
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Nutrient
Majorfunctions
Minerals
Skeletalstrength(calcium,phosphorus,andmagnesiumarekeystostrongbones
fluoridekeepsteethstrongbyprotectingthemfrombacterialacids)
Nervefunction(magnesiumandcalciumarebothinvolvedinnerve
communication)
Controlofthebody'spH(aciditylevel)
Oxygentransport(ironisessentialforgettingoxygentocellsandremovingcarbon
dioxidefromcells)
Controlofthebody'swaterbalance(sodiumandpotassiumplayimportantrolesin
bloodvolumemaintenance)
Energymetabolism(zincisinmanyenzymesinvolvedinderivingenergyfromfuel,
andiodinehelpstocontroltherateatwhichenergyisused)
Water
Thebody'scoolant(helpsmaintainbodytemperaturethroughsweatproduction)
Carrierofnutrientstocells
Removerofwasteproductsfromcells
Importantconstituentofmuscle
Involvedinmanybodyreactions(bothindigestionoffoodandinprocessesinside
cells
NutrientIntakeGuidelines
In1995,dietaryguidelineswereestablishedbytheU.S.DepartmentofAgricultureandtheU.S.DepartmentofHealthandHumanServicestoprovidepeoplewitha
simplesetofrulesforassuringgoodnutritionalhealthandloweringtheriskofhighbloodpressure,diabetes,andheartdisease.Theserulesarealsoexcellentrulesfor
athletestofollow:
Eatavarietyoffoods.
Balancethefoodyoueatwithphysicalactivitytomaintainorimproveyourweight.
Consumeplentyofgrainproducts,vegetables,andfruits.
Keepfat,saturatedfat,andcholesterolinyourdietlow.
Chooseadietmoderateinsugars.
Haveadietthatismoderateinsalt(sodium).
Ifyoudrinkalcohol,dosoonlyinmoderation.
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TheFoodGuidePyramid
Themostrecentofthedietaryguidelines,theFoodGuidePyramid,followsinthefootstepsofpastguidesthatarebasedonpatternsoffoodintake.Oneoftheearly
guides(establishedinthe1960s)thatusedfoodpatternswascalledtheBasicFourFoodGroups,whichrecommendedthatpeopleconsumeacertainnumberof
servingsoffoodsfromthedairygroup,meatgroup,fruitandvegetablegroup,andbreadandcerealgroup.ThisbasicconcepthasevolvedintotheFoodGuide
Pyramid,whichusestheshapeofthepyramid(largeratthebasesmalleratthetop)tocommunicatetheamountoffoodthatshouldbeconsumedfromeachofsix
foodcategories.Thenumberofservingsapersonshouldeatdependsontheamountofenergyorcalories*needed,whichisdependentonaperson'sphysicalactivity,
age,gender,andsize.Theminimumnumberofsuggestedservingsineachfoodgroupyieldsabout1,600caloriesperday,andthemaximumnumberofsuggested
servingsineachfoodgroupprovidesabout2,800caloriesperday.
Bread,cereal,rice,andpasta(6to11servings/day)(Aservingisequivalentto1sliceofbread1/2cupofcookedcereal,rice,orpasta1ounceofreadytoeat
cereal1/2bun,bagel,orEnglishmuffin1smallroll,biscuit,ormuffin3to4smallor2largecrackers.)
Vegetables(3to5servings/day)(Aservingisequivalentto1/2cupofcookedorrawvegetables1cupofleafyrawvegetables1/2cupofcookeddriedbeans,
lentils,andpeasand3/4cupofvegetablejuice.)
Fruits(2to4servings/day)(Aservingisequivalentto1mediumapple,banana,ororange1/2grapefruit1melonwedge3/4cupjuice1/2cupberries1/2cup
diced,cooked,orcannedfruit1/2cupofdriedfruit.)
Milk,yogurt,andcheese(2to3servings/day)(Aservingisequivalentto1cupofmilkoryogurt2ouncesofprocessedcheesefoodor11/2ouncesofcheese.)
Meat,poultry,fish,drybeans,eggs,andnuts(2to3servings/day)(Aservingisequivalentto2to3ouncesoflean,cookedmeat,poultry,orfishforatotalof5to
7ouncesperday1egg,1/2cup
*Innutrition,theterm"calorie"isactuallyakilocalorie(kcal)or1000timestheenergyofthephysicscalorie.Inthisbook,theterm"calorie"isthestandardtermandis
synonymouswithkilocalorieandkcal.
Page9
ofcookedlegumes,or2tablespoonsofpeanutbuttermaybecountedas1ounceofmeat.)
Fats,oils,andsweets(usesparingly)(Highfatfoodsincludebutter,margarine,oils,mayonnaise,saladdressings,sourcream,creamcheese,gravy,andsauces.High
sugarfoodsincludecandy,candyfruitrolls,softdrinks,fruitdrinks,jelly,syrup,desserts,sugar,andhoney.)
TheFoodGuidePyramidmakesnodistinctionbetweenthekindsoffatsbutencouragesalowleveloftotalfatconsumption.Otherrecommendationssuggestalow
fatintakebut,withinthecontextofalowerfatintake,arelativelyhigherlevelofoliveoil.1Thisrecommendationisbasedonthe"Mediterraneandiet,"wherepeople
consumemoreoliveoil(amonounsaturatedfat)thanotherfatsandhavelowerlevelsofchronicdisordersthanarepresentinNorthAmerica.
Thebaseofthepyramid(seefigure1.1),bread,cereals,andpasta,indicatesthatthemajorityofconsumedfoodsshouldcomefromthisgroupofhighcarbohydrate
products.Asyougohigheronthepyramid,thenextcategoriesarefruitsandvegetables,followedbydairyandmeatsorlegumes,andendingwithfats,oils,and
sweets,
Figure1.1
FoodGuidePyramid.
Page10
whichshouldconstitutethesmallestpartofaperson'sfoodintake.Withinthecontextofthedistributionoffoodcategories,peopleareencouragedtovarytheintake
offoodsfromeachcategoryandtoselectfoodswithahighnutrientdensity.Thatis,foreverycalorieconsumed,thereshouldbeahighconcentrationofnutrients.
Sugar,forinstance,providesenergybutisassociatedwithnoothernutrients.Therefore,sugarhasalownutrientdensity.Wholegrainandenrichedbreads,onthe
otherhand,providethesameamountofenergy(4calories/gram)assugar,butalsoprovideBvitamins,minerals,andfiber.
Thisisacleardeparturefromtheearlyfoodguides,whichgavealmostequalimportancetotheconsumptionofdairyproducts,meats,andfruitsandvegetables.The
FoodGuidePyramidappropriatelyplacesagreatdealofemphasisoncarbohydrates,with3to5servingsofvegetables,2to4servingsoffruits,and6to11servings
ofbread,cereal,rice,andpasta.Takentogether,thefoodguidepyramidrecommendsbetween11and20servingsofhighcarbohydratefoodsperday!Themessage
withthepyramidisclear:eatmorecomplexcarbohydrates.Thewordcomplexisimportanthere,becausesugars(alsocarbohydrates)arenotcomplexandare
relegatedtothedistanttopofthepyramid.Athletes(regardlessofwhethertheyareinvolvedinpowersportsorenduranceevents)wouldbehardpressedtofind
bettereatingguidelines.Addsufficientfluidstothismix,andyouhaveavirtuallyperfectfoodintakepatternforathletes.
RDA:AppropriateforAthletes?
TheFoodandNutritionBoardoftheAmericanAcademyofSciencesevaluatesclinical,epidemiological,andcasestudydatatoestablishlevelsofenergyand
nutrientsthatmeettherequirementsformosthealthypeople.Theserecommendedlevelsofintakearereferredtoasthe''RecommendedDietaryAllowances"(RDA).
Wherethereareinadequatedatatomakeagooddecisiononrecommendednutrientintakes,theFoodandNutritionBoardperiodicallypublishes"EstimatedSafeand
AdequateIntakes"(ESADI)and"EstimatedMinimumRequirements"(EMR)forspecificnutrients.Currently,therearepublishedRDAsforenergyproteinand,
vitaminsA,D,E,K,B1,B2,niacin,B6,B12,andfolate.TherearepublishedESADIsforbiotin,pantothenicacid,copper,manganese,fluoride,chromium,and
molybdenum.ThereareEMRsforsodium,potassium,andchloride.
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TheenergyRDAisbasedontheaveragerequirementforhealthypeopleofaverageheight,weight,andactivity.Thelevelofnutrientrequirementestablishedforthe
RDAisbasedontheaveragerequirementforhealthypeopleindifferentagecategories,plustwostandarddeviations.ThepurposeofestablishingthenutrientRDAat
alevelthatisabovetheaveragerequirementistohavealevelofintakethatmeetstherequirementfor98percentofallhealthypeople.Theenergyrequirementisset
attheaveragerequirement(nottwostandarddeviationsabovetheaverageaswiththenutrientRDA)becauseexcessiveintakeofenergyisassociatedwithobesity.
ThewaythenutrientRDAisestablishedisanimportantpointtoconsider,sincetheFoodandNutritionBoardrecognizesthatthereareinherentdifferencesamong
people,andthatthesedifferencesexpressthemselvesintherequirementfornutrients.Therefore,mosthealthypeoplehavenutrientrequirementsthatareconsiderably
lessthantheRDA(i.e.,closetotheaveragerequirementandnottwostandarddeviationsabovetherequirement),andasmallproportionofpeoplehavenutrient
requirementsabovetheRDA.InspiteofthewaytheRDAsareestablished,many(ifnotmost)peopleconsidertheRDAtobeaminimumrequirementforgood
healthandhavingmorethantheRDA(whichisalreadyhigherthanmostpeopleneedtomaintaingoodhealth)isevenbetter.Thismindsetis,ofcourse,thereasonso
manypeopletakenutrientsupplements:theybelievethatmorethanenoughisbetterthanenough.However,itisimportanttoconsiderthatnutrientbalanceandenergy
adequacyarethekeystogoodhealth.Havingtoomuchmaybejustasbadashavingtoolittle.
Fortheathlete,theRDAisanexcellentstartingpointtodeterminenutrientadequacy.Becauseathletestendtoburnmoreenergythantheaverageperson,energy
requirementsarelikelytobehigherthanthoseestablishedintheenergyRDA.Sinceburningmoreenergyrequiresmorenutrients(particularlyBvitamins),and
performanceiscloselytiedtoseveralminerals(ironandzincinparticular),consumingthenutrientRDAofthesenutrientsisagoodidea.Seriousathletesshould
periodicallyhaveabloodtesttodeterminewhethernutrientintakeisadequateandtoseeifconsumingtheRDAlevelisrightforthem.Inparticular,checkingadequate
ironintakestatusbyevaluatinghemoglobin,hematocrit,andferritinisimportantandmayalsobeanindicatoroftheintakeadequacyofothernutrients.
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Carbohydrates
Itisimportanttonotethatcarbohydratesareexpressedinthepluralformbecausetherearedifferenttypes,andthesedifferenttypesaretreateddifferentlybyour
bodies.Forinstance,sugarandbranarebothcarbohydrates,butthey'reondifferentendsoftheenergyspectrum.Sugarentersthebloodstreamquicklyandinitiatesa
fastandhighinsulinresponse,whiletheenergyinbrandoesn'tmakeitintothebloodstreamatallandtendstomediatetheinsulinresponsebyslowingtherateatwhich
otherenergysourcesenterthebloodstream.Becausethesedifferenceswithinsubstancesexist,itisimportanttothinkaboutwhatspecifictypeofcarbohydratesmight
bebestunderdifferentcircumstances.Therefore,whileathletesrelyheavilyoncarbohydratesforfuel,notallcarbohydratefoodsaregoodforalloccasions.
Takentogether,athletesshouldobtainabout65percentoftotalcaloriesfromcarbohydratefoods.Theminimumcarbohydraterequirementforathletesis30calories
ofcarbohydrateperkilogramofbodyweight.Thekeytorememberisthatglucoseisthemainsourceoffuelformuscularactivity,andthehighertheexerciseintensity,
thegreatertherelianceonglucoseasafuel.Whenglucoserunsout,theathletestops.Carbohydrates,ifdigestible,provide4caloriesofenergypergramandare
categorizedaseithersimpleorcomplex.
SimpleCarbohydrates
Simplecarbohydrates,commonlyreferredtoassugars,includethemonosaccharides(literally,singlemonosugarsugars),anddisaccharides(twosugarsugars).
Themajormonosaccharidesareglucose(alsocalleddextrose,orbloodsugar),fructose(alsocalledlevulose),andgalactose.Themajordisaccharidesaresucrose
(tablesugar),lactose(milksugar),andmaltose(grainsugar).Assumingallthedigestiveenzymesareavailableandworking,webreakdownthedisaccharidesinto
theircomponentmonosaccharidesinthedigestiveprocess:
sucrose=glucoseandfructose
lactose=glucoseandgalactose
maltose=glucoseandglucose
Ifyouwishtohaveaquickboosttoyourbloodglucoselevel,consumptionofmaltosemightbeabetteroptionthanlactose,becausethedigestionofmaltosegives
youtworeadytousemole
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culesofglucose,whilelactosedigestionresultsinonemoleculeofglucoseandonemoleculeofgalactose.Thegalactosemustgothroughasecondaryconversion
(whichtakestime)toglucosebeforeitcanbeused.Determiningwhatcarbohydratesourcetoconsumeisnoteasy,sincethereareadditionalissuesrelatedto
solubility,sweetness(palatability),andavailability.Forinstance,maltoseprovidesmoreimmediateglucosethantheotherdisaccharides,buthaslessthanhalfthe
sweetnessofsucrose,limitingitspalatability.Therefore,ratherthanbeingremovedfromsomefoodsforuseasasweetenerassucroseis(sucroseisremovedfrom
sugarbeetsandsugarcaneandsoldastablesugar),maltoseistypicallyfermentedfortheproductionofmaltbeverages,suchasbeer.
Thetypeoffoodconsumedinfluencesthetypeofcarbohydrateavailabletothesystem.Simplecarbohydratesarederivednaturallyfrommanyfoods,includingfruits
(fresh,dried,andfruitjuices)andvegetables.Wealsoobtainsimplecarbohydratesfromprocessedfoods,includingcandiesandsportbeverages.
ComplexCarbohydrates
Complexcarbohydrates(alsocalledpolysaccharides)aresubcategorizedasdigestibleorindigestibleandconsistoflongchainedbranchesofmonosaccharidesheld
togetherbytwomajorbondtypes.Thedigestiblecomplexcarbohydrateshavemonosaccharidesheldtogetherbybondsthatcanbedisruptedbythedigestive
enzymesourbodiesproduce,whiletheindigestiblecomplexcarbohydratesareheldtogetherbybondsthatareimpervioustoourdigestiveenzymes.Boththe
digestibleandindigestiblecomplexcarbohydratesareimportantformaintaininghealthbutshouldclearlybeperceivedasdifferentbytheathlete.Digestiblecomplex
carbohydratesarefoundinstarchyfoods,includingpotatoes,pasta,bread,cereal,andbeans,whileindigestiblecomplexcarbohydratesarefoundinthebranportion
ofcereals,infruits,andinvegetables.Somesportsbeveragesuseglucosepolymers,atypeofartificiallyformedpolysaccharide.Thesearechainsofglucose
moleculesthatareeasilyseparatedinthegut,makingalotofglucosequicklyavailabletotheathlete.Indigestiblecomplexcarbohydrateiscommonlyreferredtoas
fiber.Evenfiberissubcategorizedassolublefiber(pectin,mucilage,andgum)andinsolublefiber(celluloseandhemicellulose).Solublefiberisfoundmainlyinfruits,
vegetables,andinsomegrains(particularlyoats),whileinsolublefiberisfoundmainlyinthebranportionofcerealgrains.
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Oneofthemostimportantfuelsforathletesisacomplexcarbohydratecalledglycogen.Glycogeniscomposedofmanyglucosemolecules(oftenmorethan3,000)
andisthemainstorageformofglucose.Itisfoundintheliver,whereithelpstomaintainnormalbloodglucose,andinmuscle,whereitisusedasasourceoffuelfor
muscularactivity.Anathlete'sabilitytostoreglycogenismediatedbyconditioning,hydrationstate,andtheavailabilityofglucoseandglycogensynthetase,anenzyme
requiredtoformglycogenfromglucose.
Thereareothercomplexcarbohydrates,includingraffinoseandstachyose(foundinlegumes),whicharecalledoligosaccharides.Oligosaccharidesarelargerthan
disaccharidesandsmallerthanpolysaccharides,containingbetween3and10moleculesofmonosaccharides.Theoligosaccharidesfoundinlegumesareeither
indigestibleoronlypartiallydigestible,andarepartiallyresponsibleforthegasproductionassociatedwitheatingbeans.Gutbacteriathatfeedontheseundigested
carbohydratesproducethisgas.Thisisanimportantconsiderationinthetypeofcarbohydrateconsumed,sinceintestinalgasandbloatingmaymakeanathlete
uncomfortableandpreventtheathletefromperformingattheoptimallevel.SeeappendixBforthecarbohydratecontentofcommonlyconsumedfoods.
Proteins
Proteinsareconsideredbymanyathletestobethekeytoathleticsuccess.It'shardtofindpowerathleteswhodon'ttakesomeformofproteinpowdersorprotein
supplements,andmostwhodoswearthatthesuccessestheyhaveare,atleastpartially,attributabletotheproteintheytake.Infact,mostathletesconsumetoomuch
proteinand,indoingso,arereducingtheirathleticpotential.Interestingly,theathleteswhoneedmoreprotein(asapercentoftotalenergyconsumption)arethose
whotypicallyhavelowerproteinintakes.Ithasbeendemonstratedthatenduranceathletesactuallyhaveahigherrequirement(perpoundofbodyweight)thanpower
athletes.2,3Theenduranceathletesactuallyburnasmallamountofproteinaspartoftheirnormalenduranceactivities,whilepowerathletesdonot.However,itisthe
powerathleteswhoaretypicallytheonesconsumingmoreproteinthantheyneed.46Tomakemattersworse,manyoftheseathletesconsumeproteinpowdersor
aminoacidsupplementstoincreasetheirproteinintake.Whenyoucon
Page15
siderthat1ounceofmeatprovidesabout7,000milligramsofaminoacidsandthatthetypicalaminoacidsupplementprovidesbetween500and1,000milligrams,
noneofthismakesanysense.
AminoAcids
Proteinsareuniquesubstancesthatcontainnitrogen,whichispartofthebondingstructureofproteinbuildingblockscalledaminoacids.Theseaminoacidsarethe
unitsthebodyusestocreateproteinbasedsubstances,whichincludemuscle,hormones,andenzymes.Proteinisalsothebasicfibrousstructureoftheskeleton,onto
whichmineralsaredepositedtodevelopstrengthandrigidity.Wecangetaminoacidsfromthefoodsweeatandfromthebreakdownofourownbodytissues
(mainlymuscleandorgantissue).Someaminoacidscanbemanufacturedfromcarbohydrates,fats,andammonia(anitrogencontainingbyproductofprotein
metabolism).Thesearecallednonessentialaminoacidsbecauseitisnotessentialthatweconsumethemfromfood(sincewecanmakethemfromothersubstances.)
Theotheraminoacids,however,cannotbemanufactured,sotheyarecalledessentialaminoacids.Inotherwords,itisessentialthatweconsumethemfromthefoods
weeat.Thebestfoodsourcesforproteinincludemeats(beef,pork,lamb,poultry,fish,etc.),butdriedbeansandpeas(legumes)arealsogoodsourcesofprotein.
(RefertoappendixBfortheproteincontentofcommonlyconsumedfoods.)
Whileproteinderivedfrommeatsyieldsproteinsthathaveadesirablebalanceofaminoacids,plantproteinsandsoybeansmustbeproperlycombinedtoprovidea
desirableaminoacidbalance.Forinstance,combiningbeansandriceorcombiningbeansandcorn(alegumewithacereal)providesacombinationofaminoacids
thatissuperiortoeatingalegumeoracerealbyitself.Combiningfoodstoprovideagoodaminoacidbalanceisreferredtoascombiningcomplementaryproteins.
Thatis,theaminoacidweaknessinonefoodistheaminoacidstrengthofanotherfood.Whenyouputthemtogetheratonemeal,yougetacompleteorbalanced
protein.
Whenweeatfoodscontainingproteins,theproteinsaredigestedintoaminoacids.Theseaminoacidsjoinotheraminoacidsproducedbythebodytoconstitutethe
aminoacidpool.Thebodytakestheaminoacidsfromthispooltosynthesizethespecificproteinsitneeds(muscle,hair,nails,hormones,enzymes,etc.).However,
thisaminoacidpoolisalsoavailableforuseasenergytobeburnedifasufficientamountofotherfuels(carbohydratesandfat)areunavailable.
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DeterminingProteinNeeds
Proteinyieldsapproximately4caloriespergram,whichisthesameenergyconcentrationascarbohydrates.Therecommendedlevelofproteinintakeforthegeneral
populationis12to15percentoftotalcaloriesprovidedasprotein.Therefore,someoneconsuming2,000caloriesperdaywouldhaveaproteinenergyequivalentof
240to300calories(6076grams)ofproteinperday.Therequirementforproteinisalsoexpressedperunitofbodyweight.Lookingatproteinrequirementthisway,
mostpeopledowellwith0.8gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight.Therefore,a75kilogramperson(165pounds)wouldhaveaproteinrequirementof60
gramsperday.Itisgenerallyconsideredthatathleteshaveaslightlyhigherproteinrequirementbecauseofagreaterleanmass(whichrequiresmoreproteintobuild
andmaintain),andbecauseasmallamountofproteinisinevitablyburnedduringphysicalactivity.So,whiletheaverageperson'sproteinrequirementis0.8gramsper
kilogramofbodyweight,theathleterequirementisthoughttobe1.5to2.0gramsperkilogramofbodyweight(approximatelydoublethatofhealthynonathletes).35
Therefore,a75kilogramathletemighthaveaproteinrequirementof120gramsperday.This120gramsofdailyproteinmayseemhigh,butstillrepresentsarelatively
smallproportionoftotaldailycaloriesandiseasilyobtainedbyfollowingtheFoodGuidePyramidrecommendations.Forinstance,120grams 4=480calories
fromprotein.Bycomparison,theminimumrecommendedintakeforcarbohydratesis30caloriesperkilogramofbodyweight,soforthis75kilogramperson,the
carbohydraterequirementrepresents2,250calories.Seetable1.2foranexampleoftheproteincontentofatypical2,000caloriemealplan.Thereareanumberof
reasonsfortheincreasedproteinrequirementinathletes,includingthefollowing:
Aminoacids(fromprotein)contribute5to15percentofthefuelburnedduringexercise.Theamountofproteinusedforenergyrisesasmuscleglycogendecreases.
Itisgenerallythoughtthatenduranceexerciseismoreglycogendepletingthanpowerexercise,soenduranceactivitiesarelikelytocauseahigherproportionateusage
ofprotein.
Exercisemaycausemuscledamage,whichincreasestheproteinrequirementfortissuerepair.
Enduranceexercisemaycauseasmallamountofproteintobelostintheurine(wherethereistypicallynoneorverylittle).
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Table1.2ProteinContentofa2,000CalorieMealPlan
Food
Calories
Protein(gm)
Crackedwheatbread,toasted(2slices)
132
4.37
Orangejuice(1cup)
112
1.74
Strawberryjam(1tablespoon)
55
0.12
Hardboiledegg(1egg)
88
6.29
Roastbeefsandwich(1sandwich,plain)
346
21.5
1cuplowfat(1%)milk
102
8.03
1rawapple
87
0.26
Smalltossedsalad(3/4cup)
27
1.3
Saladdressing(1tbsp)
67
0.09
Chocolatechipcookies(5small)
125
1.43
Gatorade(16ounces)
100
0.00
Chickenbreast(1/2broiled)
152
26.67
Bakedpotato
145
3.06
Broccoli(1/2stalk)
22
2.32
Frenchbread(2slices)
203
6.37
Vanillaicecream(1/2cup)
135
2.4
Totals
2000
93.98
Note:A120poundathletewouldrequireapproximately1.5gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight.
Toconvertpoundstokilograms,dividepoundsby2.2(1202.2=55kg).Thenmultiplykilogramsby1.5
(55 1.5=82.5).Theproteinrequirementforthis120poundathleteis82.5grams.Theproteinprovided
bythis2,000caloriesismorethan10gramsgreaterthantherequirement.
Inspiteoftheincreasedproteinrequirementforathletes,mostathletesconsumemuchmoreprotein(fromfoodalone)thantheyrequire.Alookattheproteincontent
ofsomecommonlyconsumedfoodsdemonstratesthispoint(seeappendixB).
Whilemostathleteshavenodifficultyconsumingsufficientprotein,somegroupsofathletesshouldmonitorproteinintakecarefullybecauseitmaybedifficultforthem
togetenough.Thesegroupsinclude
youngathleteswhohavethecombineddemandsofmuscularworkandgrowth
athleteswhoarerestrictingfoodintakeinanattempttoachieveadesirableweightorbodyprofile
vegetarianathleteswhodonoteatmeat,fish,eggs,ordairyfoods
athleteswhorestrictfoodintakeforreligiousorculturalreasons.
Asmentionedearlier,wecanderiveenergy(calories)fromproteins.However,burningproteinasafuelisabitlikesprinklingyourfamilyjewelsonyourbreakfast
cerealbecauseyouthinkitimprovesthetexture.It'sacompletewasteofresources.Proteinissoimportant
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forbuildingandmaintainingtissuesandformakinghormonesandenzymesthatburningitupasafueliswasteful.Besides,whenyouburnproteinasafuel,thenitrogen
mustberemoved(aprocesscalleddeamination)fromtheaminoacidchainsandexcreted.Whenyouincreasetheexcretionofnitrogenouswastes,youalsomust
increasetheamountofwaterlostintheurine.Thus,twoundesirablethingsoccur:youwastevaluableproteinbyburningitup,andyouincreasetheriskofdehydration
becauseofthevolumeofwaterthatislostwhennitrogenouswastesareexcreted.Inaddition,highproteindietsareshowntocausehighlossesofcalciumintheurine
(aclearproblemforfemaleswhoareatriskforlaterbonedisease).Inaddition,highproteindietstendalsotobehighfatdiets,whichmayincreasetheriskof
cardiovasculardisease.Therefore,thebestwaytomakecertainyourproteinneedsaremetistoconsumeasufficientamountoffoodthatfocusesoncarbohydrates
butalsocontainssmallamountsofdairyandmeatfoods(orplentyoflegumesifyou'reavegetarian).
ProteinandTotalEnergyIntake
Toalargedegree,theutilizationofproteinisafunctionoftheadequacyoftheamountoftotalenergyapersonconsumes.Afailuretoconsumesufficientamountsof
energy(typicalformostathletes)meansthatagooddealoftheproteinconsumedwillbeburnedasanenergysource.Webasicallyhaveanenergyfirstsystem,which
meansthattheremustbeanadequatesupplyofenergy(calories)beforeotherpartsofthesystemwillworkproperly.Therefore,providingproteininanenvironment
ofinadequatetotalenergymeansthattheproteinwillbeburnedasafuelratherthanusedforotherbodybuildingandbodymaintainingpurposes(refertotable1.1
forfunctionsofprotein).
Astandardtenantinnutritionisthatcarbohydrateshaveaproteinsparingeffect.Whatthisreallymeansisthatifyoucansupplysufficientcarbohydratestothesystem
forfuel,thenproteinwillbesparedfrombeingburnedandusedformoreimportantfunctions.
Let'sthinkaboutwhathappenswhenanathleteoverconsumesprotein.Moststudiesindicatethatthemaximalrateofproteinutilizationfornonenergyusesis
approximately1.5gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight.35Whenyouexceedthisamount,yourbodyhastomakesomedecisionsaboutwhattodowiththe
excess.Youcanstoresomeoftheexcessasfat,oryoucanburnsomeoftheexcessasenergy.Ineithercase,nitrogenmustberemovedfromthe
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aminoacids,andthisnitrogenouswastemustberemovedfromthebody.Virtuallyallstudiesthathavelookedatthetotalenergyconsumptionofathletesindicatethat
athletesconsumelesstotalenergythantheyshouldtosupportthecombinedneedsofactivity,growth,andmaintenance.Sinceburningproteincausesalotof
metabolicwaste,itwouldbebettertomeettheenergyrequirementbyprovidingacleanerburningfuelcarbohydrates.
Fats
Despitesomerecentliteratureespousing(wrongly)thebenefitsofhighfatintakes(i.e.,intakesof30percentormoreoftotalcaloriesfromfat),fatisahighly
concentratedfuelthattendstobeoverconsumed.Inaddition,thereislittlescientificinformationthatsuggeststhatmorefatisbetterthanless.Forathletesinparticular,
consuminglessfat(i.e.,lessthan30percentoftotalcalories)isgenerallyassociatedwithbetterperformance,regardlessofthesport.Consumptionoflessfatisnot
easyand,unlessstepsaretakentoprovidetheenergyfromothersubstrates(mainlyfrommorecarbohydrates)thattheeliminatedfatrepresents,athletesmayplace
themselvesinanenergydeficitstatethatis,initself,adetrimenttoperformance.Therefore,whileareductioninfatintakeisgenerallyuseful,aconsciouseffortshould
bemadetoprovideenoughtotalenergywhenareducedfatintakeisconsumed.Sincefatismorethantwiceasconcentratedincaloriesthaneitherproteinor
carbohydrate(9caloriespergramversus4caloriespergram),morethantwiceasmuchfoodneedstobeconsumedtomakeupthedifferenceinreducedfat.Thisfits
preciselywiththegeneralrecommendationsoftheFoodGuidePyramid,whichencouragesaconsumptionofupto20servingsofcarbohydratefoodsperday.
Fatsincludecholesterol,oils,butter,andmargarine.Allofthesearefatsbuttheyhaveslightlydifferentcharacteristics.Ingeneral,fats(ormorespecificallylipids)have
onecommonattributethatmakesthemsolubleinorganicsolventsbutnotsolubleinwater.AnyonewhohastriedtomixItaliandressingknowsthistobetrue.Theoil
inthedressingeventuallyrisestothetop,nomatterhowhardthebottleisshaken.Thetermfatisusuallyappliedtolipidsthataresolidatroomtemperature,andthe
termoilsisappliedtolipidsthatareliquidatroomtemperature.Anexampleofalipidischolesterol.Themostcommonlyconsumedformoflipidistriglyceride,which
ismadefromthreefattyacidsandoneglycerolmolecule(thusthenametriglyceride).
Page20
Despitethesedifferentformsoflipids,weconsumethemallfromthefoodsupply,andwearealsocapableofmakingnearlyallofthembycombiningcarbonunits
fromothersubstances.Nearlyeverycellinthebodyhasthecapabilityofmakingcholesterol,whichiswhyapersoncanhaveahighcholesterollevelevenwhenthey
consumealowcholesteroldiet.Wecanalsomakephospholipids,triglycerides,andoils.Infact,itisthisabilitytoeffectivelymanufacturedifferenttypesoflipidsthat
limitsourrequirementtoconsumelargeamountsoflipids.
EssentialFats
Thisisnottosuggestthatweneednofats.Acertainamountoffat,between20and25percentoftotalconsumedcalories,isnecessarytoassureasufficientenergy
andnutrientintake.Fatsolublevitamins(vitaminsA,D,E,andK)mustbedeliveredinafatpackage.Also,wemustconsumeessentialfattyacidsthatareneededfor
specificbodyfunctionsbutthatweareunabletomanufacture.Weneedacertainamountofdietaryfattogiveusafeelingofsatietyduringthemeal,whichcreatesthe
importantphysiologicalsignalthatitistimetostopeating.Also,dietaryfatsstayinthestomachlongerthancarbohydrates,possiblygivingusafeelingthatwehave
satisfiedoureatingneedsforatimeafterthemeal.Nottomentiontheobviousfactthatfathelpstomakefoodstastegood(isthereanyoneouttherewhodoesn't
honestlylikefriedchickenorFrenchfriedpotatoes?)
FattyAcids
Linoleic(omega6fattyacid)andlinolenic(omega3fattyacid)fattyacidsareconsideredessentialfattyacidsbecausethebodyisincapableofmanufacturingthem.
Theyare,however,easilyobtainedfromvegetableoils(corn,safflower,canola,etc.)andtheoilsofcoldwaterfish.Theomega6classificationmeansthatthesefatty
acids,whicharepolyunsaturated,havethelastdoublebond6carbonsfromtheendofthecarbonchain.
Triglycerides
Mostofthelipidsweconsumeareintheformoftriglycerides,whichcontainthreefattyacidsandaglycerolmolecule.Thisalsohappenstobethemainstorageform
offat,sowhenyouoverconsumefood,thebodystoresthisexcessenergyintheformoftriglycerides.Whenweburnfatasasourceofenergy,thestored
triglyceridesaretakenoutofstorageandthemoleculeiscleavedintoitscomponentfattyacidsandglycerolmolecules.Eachfattyacidcanthenbebroken
Page21
apart(twocarbonunitsatatime)andthrownintothecellularfurnacesthatcreateheatandmuscularwork.Thisprocessisreferredtoasthebetaoxidativemetabolic
pathwaybecauseburningfats,besidesrequiringsomecarbohydrate,alsorequiresalotofoxygen.
Glycerolisauniquefattyacidinthatitisburnedmorelikeacarbohydratethanafat.(Wewilldiscussthisingreaterdetailwhenwelookatenergymetabolismin
chapters5and6.)Glycerolisalsoaneffectivehumectant(itholdswaterwithit),andmanyenduranceathletes(particularlymarathonersandironmenandwomen)
findthataddingsomeglyceroltowaterhelpsthemretainmorewater(i.e.,tosuperhydrate)thaniftheyconsumedwateralone.Refertochapter2onhydrationfor
moredetailedinformation.Iftheydrinkglycerolcontainingwaterbeforeanevent,theycanstoremorewater,sotheirwaterstatusisbetterattheendofaracewhen
mostathletesaresufferingfromsomedegreeofunderhydration.
LipidStructure
You'veprobablyheardthatsomefatsaresaturated,othersareunsaturated,andstillothersaremonounsaturated.Theselabelsrefertothedegreetowhichthecarbon
atoms,whichmakeuptheskeleton
Page22
ofthefattyacids,areheldtogetherbydoubleorsinglechemicalbonds.Singlebondsarestrongerandlesschemicallyreactivethandoublebonds(justtheoppositeof
whattheterminologywouldleadyoutobelieve),sothegreaterthenumberofdoublebonds,thegreatertheopportunityforthechemicalenvironmenttoreactwiththe
fattyacid.Itisthisabilitytoreactwiththefattyacidthatmakesthedifferencewhenitisconsumed.
Saturatedfattyacidshavenodoublebonds:thatis,theyaresaturatedwithsinglebondsandthehydrogenatomsassociatedwiththem.Monounsaturatedfattyacids
(mono=one)haveonedoublebondholdingtogethertwoofitscarbonatoms,andpolyunsaturatedfattyacids(poly=many)havetwoormoredoublebondsholding
togetherfourormoreofitscarbonatoms.Ingeneral,saturatedfattyacidsarecommonlyfoundinhighestconcentrationinfatsofanimalorigin,palmkerneloil,and
coconutoil.Monounsaturatedfatsarehighestinoliveoilandcanolaoil,butarealsopresentinfatsofanimalorigin.Polyunsaturatedfatsarehighestinvegetableoils
(withtheexceptionofoliveoil,whichismorethan75percentmonounsaturated.)Inthecontextofalowfatintake,monounsaturatedfattyacidsandpolyunsaturated
fattyacidsshouldmakeupthemajorityofthefatsconsumed.Toachievethisrequiresareductionintheconsumptionoffoodsthatarehighinsaturatedfattyacids,
includingredmeats,chocolatecandies(whichoftencontainsaturatedtropicaloils),friedfoods,andhighfatdairyproducts.
Mediumchaintriglycerides,ortriglycerideswithfattyacidchainsthatrangefrom6to12carbonatoms,arenotthemostabundantformoftriglyceridesinthediet
(longchaintriglyceridesaremorecommon),butthereissomeearlyevidencethatmediumchaintriglycerides(MCTs)arebeneficialforathletes.MCTsareeasilyand
quicklyoxidizedforenergyandappeartomimictheeffectsofcarbohydratemetabolismratherthanfatmetabolism.Thereisalsosomeevidencethattheyenhancethe
movementoffatsfromstoragetobeburnedasenergy,andtheyalsoincreasetherateatwhichenergyisburned(i.e.,ahigherenergymetabolism).710WhileMCToil
doesnotexistinconcentratedamountsinanyfood(s),MCToilisavailableinmanystoresand,becauseitissaturated,isstableandhasalongshelflife.Forathletes
whomayfinditdifficulttoconsumesufficienttotalenergy,consumptionoftwotothreetablespoonsofMCToilmayprovetobebeneficial.SinceMCToilisburned
differentlythanotherfats,takingthissmallamountofMCToil(twotothreetablespoons)willnotnegativelyimpactontherecommendationforlowfatin
Page23
takes,andmaybeagoodwaytoassurethatathleteswhohavedifficultytakinginenoughcaloriesgetinwhattheyneed.
FishOils
Fishliveroilsthatarehighinomega3acids(calledomega3becausethelastdoublebondis3carbonsfromthelastcarboninthechain)havereceivedmuchattention
recently.Theyhavebeenshowntoreducetheabilityofredbloodcellstocongregate,andthereforetheyreducethechanceforanunwantedbloodclottoform.This
reducestheriskofaheartattack,whichismostcommonlycausedbyaclotformationinoneofthemajorheartarteries.Theoilsfromcoldwaterfishthatappearto
havethebiggestimpactinreducingtheheartdiseasedeathratearecalledeicosapentanoicacid(EPA)anddocosohexanoicacid(DHA).Evenaonceweekly
consumptionofcoldwaterfish(salmon,albacoretuna,Atlanticherring,etc.)issufficienttomakeasignificantreductionintheriskofheartattackandstroke.11Despite
thesefindings,excessiveintake(morethan1supplementdailyorcoldwaterfishconsumeddaily)ofthesefishoilsmaycauseproblems,includinganincreasein
oxidativedamageofcells.Thebestruleofthumbistomakefishconsumptionaregularpartofyourweeklyintake(mealswithfishoncetotwiceweekly),sothat
supplementintakeofomega3fattyacidsisunnecessary.
Someattentionhasbeengiventothepotentialbenefitsofomega3fattyacidsinathleticperformance.AccordingtoBucci,12thesepotentialbenefitsinclude:
Improveddeliveryofoxygenandnutrientstomusclesandothertissuesbecauseofreducedbloodviscosity.
Improvedaerobicmetabolismbecauseofenhanceddeliveryofoxygentocells.
Improvedreleaseofsomatotropin(growthhormone)inresponsetonormalstimuli,suchasexercise,sleep,andhunger,whichmayhaveananaboliceffectand/or
improvepostexerciserecoverytime.
Reductionofinflammationcausedbymuscularfatigueandoverexertion,whichmayimprovepostexerciserecoverytime.
Possiblepreventionoftissuesfrombecominginflamed.
Ingeneral,studiesthathaveevaluatedtheeffectivenessofomega3fattyacidstendtoshowimprovementsinbothstrengthand
Page24
13 15
endurance. Themajorimpactofomega3fattyacidconsumptionappearstobeanenhancementofaerobicmetabolicprocesses,whichisanimportantfactorin
bothathleticperformanceandinanindividual'sabilitytoeffectivelyburnfatasanenergysubstrate.Thisshouldnotsuggestthatanincreaseintotalfatintakeis
desirabletoobtainthesebenefits.Onthecontrary,higherfatintakesaretypicallyassociatedwithreducedathleticperformance.However,athletesshouldconsider
alteringthetypesoffatsconsumedbyincludingperiodicbutregular4to5ounceservings(onceortwiceweekly)ofsalmon,albacoretuna,Atlanticherring,andother
coldwaterfish.
DeterminingFatNeeds
Fromanexercisestandpoint,thereislittlereasontobelievethatincreasingfatconsumptionresultsinimprovingathleticperformance,unlesstheincreaseinfatintakeis
theonlyreasonablemeansfortheathletetoobtaintheenergyneededtomeetneeds.Fortheathletewhoneedsmorethan4,000calorieseachdaytomeetthe
combineddemandsofgrowth,exercise,andmaintenance,moderateincreasesindietaryfatsmaybeneeded.Sincefatisamoreconcentratedformofenergythan
eithercarbohydrateorprotein,moreenergycanbeconsumedinasmallerfoodpackageifthefoodscontainmorefat.Somuchvolumeoffoodneedstobeconsumed
ifanathletetriestorestrictfatcompletely,thatitmaybeimpossibletoscheduleenoughmealsorenoughtimeduringmealstoconsumetheneededenergy,leadingto
aninadequateenergyintake.Table1.3includesasimpleguidetotheamountoffatthatisreasonabletoconsume.
Vitamins
Vitaminsaresubstancesneededbycellstoencouragespecificchemicalreactionsthattakeplaceinthecell.Somevitamins(particularlyBvitamins),areinvolvedin
energyreactionsthatenablecellstoderiveenergyfromcarbohydrate,protein,andfat.Sinceathletesbummoreenergythannonathletes,thesevitaminsareof
particularinteresthere.Othervitaminsareinvolvedinmaintainingmineralbalance.Forinstance,vitaminD(whichwecanderivefrombothsunlightandfood)
encouragesthecellsinaspecificpartofthesmallintestinetoallowmorecalciumandphosphorustobeabsorbedfromfoodintotheblood.
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Table1.3DesirableDistributionofEnergySubstratesforAthletesWithDifferentEnergyNeeds
Totalenergy
requirement
Protein
distribution
Fatdistribution
Explanation
1,6002,200cal
65%
15%
20%
Thislevelofenergyintakeistypicallyseen
inyoungathletesorsmallfemaleathletes
involvedinanaerobicactivities
(gymnastics,skating,etc.).Theyhavea
relativelyhighdemandforcarbohydrates
andalowdemandforfats.
2,2003,000cal
60%
15%
25%
Thislevelofenergyintakeiscommonly
seeninmalesandfemalesinvolvedin
intermediateintensitysports,withbothan
anaerobicandaerobiccomponent
(basketball,soccer,etc.).Theystillhavea
relativelyhighneedforcarbohydrate,but
arebetterabletousefatsforenergy
becauseoftheiraerobictraining.
3,0004,000cal
5560%
15%
2530%
Thislevelofenergyintakeiscommonly
seeninmalesandfemalesinvolvedinlong
distance,predominantlyaerobicsports
(longdistancerunning,biking,ironman,
triathlon,etc.).Theyhaveahighneedfor
carbohydratebutarebetterabletomeet
theirhighenergydemandswithaslight
increaseinfatintake.Theiraerobictraining
improvestheirabilitytousefatsforenergy.
55%
15%
30%
Thislevelofenergyintakeiscommonly
seeninmalefootballplayers(especially
linemen)andsomepowerlifters.Itis
extremelydifficultforthemtoconsume
sufficientenergywithoutsomefatintheir
diet.Becauseofthepredominantly
anaerobicnatureoftheiractivities,
however,fatintakeshouldstillnot
representmorethan30%ofthetotalenergy
consumed.Additionalenergyfromfat
couldbeprovidedinthefromofMCToil.
4,000+cal
Carbohydrate
distribution
Page26
Alcohol
Alcoholprovidesapproximately7caloriespergram,buttoconsideralcoholanenergy
substrateofequalimportancetoproteins,carbohydrates,andfatsisdangerousthinking.
Mostimportantly,regularalcoholconsumptionaltersthenormalmetabolicprocessingof
vitamins,minerals,proteins,carbohydrates,andfatstoadegreethatitmustbeconsidered
atoxicsubstance.Acommonserving12ouncesofbeer,a4ounceglassofwine,orone
ounceofliquoryieldsapproximatelyhalfanounceofalcohol,andthisisequivalentto
approximately14grams(1gram=.035ounce).At7caloriespergram,thisonedrinkhas
thepotentialofprovidingapproximately98caloriesbutmayreducetheabilityto
effectivelyusetheenergyfromthisandotherfoods.
Whilethereisrecentevidenceofareductionincardiovasculardieseaseriskwithalowto
moderate(12drinksperday)consumptionofalcohol,thereisnoevidencethatalcohol
consumptionisusefulinenhancingathleticperformance.Onthecontrary,thenegative
metaboliceffectsofalcoholconsumptionarelonglastingandmayimpairreactiontime,
endurance,coordination,andstrength.16Seriousathletesshouldtrytoavoidregular
consumptioofalcoholicbeverages,particularlyduringseasonalperiodsoftrainingand
competition.
WaterSolubleVitamins
Vitaminsaretypicallyorganizedintofatsolubleandwatersolublecategories.Thefatsolublevitaminsliterallyrequireafatbasedenvironmentinwhichtofunction,
andthewatersolublevitaminsrequireawaterbasedenvironment.Toonedegreeoranother,wehavethecapacitytostoreallvitamins.Thatistosay,ifweatea
mealtwodaysagothathadalargeamountofvitaminC,andhadnovitaminCinthefoodsweconsumedyesterday,wewouldn'texpecttosufferfromsymptomsof
vitaminCdeficiencytoday.ThereasonforthisisthatcellsthatrequirevitaminChaveacapacitytostoreslightlymorethantheyneed.However,inthecaseofwater
solublevitaminssuchasvitaminC,therearenoclearstoragedepotswherelargeamountsofthevitamincanbestored.Fatsolublevitamins,however,dohavealarge
storagecapacity.
Itisthisdifferenceinstoragecapacitythatisresponsibleforthecommonlyrepeatedrecommendationthatwatersolublevitamins
Page27
shouldbeconsumedeverydaybecausetheyarenotstored.Interestingly,itisalsothisdifferenceinstoragecapacitythathasledtothemyththatanyexcessinwater
solublevitaminintakeiswithoutproblems,sincewejustexcretetheexcessintheurine.Whileitistruethatexcessintakeoffatsolublevitamins,especiallyvitaminsD
andA,canproduceseveretoxicity,itisnottruethattakingexcesswatersolublevitaminscreatesnodifficulties.Aprimeexampleofthisistheneurologicalproblem
(peripheralneuropathylossoffeelinginthefingers)createdwithexcessintakeofvitaminB6(500milligramsperdayovertimeisenoughtocreatepermanent
damage).Anotherproblemisthathumansareadaptabletointake.Therefore,themoreyouhave,themoreyoumayneedtogetthesamebiologicaleffect.A
discussionofindividualwatersolublevitaminsfollows.Thetableonpages38and39summarizesthefunctions,sources,andpossibleproblemsassociatedwitheach
vitamin.16a
VitaminBI(Thiamin)
VitaminB1iscommonlyreferredtoasthiaminandispresentinavarietyoffoodsources,includingwholegrains,nuts,legumes(beansanddriedpeas),andpork.It
worksinunisonwithotherBvitaminsinenergymetabolicprocessesthatinvolveconvertingtheenergyinthefoodsweconsumetomuscularenergy.Thiamindoesthis
throughitsinvolvementintheremovalofcarbondioxideinenergyreactionswithitsactivecoenzymecalledthiaminpyrophosphate(TPP)itisparticularlyimportant
inderivingenergyfromcarbohydratefoods.
Adeficiencyofthiaminforathleteshasnotbeenreportedintheliterature,butinpopulationsconsumingalowqualitydietofunenrichedpolishedriceorother
processedandunenrichedgrains,thiamindeficiencyoccurs.Athiamindeficiencydiseasecalledberiberiinvolvesnervoussystemmalfunction(especiallyinthehands
andlegs,aswellasinbalance)andheartfailure.Oneformofberiberialsocauseswaterretention(edema).Aswouldbeexpectedforavitamininvolvedinenergy
reactions,earlydeficiencyischaracterizedbymuscularfatigue,andthisprogressestomuscularweaknessasthedeficiencybecomesmoresevere.Othercommon
symptomsofdeficiencyincludelossofappetite,nausea,constipation,irritability,depression,lossofcoordination,andconfusion.Adeficiencyofthiaminisnotlikelyto
occurinU.S.athletes.However,sincealcoholinhibitsnormalthiaminmetabolism,itispossiblethatthiamindeficiencysymptomsmayoccurinthosewhofrequently
consumealcoholicbeverages.
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MaximizingVitaminIntake
Tomaximizevitaminintakefromyourdiet,trythefollowing:
Eatawidevarietyofcolorfulfruitsandvegetables.
Whenpossibleeatfreshfruitsandvegetables,especiallythoseinseason.
Don'tovercookvegetableslongcookingtimesreducenutrientcontent
Steamormicrowaveyourvegetablesratherthanboilingthemnutrientsseepoutin
boilingwateronlytobepoureddownthedrain.
ItisconceivablethatsomeathletesmayrequiremorethantheRDAforthiamin,sincetherequirementisbasedon0.5milligrams/1,000caloriesconsumed.Athletes
oftenconsumemorethan3,000calories(often5,0006,000calories),makingtheactualthiaminrequirementgreaterthan1.5milligrams/dayfortheseathletes.
However,eveninanathleteconsuming6,000caloriesperday,thethiaminrequirementwouldnotexceed3milligrams/day.Therefore,itappearsreasonableto
suggestanintakeoftwotimestheRDA(3milligrams/day)forathletesconsuminghighlevelsofenergy.Sinceathletescommonlyconsumehighcarbohydratefoods
thatarehighinthiamin,highenergyintakesaretypicallyalsohighthiaminintakes,makingitlikelythatmanyathletesalreadyconsume3milligrams/day.
VitaminB2(Riboflavin)
Riboflavinisinvolvedinenergyproductionandnormalcellularfunctionthroughitscoenzymesflavinadeninedinucleotide(FAD)andflavinmononucleotide
(FMN).Thesecoenzymesaremainlyinvolvedinobtainingenergyfromconsumedcarbohydrates,proteins,andfats.Foodsourcesofriboflavinincludedairyproducts
(e.g.,milk,yogurt,cottagecheese),darkleafygreenvegetables(e.g.,spinach,chard,mustardgreens,broccoli,greenpeppers),wholegrainfoods,andenrichedgrain
foods.
Therearenostudiessuggestingthatathletescommonlysufferfromriboflavindeficiencysymptoms.Also,noapparenttoxicitysymptomsoccurfromtakingmorethan
theRDA.SeveralstudiesthatsuggestthatathletesandthoseinvolvedinregularactivitymayhavehigherrequirementsthantheRDA,whichisbasedon0.6milligrams
per1,000calories.Inaseriesofstudiesperformedon
Page29
17 19
exercisingwomenandwomenseekingtoloseweight,theriboflavinrequirementappearedtorangebetween0.63and1.40milligramsper1,000calories.
Itisnevereasytomakeadeterminationaboutwhatlevelofintakeisrightforathletesbecausetherearesomanyconsiderations.Inthecaseofriboflavin,
understandingtherequirementismademorecomplexbecauseriboflaviniseasilydestroyedbyultravioletlight(thereasonbehindallthosenewopaquemilkbottlesin
thegrocerystore).Therefore,theamountofriboflavininfreshdairyproductsisnotthesameasolderproductsthathavehadmultiplelightexposures.Thismakesit
difficulttounderstandtheactualamountofriboflavinthatiscommonlydeliveredbyfood.Nevertheless,thereissomebeginningevidencethatphysicalactivity
increasestherequirementtoalevelslightlyhigherthan0.5milligramsper1,000calories,butnotmorethan1.5milligramsper1,000calories.1113,20However,even
withthisapparentlyhigherrequirementforathletes,therearenostudiesthatclearlydemonstrateanimprovementinathleticperformancewithintakesgreaterthanthe
RDA.
Page30
Niacin(Niacinamide,NicotinicAcid,Nicotinamide,orVitaminB3)
Niacinisinvolvedinenergyproductionfromcarbohydrate,protein,andfat,glycogensynthesis,andnormalcellularmetabolismthroughitsactivecoenzymes.These
enzymes,nicotinamideadeninedinucleotide(NAD)andnicotinamideadeninedinucleotidephosphate(NADP),areessentialfornormalmusclefunction.While
niacindeficiencyiswelldocumentedinhumanpopulationssufferingfromfamineormonotonousintakesofunenrichedgrainproducts,thereisnoevidenceofniacin
deficiencyinathletes.
Niacinisfoundinmeat,wholeorenrichedgrains,seeds,nuts,andlegumes.Itcanbeproducedbythebodyfromtheaminoacidtryptophan(60milligramsof
tryptophanyields1milligramniacin),whichisfoundinallhighqualityproteinfoods(e.g.,meat,fish,poultry).Giventhebroadspectrumoffoodsthatprovideniacin,it
isrelativelyeasyforpeopletoconsumetheRDArequirementof6.6niacinequivalents(NE)per1,000calories(between13and19milligrams/dayfortheaverage
adult)niacinequivalentsareequalto1milligramofniacinor60milligramsofdietarytryptophanyoucanobtainniacindirectlyorindirectlybyconsumingtheamino
acidtryptophan.NEtakesbothsourcesintoaccount.Whenadeficiencydoesoccur,itresultsinmuscularweakness,lossofappetite,indigestion,andskinrash.Ifa
deficiencybecomesmoresevere,itresultsinthediseasepellagra,whichischaracterizedbyasoretongue,diarrhea,lossofmentalacuity,anddermatitis.Itispossible
toproducetoxicitysymptomsfromexcessiveintakeofniacin.Thesesymptomsincludebecomingredfaced,flushed,andfeelinghot.Itmayalsoresultinatingling
feelingaroundtheneck,face,andfingers.Thesesymptomsappeartobecommoninpatientstakinglargedosesofniacintolowerbloodlipids.
Instudiesevaluatingtheperformanceeffectsofniacinsupplementation,itwasfoundthatendurancewasreducedbecauseexcessniacincausedareductioninfat
metabolism.2123Therefore,therewasagreaterrelianceoncarbohydratefuels(glucoseandglycogen)tosupportactivity.Sincethestorageofcarbohydratefuelsis
limited,athletestakingniacinsupplementsbecamefatiguedearlier.Todate,thereisnoevidencethattherequirementforniacinisincreasedinphysicalactivity.
VitaminB6
VitaminB6referstoseveralcompounds(pyridoxine,pyridoxal,pyridoxamine,pyridoxine5phosphate,pyridoxal5phosphate,and
Page31
pyridoxamine5phosphatepyridoxine)thatdisplaythesamemetabolicactivity.VitaminB6isfoundinhighestquantityinmeats(especiallyliver)andisalsoavailable
inwheatgerm,fish,poultry,legumes,bananas,brownrice,wholegraincereals,andvegetables.Becausethefunctionofthisvitaminiscloselylinkedtoproteinand
aminoacidmetabolism,therequirementsarealsolinkedtoproteinintake(thehighertheproteinintake,thehigherthevitaminB6requirement).Theadultrequirement
isbasedon0.016milligramsofB6pergramofproteinconsumedeachday,24andisadequateforthoseconsumingtypicalproteinintakes.Whenyouconsiderthat
highproteinfoodsarealsotypicallyhighinvitaminB6,thoseconsumingproteinfromfood(regardlessoftheamount)aremostlikelytohaveadequateB6levelsas
well.However,sincemanyathletesconsumeadditionalproteininpurified,supplementalforms(proteinpowders,aminoacidpowders,etc.),itisconceivablethat
someathleteswithhighsupplementalproteinintakeswillhaveaninadequateB6intake.
VitaminB6functionsinreactionsrelatedtoproteinsynthesisbyaidinginthecreationofaminoacidsandproteins,andisalsoinvolvedinproteincatabolismthrough
involvementinreactionsthatbreakdownaminoacidsandproteins.Itisinvolved,therefore,inmanufacturingmuscle,hemoglobin,andotherproteinscriticaltoathletic
performance.ThemajorenzymeofvitaminB6,pyridoxalphosphate(PP),isalsoinvolvedinthebreakdownofmuscleglycogenforenergythroughtheenzyme
glycogenphosphorylase.
AdeficiencyofvitaminB6willleadtosymptomsofperipheralneuritis(lossofnervefunctioninthehands,feet,arms,andlegs),ataxia(lossofbalance),irritability,
depression,andconvulsions.AnexcessintakeofvitaminB6doesleadtotoxicsymptomsthathavebeendocumentedinhumans.Thesesymptomsaresimilarto
thoseseeninB6deficiencyandincludeataxiaandseveresensoryneuropathy(lossofsensationinthefingers).Toxicitysymptomshavebeendocumentedinwomen
takingdoses(that,onaverage,equal119milligrams/day)totreatpremenstrualsyndromeandseveraltypesofmentaldisorders.25,26
ThereisatheoreticalbasisforinvestigatingvitaminB6andathleticperformance.B6isinvolvedinthebreakdownofaminoacidsinmuscleasameansofobtaining
neededenergyandinconvertinglacticacidtoglucoseintheliver.27VitaminB6isalsoinvolvedinthebreakdownofmuscleglycogentoderiveenergy.Other
functionsofvitaminB6thatmayberelatedtoathleticperfor
Page32
manceincludetheformationofserotoninandthesynthesisofcarnitinefromlysine.ThereisevidencethatsomeathletesmaybeatriskforinadequatevitaminB6
status.2830PoorB6statusalsoreducesathleticperformance.31
Becausemanyathletesarealwayslookingforthatextraedge,thereisanunderstandableattractivenesstonaturalsubstancesthatarelegal.VitaminB6issometimes
marketedasoneofthosenatural(andlegal)substancesbecause,besidesitsimportanceinenergymetabolism,itislinkedwiththeproductionofgrowthhormone,
whichcanhelptoincreasemusclemass.32ItappearsasifthecombinedeffectofexerciseandvitaminB6ongrowthhormoneproductionisgreaterthaneitherof
thesefactorsindividually.33,34
Giventheimportanceofthisvitamintoathleticperformance,itiseasytoseewhyathletesmayrushtoobtainmore.However,thesefactorsshouldbeconsidered:35
MostathleteshaveadequatevitaminB6intakesandadequatevitaminB6status.
ThoseathleteswithpoorvitaminB6statusaregenerallythosewithinadequateenergyintakes.
Agreaterproportionoffemaleathletesandathletesparticipatinginsportsthatemphasizelowweights(gymnastics,wrestling,skating,etc.)arelikelytohave
inadequateenergyintakesand,therefore,inadequatevitaminB6intakes.
HighdosesofvitaminB6havebeenshowntohavetoxiceffects.
Thereisnogoodevidencethathavingmorethantherecommendedintakehasabeneficialeffectonathleticperformance.36
VitaminB6supplementationdoesnotappearnecessarytoenhanceathleticperformanceifabalanceddiet,withadequateenergy,isconsumed.37
Takentogether,thesefactorsshouldencourageathletestoconsumeanadequateintakeofenergybeforetheyconsidertakingsupplementsofvitaminB6.
VitaminB12(Cobalamin)
VitaminB12isperhapsthemostchemicallycomplexofallthevitamins.Itcontainsthemineralcobalt(thusthename''cobalamin")andhasamajorinvolvementinred
bloodcellformation,folicacidmetabolism,DNAsynthesis,andnervedevelopment,butitisessentialforthefunctionofallcells.
Page33
Dietarysourcesofthisvitaminaremainlyfoodsofanimalorigin(meats,eggs,dairyproducts),anditisessentiallyabsentfromplantfoods.Theremayalsobesome
verysmallamountofabsorbablevitaminB12thatisproducedbygutbacteria.38Itshouldbeclearfromthisthatvegetarianathleteswhoavoidallfoodsofanimal
origin(i.e.,theydonoteatmeat,nordotheyconsumeeggsordairyproducts)wouldbeatriskforvitaminB12deficiency.
ThediseaseassociatedwithvitaminB12deficiencyisperniciousanemia.Thisformofanemiamostcommonlyoccursintheelderlywhohaveexperiencedareduction
innormalstomachfunction.ThestomachproducesasubstancecalledintrinsicfactorthatisrequiredforvitaminB12togetabsorbed.Withoutintrinsicfactor,a
personcanhaveadiethighinB12butstilldevelopadeficiencybecausenoneofitisabsorbed.Symptomsofdeficiencyincludefatigue,poormuscularcoordination
(possiblyleadingtoparalysis),anddementia.
ThereisalonghistoryofvitaminB12abusebyathletes.Itwas(andcontinuestobe)commonformanyathletestobeinjectedwithlargeamountsofvitaminB12
(often1,000milligrams)beforecompetitions.39,40However,theathleticperformancebenefitsofvitaminB12injectionsandsupplementationhavenotbeen
established.4143
Itcertainlymakessensethatathletesconsumefoodsthatwillavoiddeficienciesofanykind,includingtheavoidanceofB12deficiency.Theresultinganemiawould
clearlyimpactonperformancebyproducingareductioninenduranceand,potentially,aloweringofmuscularcoordination.However,consumptionorinjectionsof
suchlargedosesashavebeenreportedintheliteratureforvitaminB12iswithoutlogicandwithoutprovenbeneficialoutcomes.Unlesssomeonehasagenetic
predispositiontoB12malabsorption(typicallybecauseofaninadequateproductionofintrinsicfactor),thereisnobasisfortakingsupplementsifabalanced
mixedfooddietisconsumed.Purevegetarianathletes,ontheotherhand,haveagoodreasontobeconcernedaboutvitaminB12status.Asupplementthatprovides,
onaverage,thedailyRDA(2micrograms)forthisgroupmakesgoodsense,asdoestheconsumptionoffoodsthatarefortifiedwithvitaminB12(suchassomesoy
milkproducts).
FolicAcid(Folate)
Folicacidiswidespreadinthefoodsupply,butispresentinthehighestconcentrationsinliver,yeast,leafyvegetables,fruits,andlegumes.Itiseasilydestroyed
throughcommonhouseholdfoodpreparationtechniquesandlongstoragetimes,soitismost
Page34
commonlyassociatedwithfreshfoods.Folatefunctionsinaminoacidmetabolismandnucleicacidsynthesis(RNAandDNA),soadeficiencyleadstoalterationsin
proteinsynthesis.44Tissuesthathavearapidturnoverareparticularlysensitivetofolicacid.Thisincludesredandwhitebloodcells,aswellastissuesofthe
gastrointestinaltractandtheuterus.Morerecently,adequatefolateintakeduringpregnancyhasbeenassociatedwiththeeliminationoffetalneuraltubedefects(most
notablyspinabifida).45,46TheaverageU.S.folateintakeexceedstherequirement(ofbetween180and200micrograms/day)bybetween25and50percent,butits
importanceinredcellformationandineliminatingneuraltubedefectshasledtothecommon(andappropriate)supplementationwithfolicacidduringpregnancy.The
recommendedintakeoffolateduringpregnancy(400micrograms)isdoublethatoftheadultrequirement.
Adeficiencyoffolicacidleadstoanemia(itfunctionswithvitaminB12informinghealthynewredbloodcells)gastrointestinalproblems(diarrhea,malabsorption,
pain)andaswollen,redtongue.Toxicityoffolatefromexcessintakehasnotbeenreportedintheliterature.
Page35
Therearenostudiesthathavereportedontherelationshipbetweenfolicacidandathleticperformance.However,giventhatathletesmayhaveahigherthannormal
tissueturnoverbecauseofthepoundingthebodytakesinvarioussports,andtheevidencethatredbloodcellturnoverisfasterinathletesthannonathletes,47,48thereis
goodreasonforathletestobecertainthattheirfolicacidstatusisadequate.Thebestwaytodothisisthroughtheregularconsumptionoffreshfruitsandvegetables.If
thisisnotpossible,adailysupplementattheleveloftherecommendedintake(200milligrams/day)isaneffectivemeansofmaintainingfolatestatus.
Biotin(VitaminH)
Biotinworkswithmagnesiumandadenosinetriphosphate(ATP)toplayaroleincarbondioxidemetabolism,newglucoseproduction(gluconeogenesis),
carbohydratemetabolism,andfattyacidsynthesis.49Foodsourcesofbiotinincludeeggyolk,soyflour,liver,sardines,walnuts,pecans,peanuts,andyeast.Fruitsand
meatsare,however,poordietarysourcesofthevitamin.Biotinisalsosynthesizedbybacteriaintheintestines.Adeficiencyofthisvitaminisrarebutcanbeinduced
throughtheintakeoflargeamountsofraweggwhites,whichcontaintheproteinavidin.Thisproteinbindstobiotinandmakesitunavailableforabsorption.Whena
deficiencyoccurs,symptomsincludelossofappetite,vomiting,depression,anddermatitis.However,sincetherearen'tmanypeoplewhoconsumelargequantitiesof
raweggwhite,deficienciesofthisvitaminarerare.
Thereisnoevidencethatathletesareatriskforbiotindeficiency,andnoinformationontherelationshipbetweenbiotinandathleticperformance.Therefore,no
recommendationonbiotinintakeforathletescanbemade.
PantothenicAcid(VitaminB5)
PantothenicacidisastructuralpartofcoenzymeA(CoA),acompoundofcentralimportanceinenergymetabolicprocesses.Pantothenicacidisinvolved,through
CoA,incarbohydrate,protein,andfatmetabolism.Sincepantothenicacidiswidelydistributedinthefoodsupply,itisunlikelythatanathletewouldsufferfroma
deficiency,particularlyifsufficienttotalenergyisconsumed.Thehighestconcentrationsofpantothenicacidarefoundinmeat,wholegrainfoods,beans,andpeas.Ifa
raredeficiencydoesoccur,symptomsincludeeasyfatigue,weakness,andinsomnia.Supplementaldosesofthevitaminaretypically10milligrams/day(150200
percentoftheRDA)and,atthislevel,havenotbeenshowntoproducetoxiceffects.
Page36
50,51
Studiesonanimalssuggestthatpantothenicacidsupplementationiseffectiveinimprovingtimetoexhaustion. Humanstudiesdonotagreeonthepotentialbenefits
ofpantothenicacidsupplementation.Inonestudyusingadoubleblindprotocol,therewasnodifferenceintimetoexhaustioninconditionedrunnersgiveneithera
pantothenicacidsupplementoraplacebo.52However,inanotherstudythatusedadoubleblindprotocol,therewasadifferenceinlactate(a16.7percentreduction)
andoxygenconsumption(an8.4percentincrease)insubjectsgivenpantothenate(2,000milligrams)versusthosegivenaplacebopriortoridingacycleergometerto
exhaustion.53
Whilethereisapossiblerelationshipbetweenpantothenicacidsupplementationandexerciseperformance,moreinformationisneededbeforeasound
recommendationcanbemadeonpantothenateintakeforathletes.Instudiesthathaveexperimentedwithpantothenicacidsupplementstodeterminearequirement
level,thetypicaldosagehasbeen10milligrams/day.Whenthislevelisprovided,5to7milligrams/dayisexcretedintheurine.54Therefore,itappearsthattaking
supplementsatorabovethislevelisexcessive.
VitaminC(Ascorbicacid,Ascorbate,Dehydroascorbate,LAscorbate)
VitaminCfunctionsasanantioxidantandisalsoinvolvedinreactionsthathelptoformtheconnectivetissueproteincollagen.Freshfruitsandvegetablesarethebest
sourcesofvitaminC.CerealgrainscontainnovitaminC(unlessfortifiedwithvitaminC),andmeatsanddairyproductsarelowinvitaminC.VitaminCiseasily
destroyedbycooking(heat)andexposuretoair(oxygen).Itisalsohighlywatersoluble,whichmeansitiseasilyremovedfromfoodsbywater.ThevitaminC
deficiencydisease,scurvy,iscausedbyalongtermdietarydeficiencyofthevitamin.Foravarietyofreasons(freshfoodavailability,supplementintake,useofvitamin
Casanantioxidantinpackagedfoods),scurvyisalmostnonexistentnow.Toxicityfromhigh,regularsupplementalintakesofthevitaminisrare,butmayincludea
predispositiontodevelopingkidneystonesandareducedtissuesensitivitytothevitamin.Dosesof100to200milligrams/daywillsaturatethebodywithvitaminC,55
yetmanypeopletakesupplementaldosesof1,000to2,000milligrams/day.ThislevelofsupplementalvitaminCintakerepresentsdosesthatare16to33times
higherthantheRDAof60milligrams/day.
ThereareanumberofstudiesthathaveevaluatedtherelationshipbetweenvitaminCintakeandathleticperformance,andtheresultsfromthesestudiesare
inconsistent.PartoftheproblemwithmanyofthestudiesperformedonvitaminCisalackofstandardization
Page37
betweensubjectsandagenerallackofcomparativecontrols.Giventheseresearchdesignflaws,it'seasytounderstandwhythestudyresultsaresoinconsistent.
Nevertheless,accordingtoareviewofstudiesthatusedcontrolsandprovidedvitaminCsupplementsatorbelow500milligrams/day(rememberthattheRDAis60
milligrams),therewasnomeasurablebenefitonathleticperformance.56Onestudynotedthatwhena500milligramdoseofvitaminCwasprovidedshortly(4hours)
beforetesting,therewasasignificantimprovementinstrengthandasignificantreductioninmaximaloxygenconsumption(VC2max)whichisagoodthingbutthere
wasnoimpactonmuscularendurance.57(VO2maxisthemaximumvolumeofoxygenthatthelungscanbringintothesystem.WorkingatalowerlevelofVO2max
meansthepersonisnotworkingashardasmaximalaerobiccapacity.)However,whenparticipantswereprovidedwiththesameamountforsevendays,therewasan
improvementinstrengthbutadecreaseinendurance.Whenthesesamesubjectswereprovidedwith2,000milligramseachdayforsevendays,therewasonlya
loweringofVO2max,butnochangeinenduranceperformance.
TheremaybeabenefitinconsumingaslightlyhigherlevelofvitaminCforathletesinvolvedinconcussivesportswheremusclesorenessoccursorthereisaninjury.
StudiesonanimalsgenerallyindicatethathavingmorevitaminCimprovesthehealingprocessandthatinadequatevitaminCinhibitshealing.58Also,afewrecent
studiesindicatethatmusclesorenessmaybemorerapidlyrelievedwhenconsumingmoderatesupplementaldosesofvitaminCandotherantioxidants.59
Giventheseinconsistentresults,itisdifficulttomakearationalrecommendationonvitaminCandperformance.However,slightlyincreasingvitaminCintakemay
reducemusclesorenessfasterandmayalsoimprovehealing.Thequestionis:Howmuchisjustright?Unfortunately,it'simpossibletoknowtheanswerforeveryone.
Sincestudiesdemonstratethathighdosesmaycauseenduranceproblems,itisimportanttokeepthelevelofintakebelowonethatmaycauseperformancedeficits.In
1993,VictorHerbertreportedonthreedeathsthatwereduetoironoverload.VitaminCisknowntoenhanceironabsorption,andthepeoplewhodiedweretaking
largedailydosesofvitaminC.60Alsoconsiderthatmanyathletesalreadyconsumemorethan250milligramsofvitaminCeachdayfromfoodalonebecauseofthe
highintakeoffreshfruitsandvegetables.Areasonablerecommendationistoconsumeanabundantamountoffreshfruitsandvegetables(wonderfulsourcesof
carbohydratesand
Page38
manyothernutrientsbesidesvitaminC).Ifthat'snotpossible,areasonablestrategyistotrytakingamoderatedailysupplementcontainingtheRDAlevel(60
milligrams).EvensomeoneconsumingalowbutregularintakeoffruitsandvegetablesislikelytoobtainsufficientvitaminC,butthiskindoflowlevelsupplementmay
actasanappropriatesafetybuffer.
WaterSolubleVitamins
Sources
Possibleproblems
VitaminB1
(Thiamin)
Vitamin
Energymetabolism,
nervesystemfunction,
appetite.
Functions
Porkandporkproducts,
enrichedgrains,whole
grains,legumes(dried
beans/peas),andnuts.
Inadequatelevelsmay
leadtodiseasecalled
beriberi,withenlarged
heart,arrhythmias,
confusion,weakness,and
depression.
VitaminB2
(Riboflavin)
Energymetabolism,
vision(especiallyin
brightlight),healthof
skin.
Dairyproducts,meats,
greenleafyvegetables,
andenrichedandwhole
grainproducts.
Inadequatelevelsmay
leadtobrightlight
sensitivity,skinrash
(especiallyaroundthe
cornersofthemouth),and
soretongue.
Niacin
(VitaminB3)
Energymetabolism,
nervesystemfunction,
digestivesystemfuction,
andhealthofskin.
Dairyproducts,meats,
enrichedandwholegrain
products,meat,poultry,
andfish.
Inadequatelevelsmay
leadtodiarrhea,mental
confustion,weakness,and
dermatitis(dryflakyskin).
Excessivelevelsmaylead
toflushedskin,rash,and
hepatitis.
VitaminB6
(Pyridoxine,
pyridoxal,
pyridoxamine)
Proteinmanufacture,fat
metabolism,and
manufactureofniacin
fromtryptophan.
Meats,fish,poultry,
greenleafyvegetables,
andwholegrain
products.
Inadequatelevelsmay
leadtopoortissuerepair,
irritability,convulsions,
anddermatitis.Excessive
levelsmayleadto
neurologicaldisorders,
fatigue,anddepression.
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Page39
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Vitamin
Functions
Sources
PossibleProblems
VitaminB12
(Cobalamin)
Newtissuemanufacture,
especiallyinvolvedin
makingredbloodcells.
Alsoinvolvedinnerve
cellmaintenance.
Meat,fish,poultry,eggs,
anddairyproducts.Small
amountsalsofoundin
soyproducts.
Inadequatelevelmay
leadtoredcellanemia,
soretongue,fatigue,and
confusion.
Folicacid
(Folate)
Newtissuemanufacture, Greenleafyvegetables,
especiallyinvolvedin
legumes(dried
makingredbloodcells.
beans/peas),seeds.
Neededforpropernerve
cellformationoffetuses
(inutero).Alsoneeded
tomaintainahealthy
gastrointestinaltract.
Inadequatelevelmay
leadtoredcellanemia,
gutstress(diarrhea,
constipation,etc.),
fatigue,depression,and
confustion.
Biotin
(VitaminH)
Energymetabolismand
glycogensynthesis.
Availableinmostfoods.
Inadequatelevelmay
leadtoirregularheart
beat,dermatitis,fatigue,
nausea,anddepression.
Pantothenicacid
(VitaminB5)
Energymetabolism
(throughsubstanceof
centralimportance
called"coenzymeA".
Availableinmostfoods.
Inadequatelevelmay
leadtofatigueandGI
distress.
VitaminC
(Ascorbicacid)
Formationofconnective
tissueproteincalled
"collagen",improved
resistancetoinfection,
improvedabsorptionof
vegetablebasediron,
andpowerful
antioxidant.
Freshfruitsand
vegetables(particularly
citrusfruits,strawberries,
andgreenpeppers).
Inadequatelevelmay
leadtoanemia,frequent
illness,musclepain,
bleedinggums,andpoor
woundhealing.
Excessiveintakemay
leadtonausea,
headache,andskin
rashes,anddependence
onhighdoses.
Page40
FatSolubleVitamins
Fatsolublevitaminsaredeliveredinafatsoluteandrepresentoneoftheimportantreasonswhyathletesshouldnotattemptplacingthemselvesonadietthatis
excessivelylowinfat.(Goingbelow10percentoftotalcaloriesfromfatisdangerous,whileathletesdoverywellwhenfatintakeisbetween20and25percentof
totalcalories.)Thereareonly4fatsolublevitaminsvitaminsA,D,E,andKandthesevitaminscanbeeffectivelystoredforlateruse.Thetableonpage44
summarizesthefunctions,sources,andpossibleproblemsassociatedwitheachvitamin.16aTherefore,unlikewatersolublevitaminsthatshouldbeconsumeddailyor
almostdaily,theintakeoffatsolublevitaminsdoesnothavetobeasfrequent.However,thestoragecapacityforthesevitaminsdoeshavelimitations,andprovidinga
levelofthesevitaminsthatexceedsourabilitytostorethemmayquicklyleadtosymptomsoftoxicityand,inextremecases,death.Infact,thetwomostpotentially
toxicsubstancesinhumannutritionarevitaminsAandD.Achievingtoxicleveldosesofthesevitaminsisdifficultifconsumingtheusualfoods,buttoxicdosesmaybe
easilyachievedifsupplementalintakesexceedrecommendeddoses.Ingeneral,thestoragecapabilitieswehaveforthesevitaminseliminatestheneedforsupplemental
intakeinmostcircumstances.
VitaminA(RetinolorBetacarotene)
Theactiveformofthisvitaminiscalledretinol.Weobtaintheactiveformfromfoodsofanimalorigin,includingliver,eggyolks,dairyproductsthathavebeenfortified
withvitaminA(e.g.,vitaminAandDmilk),margarine,andfishoil.Therecommendedlevelofintakerangesbetween800retinolequivalents(RE)forwomenand
1,000REformen.(OneREequalsonemicrogramofretinolorsixmicrogramsofbetacarotene.)Expressedasinternationalunits(IU),therecommendedlevelof
intakeforwomenis2,667IUandformenis3,333IU.VitaminAhasawellestablishedrelationshiptonormalvisionhelpskeepbones,skin,andredbloodcells
healthyandisalsoneededfortheimmunesystemtofunctionnormally.
ThereisnoevidencethattakingextravitaminAaidsathleticperformance.Inastudyperformedinthe1940s,supplementationofvitaminAproducednoimprovement
inendurance.61Inthesamestudy,subjectsprovidedwithadietdeficientinvitaminAnotednodecreaseinperformance,probablybecauseadeficitstateofthe
vitaminwasnotreached.
Page41
Sincethevitaminhasclearlytoxicsideeffectswhentakeninexcess(i.e.,atlevelsconsistentlyhigherthantheRDA),athletesshouldbecautionedagainsttaking
supplementaldosesofthisvitamin.ToxicityofvitaminAmanifestsitselfinseveralways,includingdryskin,headache,irritability,vomiting,bonepain,andvision
problems.ExcessvitaminAintakeduringpregnancyisalsoassociatedwithanincreaseinbirthdefects.
AprecursortovitaminAisbetacarotene.Aprecursorisasubstancethat,undertheproperconditions,isconvertedtotheactiveformofthevitamin.Therefore,
consumingfoodswithbetacaroteneisanindirectwayofobtainingvitaminA.Betacaroteneisfoundinallred,orange,yellow,anddarkgreencoloredfruitsand
vegetables(carrots,sweetpotatoes,spinach,apricots,cantaloupes,tomatoes,etc.).Itisapowerfulantioxidant,protectingcellsfromoxidativedamagethatcouldlead
tocancerand,ofcourse,canbeconvertedtovitaminAasweneedit.
UnlikepreformedvitaminA(retinol),betacarotenedoesnotexhibitthesamecleartoxiceffectsifexcessdosesareconsumed.However,aconsistentlyhighintakeof
carrots,sweetpotatoes,andotherfoodshighinbetacarotenemaycauseapersontodevelopayellowishskintone.Althoughnoothereffectsofthisexcessbeta
carotenestoragehavebeenfound,thiseffectmaymakeyouwonderifsomeonewilleventuallyfindthatexcessconsumptionis,infact,dangerousbecauseitbreaches
theallimportantbalanceruleinnutrition.
Itisconceivablethatbetacarotenemay,asanantioxidant,provetobeeffectiveinreducingpostexercisemusclesorenessandimprovepostexerciserecovery.
However,thisisatheoreticalconnectiononly,sincethereisnostudymakingadirectlinkbetweenbetacaroteneintakeandreducedsorenessandimproved
recovery.Despitethis,theU.S.OlympicCommitteehasrecognizedbetacarotene'spotentialasanantioxidant.61a
VitaminD(Cholecalciferol)
VitaminDisthemostpotentiallytoxicvitamininhumannutrition.Wecanobtainthevitamininaninactiveformfromfoodandsunlightexposure.Ultravioletradiation
(sunlight)exposureoftheskinaltersacholesterolderivative(7dehydrocholesterol)toaninactiveformofvitaminDcalledcholecalciferol.Tobefunctional,this
inactiveformofvitaminDmustbeactivatedbythekidneys.Therefore,kidneydiseasemaybethecauseofvitaminDrelateddisorders.DietarysourcesofvitaminD
includeeggs,vitaminDfortifiedmilk,liver,
Page42
butter,andmargarine.Codliveroil,whichwasoncegivencommonlyasasupplement,isaconcentratedsourceofthevitamin.TheadultRDAforvitaminDis5
micrograms/dayofcholecalciferol,or200internationalunits(IU)ofvitaminD.
VitaminDfunctionstopromotegrowthandmineralizeboneandteethbyincreasingtheabsorptionofcalciumandphosphorus.Adietwithanadequateintakeof
calciumandphosphorus,butwithoutadequatevitaminD,willthusleadtocalciumandphosphorusdeficiency.Thechildhooddeficiencydiseasericketsandtheadult
deficiencydiseaseosteomalaciaarediseasesofcalciumdeficiencythatareduetoeitherinadequatelevelsofvitaminDortheinabilitytoconvertvitaminDtotheactive
(functional)form.However,becausevitaminDissopotentiallytoxic,cautionmustbetakennottoconsumetoomuch.ExcessvitaminDintakemayleadtovomiting,
diarrhea,weightloss,kidneydamage,highbloodcalciumlevels,anddeath.
TherearenostudiesindicatingthatvitaminDsupplementationaidsathleticperformance,andthereisnotheoreticalbasisforperformanceenhancementtooccur.As
vitaminDispotentiallythemostdangerous(possiblydeadly)inexcess,don'tmesswithsupplements.However,vitaminDmayplayanindirectroleininjuryresistance.
Athletesinsomesportsmayhavedramaticallylowersunlightexposurebecausealltrainingtakesplaceinside.Thislowersunlight(i.e.,UV)exposuremayreduce
vitaminDavailabilitytoapointwherebothgrowthandbonedensityareaffected.Lowerbonedensitiesareknowntoplaceathletesathigherriskfordevelopingstress
fractures,6264aninjurythatcanendanathleticcareer.InarecentsurveyofU.S.nationalteamgymnasts,itwasfoundthatthefactormostcloselyrelatedtobone
densitywassunlightexposure.Thosewithhigherdensitieshadthegreatestexposure.65Also,sunlightexposurewasmoreimportantasapredictorofbonedensityin
thisgroupthanvitaminDorcalciumintakefromfood.
VitaminE(Tocopherol)
VitaminEisagenerictermforseveralsubstances(tocopherols)thathavesimilaractivity,andtheunitofmeasureisbasedontheleveloftocopherolwithanactivity
equivalenttothatofalphatocopherol.Forinstance,betatocopherolhasalowerlevelofactivitythanalphatocopherol,somoreofitwouldbenecessarytogetthe
sameeffect.TheadultRDAforvitaminEis8to10milligrams.VitaminEisfound
Page43
ingreenleafyvegetables,vegetableoils,seeds,nuts,liver,andcorn.ItisdifficulttoinduceavitaminEdeficiencyinhumans,anditalsoappearstobearelatively
nontoxicvitamin.
VitaminEisapotentantioxidantthatservestoprotectmembranesfromdestructionbyperoxides.Peroxidesareformedwhenfats(especiallypolyunsaturatedfats)
becomeoxidized(rancid).Theseperoxidesarecalledfreeradicalsbecausetheybouncearoundunpredictablyinsidecells,alteringordestroyingthem.SincevitaminE
isanantioxidant,ithelpstocaptureoxygen,therebylimitingtheoxidationoffatstoprotectcells.
SeveralstudiesonvitaminEandphysicalperformancehavebeenconducted,butnonehasfoundanimprovementineitherstrengthorendurancewithvitaminE
supplementation.6669SeveralstudiesevaluatingwhethervitaminEsupplementationreducedexerciseinducedperoxidedamagehadmixedfindings.Somesuggestthat
aclearreductioninperoxidativedamageoccurs,7071butotherssuggestthatvitaminEhasnobenefit.72ItseemsclearthatmoreinformationonvitaminEisneeded
beforeadefinitiveexerciserelatedbenefitcanbeclaimed.However,thetheoreticalbasisrelatedtoareductioninperoxidativedamagethroughaslightincreasein
additionalvitaminEconsumptionissound.
VitaminK(Phylloquinone)
VitaminKisfoundingreenleafyvegetablesandalso,insmallamounts,incereals,fruits,andmeats.BacteriaintheintestinesalsoproducevitaminK,sotheabsolute
dietaryrequirementisnotknown.Thisvitaminisneededfortheformationofprothrombin,whichisrequiredforbloodtoclot.Itispossibleforpeoplewhoregularly
takeantibioticsthatdestroythebacteriaintheintestinestobeatincreasedriskforvitaminKdeficiency.Adeficiencywouldcauseanincreaseinbleedingand
hemorrhages.VitaminKappearstoberelativelynontoxic,buthighintakesofsyntheticformsmaycausejaundice.TheadultRDAforvitaminKis65to70
micrograms.
TherearenostudiesontherelationshipbetweenvitaminKandathleticperformance.Further,itisdifficulttothinkofatheoreticalframeworkwheresucharelationship
mightexist.Itseemsclearthat,especiallyforathletesinvolvedincontactsports,adequatevitaminKstatusisnecessarytoavoidexcessivebruisingandbleeding.
However,thereisnodocumentedevidencethatathletesareatriskforadeficiency.
Page44
FatSolubleVitamins
Vitamin
Functions
Sources
VitaminA
(Retinolbeta
carotenecanbe
madeintovitamin
A)
Eyesight,healthofskin
andsofttissue
membrances,bone
development,
reproduction,immune
system,Betacaroteneis
apowerfulantioxidant.
VitaminAandDmilk,
fortifiedcheese,creamand
butter,eggs.Beta
caroteneisfoundindark
greenleafyvegetables
andorangeandyellow
pigmentedfruitsand
vegetables.
Inadequatelevelleadsto
eyeproblems,frequenty
infections,poorgrowth,
andredbloodcell
deficiency.Excessmay
leadtonausea,cramping,
poorbonedevelopment,
anddryskin.
VitaminD
(Cholecalciferol)
Absorptionofcalcium
andphosphorus
mineralizationofbones.
Alldairyproducts,dark
greenvegetables,eggs,
andcannedfish.
Inadequatelevelleadsto
musclecramping,poor
skeletalandtooth
development,andpainin
thejoints.Excessmaylead
tonausea,weakness,
headaches,andirritability.
Thisisthemost
potentiallytoxicofthe
vitamins,andexcessive
intakemayleadtodeath.
VitaminE
(Tocopherol)
Powerfulantioxidantthat
protectscellsfrom
oxidativedamage.Also
protectsvitaminAfrom
oxidativedamage.
Oilsofvegetableorigin,
greenvegetables,nuts,
seeds,andwholegrain
foods.
Inadequatelevelleadsto
shortenedredcelllifeand
mayberelatedto
prematureproblemsofthe
eyesrelatedtoaging.
VitaminK
(Phylloquinone)
Involvedinblood
clotting.
Madefrombacteria
residentinthegut,but
smallamountsalso
presentingreen
vegetablesandmilk.
Inadequatelevelmay
preventbloodfrom
clottingproperly,leading
toexcessivebleeding.
Possibleproblems
Page45
Addingtothestrengthandstructureoftheskeleton,keepingitstrongandresistanttofracture.
Maintainingtherelativeacidityoralkalinityofthebloodandtissue.Forathletes,hardphysicalactivityhasthetendencytolowerthepHlevel(i.e.,increasethe
relativeacidity),sohavingahealthysystemtocontrolacidbasebalanceiscriticalforenduranceperformance.
Servingasbridgesforelectricalimpulesthatstimulatemuscularmovement.Sinceallathleticendeavorsrelyonefficientandeffectivemuscularmovementand
coordination,thisfunctioniscriticallyimportant.
MetabolizingcellsPhysicalactivityincreasestherateatwhichfuelisburned.Therefore,theeffectivecontrolofthisfuelburnatthecellularlevelisnecessaryto
athleticendeavors.
Allofthesefunctionsareimportantforathletes.Athleteswithweakbonesareatincreasedriskofstressfracturespoorfluidbuffering(acidbaseimbalance)leadsto
poorendurancepoornerveandmusclefunctionleadstopoorcoordinationandalteredcellmetabolismlimitsacell'sabilitytoobtainandstoreenergy.
Theestablishedrolesofmineralsinthedevelopmentofoptimalphysicalperformanceincludeinvolvementinglycolysis(obtainingenergyfromstoredglucose),lipolysis
(obtainingenergyfromfats),proteolysis(obtainingenergyfromproteins),andinthephosphagensystem(obtainingenergyfromphosphocreatine).73Inorganicmineral
nutrientsarerequiredinthestructuralcompositionofhardandsoftbodytissues.Theyalsoparticipateinsuchprocessesastheactionofenzymesystems,the
contractionofmuscles,nervereactions,andtheclottingofblood.Thesemineralnutrients,allofwhichmustbesuppliedinthediet,areoftwoclasses:themajor
elements(macrominerals)suchascalcium,phosphorus,magnesium,iron,iodine,andpotassiumandtraceelements(microminerals)suchascopper,cobalt,
manganese,fluorine,andzinc.16a
Macrominerals
Thetotalmineralcontentofthebodyisapproximately4percentofbodyweight.Macromineralsarethosemineralsthatarepresentinthebodyinrelativelylarge
amounts(comparedtomicrominerals).Thesearemineralsthatarerequiredatalevelof100mgperdayormore,orthebodycontentofthemineralisgreaterthan5
grams.Macromineralsincludecalcium,phosphorus,magnesium,
Page46
potassium,sodium,chloride,andsulfur.Calciummakesupapproximately1.75percentoftotalbodyweight,phosphorusmakesupapproximately1.10percentof
totalbodyweight,andmagnesiummakesupapproximately0.04percentoftotalbodyweight.
Calcium(ChemicalSymbol=Ca)
Calciumisanimportantmineralforboneandtoothstructure,bloodclotting,andnervetransmission,andhasanadultRDAof800to1,200milligrams.Deficiencies
areassociatedwithskeletalmalformations(asinrickets),increasedskeletalfragility(asinosteoporoticfractureandstressfractures),andbloodpressure
abnormalities.Therearefewreportsoftoxicityfromtakinghighdosesofcalcium,butitisconceivablethatahighandfrequentintakeofcalciumsupplementsmayalter
theacidityofthestomach(makingitmorealkaline),therebyinterferingwithproteindigestion.Sincethereiscompetitiveabsorptionbetweenmanymineralsinthesmall
intestine(calcium,zinc,iron,andmagnesium),itisalsopossiblethathavingahighamountofcalciummayinterferewiththeabsorptionofothermineralsiftheyare
presentinthegutatthesametime.Therefore,takinghighdosecalciumsupplementsatthesametimeyoueatafoodthatcontainsiron,forexample,mayresultinthe
malabsorptionofironandeventuallyleadtoirondeficiencyanemia.
Foodsourcesofcalciumincludedairyproducts(milk,cheese,yogurt),darkgreenvegetables(collards,spinach,chard,mustardgreens,broccoli,greenpeppers),and
driedbeansandpeas(lentils,navybeans,soybeans,andsplitpeas).It'simportanttonotethatcalciumandseveralotherminerals(especiallyiron,magnesium,and
zinc)areeasilyboundtoacompoundfoundindarkgreenvegetablescalledoxalicacidoroxalate.Ifthesemineralsareboundtooxalate,theybecomeunavailablefor
absorption.Therefore,whiledarkgreenvegetablesarepotentiallygoodsourcesofcalciumandseveralotherminerals,thesefoodsdon'tmakethemineralseasily
availabletous.However,itispossibletoimprovethebioavailabilityoftheseoxalateboundmineralsthroughaneasyfoodpreparationtechniquecalledblanching.
Oxalateishighlywatersolublesobydippingthevegetablesforafewsecondsintoboilingwater,agooddealoftheoxalateisremovedbutthemineralsremain.You
canthenpreparethevegetablesasyoulike.Thistechniquedramaticallyimprovesthedeliveryofcalciumfromvegetables,andhasbeenusedbyculturesthat
traditionallyhavenotconsumeddairyproducts(especiallyinAsia)forthousandsofyears.Asasidebenefit,vegetablesthatareblanchedmayalsobemore
acceptablefor
Page47
childrentoeat.Childrenaremoresensitivetobittertastesthanadults(welosesomeofourtastesensitivitiesasweage!),andoxalicacidhasabittertaste.Therefore,
byremovingtheoxalateyoualsoremovesomeofthebittertastethatchildrenfindunacceptable.
Therehavebeennumerousstudieslookingattherelationshipsamongcalciumintake,physicalactivity,andbonedensity.However,therelationshipbetweencalcium
supplementationandphysicalperformancehasnotbeenwellstudied.Infact,whenathletestakecalciumsupplementsitistypicallyforthepurposeofreducingtherisk
offracture(i.e.,improvingbonedensity)andnotforthepurposeofimprovingphysicalperformance.Physicalactivityisknowntoenhancebonedensity,justas
physicalinactivityisknowntolowerbonedensity.However,thedevelopmentandmineralizationofbonearecomplexandinvolveseveralfactorsincludinggrowth
phase(childhoodandadolescenceareassociatedwithfasterbonedevelopment),hormonalstatus(especiallyestrogenforwomen),energyadequacy,vitaminD
availability,andcalciumintake.
Since1993,therehasbeenanincreasedavailabilityofanaccuratebonedensitymeasuringdevicecalledDEXA(DualEnergyXrayAbsorptiometry)thathas
dramaticallyimprovedtheabilitytomeasurebonedensityanddetermineriskoffracture.StudiesthathaveusedDEXAappeartoindicatethatchildrenand
adolescentswhohaveacalciumintakeatorslightlyabovetheRDA(upto1,500milligrams)mayimprovebonedensity.However,therelationshipbetweencalcium
supplementationandbonedensityinadultsislessclear(i.e.,takingcalciumsupplementsbythemselvesdoesnotnecessarilyleadtoagreaterbonedensity).Despite
this,itseemsprudenttomakecertainthatcalciumintakeismaintainedattheRDAlevel,thatadequatephysicalactivityismaintained(notaproblemformostathletes),
andthatthereisanadequateintakeofvitaminD.ArecentsurveyontheUnitedStatesGymnasticsteamindicatedthatsunlightexposurewasmorehighlycorrelated
(andsignificantlyso)tobonemineraldensitythancalciumintake.Eveningymnastswithaninadequatecalciumintake(i.e.,belowtheRDA),havingmoresunlight
exposurewasassociatedwithhigherbonedensities.74
Anotherconcernwithmanyfemaleathletesisamenorrhea(cessationofmenses),becausethisisstronglyassociatedwitheitherpoorbonedevelopment(inyoung
athletes)orbonedemineralization(inolderathletes).Thecausesofamenorrheaarecomplexandincludeinadequateenergyintake,eatingdisorders,lowbodyfat
levels,poorironstatus,psychologicalstress,highcortisollevels,andovertraining.Inotherwords,hardworkingelitefemaleathletesareatrisk.
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Anythingthatmightlowerrisk,suchasmaintainingagoodironstatusandconsumingenoughenergy,isusefulforloweringtheriskofdevelopingamenorrhea.Evenif
anamenorrheicathletehassufficientcalciumintake,thatalonewouldnotsufficetomaintainordevelophealthybonesbecausethelowerlevelofcirculatingestrogen
associatedwithamenorrheawouldinhibitnormalbonedevelopmentormaintenance.
Phosphorus(ChemicalSymbol=P)
Phosphorusispresentinmostfoodsandisespeciallyhighinproteinrichfoods(meat,poultry,fish,anddairyproducts)andcerealgrains.Itcombineswithcalcium
(abouttwopartscalciumforeverypartphosphorus)toproducehealthybonesandteeth.Italsoplaysanimportantroleinenergymetabolism,affectingcarbohydrates,
lipids,andproteins.Theenergyderivedformuscularworkcomes
Page49
largelyfromphosphoruscontainingcompoundscalledadenosinetriphosphate(ATP)andcreatinephosphate(CP).Aswithcalcium,theabsorptionofphosphorus
islargelydependentonvitaminD,andtheadultRDAis800to1,200milligrams/day.
Becausephosphorusissoomnipresentinthefoodsupply,adeficiencyisrare.However,ithasbeenseeninpeopletakingantacidsthatcontainaluminumhydroxide
forlongperiodsoftime.75Thistypeofantacidbindswithphosphorus,makingitunavailableforabsorption.76
Thereisalonghistoryofsupplementingwithphosphoruscontainingsubstancestoimprovephysicalperformance.InWorldWarI,Germanyprovideditssoldierswith
foodsandsupplementshighinphosphoruswiththeaimofimprovingstrengthandendurance.77Thisexperiencewithphosphorussuggeststhatrelativelylargeamounts
arewelltoleratedovertime,butthereisnoevidencethatstrengthandenduranceareactuallyimproved.Theresultsofmorerecentstudiesontheeffectofphosphorus
supplementationaremixed.Astudyonrunners,rowers,andswimmerswhotook2gramsofsodiumdihydrogenphosphateonehourpriortoexerciseallshowed
performanceimprovements,whileonlyhalftheunsupplementedathletesshowedimprovements.78Inanotherstudy,VO2maxwasimprovedonatreadmilltest
followingshorttermphosphorussupplementation.79However,inanotherstudyevaluatingtheeffectofphosphatesupplementationonmuscularpower,therewasno
apparentbenefitfromtakingthephosphate.80Takentogether,themixedresultsofthesestudiesmakeitdifficulttosaywhetherasmallpreexercisesupplementof
phosphoruswillimproveperformance.Clearly,morestudiesareneededbeforeananswertothisquestioncanbeattempted.
Magnesium(ChemicalSymbol=Mg)
Magnesium,whichispresentinmostfoods,isessentialforhumanmetabolismandisimportantformaintainingtheelectricalpotentialinnerveandmusclecells.A
deficiencyinmagnesiumamongmalnourishedpeople,especiallyalcoholics,leadstotremorsandconvulsions.Itisinvolvedinmorethan300reactionsinwhichfoodis
synthesizedtonewproducts,anditisacriticalcomponentintheprocessesthatcreatemuscularenergyfromcarbohydrate,protein,andfat.81TheadultRDAfor
magnesiumis280to350milligramsperday.
Itispossiblethatathletestraininginhotandhumidenvironmentscouldlosealargeamountofmagnesiuminsweat.Werethistooccur,amagnesiumdeficiencycould,
giventheimportanceofmagnesiuminmusclefunctionprocesses,causeathletestounderachieveathletically.Inonestudywheremagnesiumsupplementsweregivento
athletes,
Page50
82
therewasanimprovementinphysicalperformance. ThereissomelimitedevidencethattakingmagnesiumsupplementsattheleveloftheRDA(about350
milligrams/day)mayhaveabeneficialeffectonenduranceandstrengthperformanceinathleteswhohavebloodmagnesiumlevelsatthelowendofthenormal
range.83,84However,withtheexceptionofthesestudies,thereislittleotherresearchevidencethatmagnesiumdeficiencyiscommonamongathletesorthat
supplementationimprovesperformance.Infact,withtheexceptionofathleteswhoareknowntoreducetotalenergyintakeinanattempttomaintainorlowerweight
(wrestlers,gymnasts,skaters,etc.),itappearsasifmostmaleathletesconsumetheRDAormore,andmostfemaleathletesconsumeatleast60percentofthe
magnesiumRDA.85,86
Sodium(ChemicalSymbol=Na)
Sodiumisanessentialmineralcommonlyreferredtoassalt,whichisactuallysodiumchloride.Itisinvolvedinbodywaterbalanceandacidbasebalanceandisthe
majorextracellular(outsidethecell,includingbloodandfluid)mineral.Sodiumispresentinsmallquantitiesinmostnaturalfoodsandisfoundinhighamountsin
processed,canned,cooked,andfastfoods.Whilemostpeoplearecapableofexcretingexcesssodium,somearesensitivetosodium,becausetheydonothavethis
capability.Thisexcessretentionofsodiumcausesedema,whichisanoveraccumulationofextracellularfluidandmaycontributetohighbloodpressure.Ifyouaresalt
sensitive,youcanlimityoursodiumintakebyconcentratingfood
Table1.4UnderstandingFoodLables:Sodium
Term
Definition
Sodiumfree
Lessthan5mgsodiumperstandardserving.
Lowsodium
140mgsodiumorlessperstandardserving.Iftheserving
weighs30gramsorless,140mgsodiumorlessper50gramsof
food.Iftheservingis2tablespoonsorless,140mgsodiumor
lessper50gofthefood.
Verylowsodium
35mgsodiumorlessperstandardserving.Iftheserving
weights30gramsorless,35mgsodiumorlessper50gramsof
food.Iftheservingis2tablespoonsorless,35mgsodiumor
lessper50gofthefood.
Reducedorlesssodium
Aminimumofa25percentlowersodiumcontenthanthefood
itiscomparedto.
Page51
choicesonnatural,wholefoodsandavoidinghighsodiumcomerciallypreparedfoods.Foodlabelsprovideinformationaboutsodiumcontent(seetable1.4).The
FoodandDrugAdministration's(FDA's)dailyreferencevaluesforthesodiumcontentof2,500caloriedietsislessthan2,400milligrams.TheRDAestimateddaily
sodiumrequirementis500milligrams.
Oneofthekeyingredientsofsportsbeveragesissodium,becauseithelpstodrivethedesiretodrink,andbecauseithelpstomaintainbloodvolume.Maintenanceof
bloodvolumeisanimportantfactorinathleticperformance,becauseitisrelatedtotheabilitytodelivernutrientstocells,removemetabolicbyproductsfromcells,
andmaintainthesweatratesothebodydoesn'toverheat.Additionalinformationonsodiumisincludedinchapter2.
Chloride(ChemicalSymbol=Cl)
Chloride,anotherextracellularmineral,isessentialforthemaintenanceoffluidbalance,andisalsoanimportantcomponentofgastricjuices.Virtuallyallthechloride
weconsumeisassociatedwithtablesalt(sodiumchloride),sothereisaparallelbetweensodiumandchlorideintakes.Inaddition,chloridelossesarecloselylinked
tosodiumlosses,soadeficiencyofoneisrelatedtoadeficiencyoftheother.Deficienciestypicallyoccurwithheavysweating,frequentdiarrhea,orfrequent
vomiting.87Infact,sweatlossesarelikelytodepletechlorideandsodiumtoagreaterdegreethanotherminerals(electrolytesincludingpotassiumandmagnesium)that
arelostinsweat.88Sincemostpeopleconsumeexcessiveamountsofsodiumbecauseofaheavytablesaltintake,chlorideintakeistypically6,000milligrams(6
grams),alevelthatiswellabovenormalrequirements.89TheRDAestimatedchloriderequirementis750milligramsperday.Additionalinformationonchlorideis
includedinchapter2.
Potassium(ChemicalSymbol=K)
Potassiumisthemainmineralfoundinsidecells(anintracellularelectrolyte)ataconcentrationthatis30timesgreaterthantheconcentrationofpotassiumfound
outsidecells.Itisinvolvedinwaterbalance,nerveimpulsetransmission,andmuscularcontractions.Dietarydeficiencyisrareandtypicallyonlyoccurswithchronic
diarrheaandvomitingorlaxativeabuse.Individualstakingmedicationsforhighbloodpressureforcethelossofsodium,andinthisprocesspotassiumisalsolost.
Theseindividualsareencouragedtoreplacethislostpotassiumthroughtheintakeofpotassiumsupplementsorfoodshighinpotassium(fruits,vegetables,andmeats).
Thetypicalintakeofpotassiumrangesfrom1,000to11,000
Page52
milligramsperday(111grams/day),withpeopleconsuminglargeamountsoffreshfruitsandvegetableshavingthehighestintakes.Thereisgoodevidencethathigh
levelsofpotassium(around3,500milligrams/day)arebeneficialincontrollinghighbloodpressure.90Toxicity,whichoccurswithintakesofpotassiumthatarearound
18,000milligrams(18grams)mayleadtocardiacarrest.91TheRDAestimateddailypotassiumrequirementis2,000milligrams.
Althoughitiswellestablishedthatpotassiumiscriticaltoheartandskeletalmusclefunction,theamountofpotassiumlostinsweatduringexerciseisrelativelysmall
anddoesnotseriouslyaffectthebody'spotassiumstores.Therefore,sweatrelatedlossesofpotassiumshouldnotseriouslyaffectathleticperformanceinthe
wellnourishedathlete.92Additionalinformationonpotassiumisincludedinchapter2.
Macrominerals
Mineral
Functions
Sources
Cautions
Macrominerals(major)
Calcium
Skeletalstructure,muscle
contractionandrelaxation,
bloodpressure,nerve
fuction,andimmune
system.
Alldairyproducts,tofu,
darkgreenleafyvegetables,
legumes(driedbeansand
peas),andcannedfish(with
ediblebones).
Poorlydevelopedand
deformedskeleton,
increasedskeletal
fragility,andgrowth
stuntinginchildren.
Phosphorus
Presentinthecellwallas Presentinallfoodsof
''phospholipids,"involved animalorigin,andalso
inhighenergybondsof
presentinlegumes.
energymetabolic
processes,andhelpsto
maintainbodypH(acidity
alkalinity).
Deficiencyisonlyseen
inconjunctionwiththe
intakeofcertaindrugs.
Calciumdeficiencymay
occurwithexcessintake
ofphosphorus.
Potassium
Involvedinprotein
synthesis,waterbalance,
pHbalance,nerveimpulse
transmission,andmuscle
contraction.Themost
prevalentintercellular
electrolyte.
Deficiencyisassociated
withweakness,paralysis,
andconfusion,andis
commonlyseenin
conjunctionwith
dehydration.Severe
deficiencymaycause
death.
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Presentinmeats,poultry,
dairyproducts,fruits,
vegetables,grains,and
legumes.Bananasand
orangesaregoodnonmeat
sources.
Page53
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Mineral
Functions
Sources
Cautions
Sulfur
thiamin,andinsulin.
Involvedintheshapeof
someproteins(through
sulferbonding
structures).Detoxifies
certainsubstances.
Presentinallfoodsthat
containprotein(asmost
foodsdo).
Deficiencywouldonly
occurinthepresenceof
severeprotein
deprivation(arare
occurrence),andtoxicity
wouldonlyoccurinthe
presenceofaprotein
excess(adocumented
conditioninanimalsbut
nothumans).
Sodium
ectrolyte,involvedin
fluidbalance,pH
balance,andnerve
impulsetransmission.
Presentinsalt,mostfast
foods,andinmany
preservedfoods.
Thoseindividualswith
sodiumsensitivity
develophypertension
withexcessiveintake.A
deficiencyofsodium
leadstomusclecramping,
lethargy,andanorexia.
Chloride
Involvedindigestive
enzymes(hydrochloric
acidinthestomach).
Presentintablesalt
(sodiumchloride),
processedandpreserved
foods,andfastfoods.
Inadequateintakemay
leadtogrowthretardation
inchildren,cramps,
lethargy,andanorexia.
Magnesium
Involvedinbone
strength,protein
synthesis,muscle
contraction,andnerve
impulsetransmission.
Thesecondmost
prevalentintercellular
electrolyte.
Presentinnuts,legumes,
wholegrains,darkgreen
leafyvegetables,seafood,
andcocoa.
Inadequateintakemay
leadtomuscleweakness,
convulsions,
hallucinations,and
growthfailure.Excess
intake(typicallythrough
frequentintakeof
magnesiumcontaining
antacidsandlaxatives)
mayleadtokidney
problems,confusion,and
poormuscular
coordination.
Page54
Microminerals
Themicrominerals(traceelements)arepresentinextremelysmallamountsbuthaveimportantrolestoplayinhumannutrition.Thesemicromineralsareneeded
inamountslessthan100mgperday,andhavebodycontentsoflessthan5grams.Theyincludeiron,iodine,zinc,copper,fluorine,manganese,molybdenum,
selenium,andchromium.
Iron(ChemicalSymbol=Fe)
Ironisneededtoformtheoxygentransportingcompoundshemoglobin(inblood)andmyoglobin(inmuscle),andisalsofoundinanumberofothercompounds
involvedinnormaltissuefunction.Ironabsorptionislimitedbecausewehavenoeffectivemechanismforexcretinganyexcessitisalsodrivenbytheamountofiron
wehavestored(inferritinandhemosiderin).Thelowerthestoragelevel,thehighertheabsorptionhowever,overallabsorptionratesrarelygoabove10to15percent
oftheironcontentofconsumedfood.Thisvariableabsorptionmechanismisaimedatmaintainingarelativelyconstantlevelofironandavoidinganexcessuptake.In
spiteofthisvariableabsorptionrate,peoplewithmarginalintakesofironareatriskfordevelopingirondeficiencyandeventualanemia.Irondeficiencyanemiais
characterizedbypooroxygencarryingcapacity,aconditionthatisknowntocauseperformancedeficitsinathletes.Irondeficiencyisalsoassociatedwithpoor
immunefunction,shortattentionspan,irritability,andpoorlearningability.IntheUnitedStates,childrenexperiencingfastgrowth,womenofmenstrualage,
vegetarians,andpregnantwomenareatincreasedriskfordevelopingirondeficiencyanemia.Periodsofgrowthandpregnancyareassociatedwithahigher
requirementofironbecauseofafastexpansionofthebloodvolume,andironisanessentialcomponentofredbloodcells.Womenofmenstrualagehavehigher
requirementsbecauseoftheregularblood(andiron)lossesassociatedwiththemenstrualperiod.Forthisreason,womenofchildbearingagehaveahigher
requirementforiron(18milligrams)thanmenofthesameage(10milligrams).Somepeopleareatriskfordevelopingirontoxicitybecausetheyaremissingthe
mechanismsforlimitingabsorption.Youngchildren,inparticular,maybeatriskforirontoxicityiftheyingestsupplementsintendedforadults.WhiletheironRDAfor
childrenissimilartothatforadults(10milligramsperdayforchildrenand10to15milligramsperdayforadults),manyironsupplementsintendedforadultshave
levelsofironthataremorethan300percentoftheRDA.Whereironoverloaddiseaseoccurs,itmaybefatal.
Page55
Ironisavailableinawidevarietyoffoods,includingmeats,eggs,vegetables,andironfortifiedcereals.Milkandotherdairyproductsarepoorsourcesofiron.The
mosteasilyabsorbedformofironis"heme"iron,whichcomesfrommeatsandotherfoodsofanimalorigin.Nonhemeiron,whichisnotaseasilyabsorbedasheme
iron,isfoundinfruits,vegetables,andcereals.However,nonhemeironabsorptionmaybeenhancedbyconsumingfoodshighinvitaminC.Ontheotherhand,non
hemeironabsorptionmaybeinhibitedbyphyticacid(asubstanceassociatedwithbranincerealgrains),antacids,andcalciumphosphate.Ingeneral,redmeatsare
consideredtoprovidethemostabundantandeasilyabsorbablesourceofiron.Itisforthisreasonthatvegetariansareconsideredtobeatincreasedriskforiron
deficiencyanemia.Nevertheless,withproperplanning,theconsumptionofvegetablesandfruitshighiniron,andsoundcookingtechniquesthataidironabsorption,
vegetarianscanobtainsufficientiron.
MaximizingIronIntakeinaVegetarianDiet
Forvegetarianswhowanttoimproveironabsorptionfromfoods,considerthefollowing:
Darkgreenvegetableshaveiron,buttheyalsohaveoxalicacid,whichreducesiron
availability.Toremovetheoxalicacidfromthevegetables,blanchethembyputtingthemina
potofboilingwaterfor5to10seconds.Muchoftheoxalateisremovedbuttheironremains.
Highfibercereals(thosewithahighbrancontent)havelargeamountsofphyticacid,which
bindswithironandreducesironavailability.Switchtowholegraincerealsratherthan
consumingbranaddedcereals.
Ironinvegetablesisinaformthathasalowerrateofabsorptionthanironinmeats.To
improvetherateofabsorption,addvitaminCtothevegetablesbysqueezinglemonororange
juiceonthembeforeeating.
Athleteshavegoodreasontobeconcernedaboutironstatus,sinceoxygencarryingcapacity(viahemoglobininbloodandmyoglobininmuscles)isacriticalfactorin
physicalendurance.Irondeficiencyisoneofthemostcommonnutrientdeficiencies,anditappearsasifathleteshaveaboutthesamerateofirondeficiencyanemiaas
thegeneralpublic.93Theremaybeseveralreasonswhysomeathletessufferfromlowironlevels.Theseinclude:
Page56
Lowdietaryintakeofiron.Itispossiblethatsomeathletesmayconsumefoodswithaninadequatetotalintakeofiron.Thismaybeespeciallytruewithathletes
whoarelimitingtotalenergyintakeasameans(albeitineffective)ofmaintainingorreducingweight.
Consumptionoffoodswithlowironabsorptionrates.Manyathletesconsumelargeamountsofcarbohydratesandarelimitingtheintakeofredmeat.Whileiron
existsinnonmeatsources,theabsorptionrateofironinthesefoodsistypicallyless,aswellasthetotalironcontent.
Increasedironlosses(hematuria).Someformsofexercise,particularlylongdistancerunningandconcussivesports,causesmallamountsofhemoglobinand/or
myoglobintobelostintheurineduetoarupturingofredbloodcells.
Lossofironinsweat.Whileironlossesinsweatarelow(about0.3to0.4milligramsperliterofsweat),atypicalabsorptionrateofironfromfood(about10
percent)wouldrequirethat3to4milligramsofdietaryironbeconsumedforeachliterofsweatproduced.94Runnerscommonlylose,particularlyinhotandhumid
environments,upto2litersofsweatperhour.
"Sportsanemia".Itiscommonformanyathletestoappearasiftheyareanemicatthebeginningoftrainingseasonbecausethereisalargeincreaseinbloodvolume
attheinitiationoftraining.Thisincreaseinbloodvolumehastheeffectofdilutingtheconstituentsoftheblood,includingredbloodcells,makingitappearasthough
thereisananemia.However,afterashorttime,thebodyincreasestheproductionofredbloodcellstoremovetheappearanceofanemia.
Therearedifferencesinhowanathletemightrespondinthepresenceoffrankanemia(reductioninthenumberandsizeofredbloodcells)versusirondeficiency(low
serumironandlowstorediron,butnormalredbloodcells)anemia.ThesedifferenceshavebeensummarizedbyWolinskyandDriskellinthetablethatfollows(see
table1.5).95
Whileirondeficientathletesareknowntoexperienceaperformancedeficit,thereappearstobenobenefitinprovidingironsupplementstoathleteswhohavea
normalironstatus.96Further,ironsupplementationisoftenassociatedwithnausea,constipation,andstomachirritation.However,inathleteswhohavehadbloodtests
thatdemonstrateeitherananemiaoramarginallevelofstorediron,ironsupplementationiswarranted.Thebestmeansofprovidingironsupplementstoreducethe
chanceofpotentialnegativesideeffectsistoprovide25to50milligramseverythirdorfourthdayratherthandailydoses.97
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Table1.5TheImpactofAnemiaandIronDeficiencyonExercisePerformance
Anemia
Irondeficiency
Loweroxygendeliverytocells
Higherrateofglucoseoxidation
Decreasedoxygenuptake(lowerVO2max)
Higherlacticacidproduction
Lowerenduranceperformance
Higherrespiratoryquotient(higherproportionof
carbohydrateconsumedtomeetenergyneeds)
Loweroxidativemetabolism
Decreasedenduranceperformancepossible
Higherglucoseoxidation
Higherlacticacidproduction
Increasedrespiratoryquotient(higherproportionof
carbohydrateconsumedtomeetenergyneeds)
AdaptedfromTobinandBeard1997.
Zinc(ChemicalSymbol=Zn)
Zincisalsoimportantinformingenzymes.Zincisamineralthathelpstoformcertainenzymes,atypeofprotein.Enzymeshelpchemicalreactionssuchasthehealing
ofwoundsoccurataproperrate.Zinccontainingenzymesareinvolvedinthemetabolismofcarbohydrates,fats,andproteins.Insufficientdietaryintakeofzinc
causesavarietyofhealthproblems,includingstuntedgrowth,slowwoundhealing,andfailureoftheimmunesystem.Zincalsoplaysanimportantroleintheremoval
ofcarbondioxidefromcells,andispartofanimportantantioxidantenzymecalledsuperoxidedismutase.Excessiveintakecancauseanemia,vomiting,andimmune
systemfailure.Meat,liver,eggs,andseafoodaregoodsourcesofzinc.TheadultRDAforzincis12to15milligramsperday.
Zinclevelsatthelowerendofthenormalrange,orlower,havebeenobservedinmaleandfemaleendurancerunners.Athleteswithlowerserumzincvalueshadlower
trainingmileage(i.e.,couldprobablynottrainashard)thanthosewhohadhighervalues.98100Therefore,thereappearstobeaperformancedeficitinthesmall
numberofathleteswhohavepoorzincstatus.Theeffectofzincsupplementationonperformancehasnotbeenextensivelystudied,andthelevelofsupplementationin
thesestudieshasbeenextremely
Page58
high(around135milligrams/day).Also,theathletestestedwereneverassessedforzincstatuspriortotheinitiationoftheresearchprotocol.Nevertheless,thislevelof
intakedidleadtoanimprovementinbothmuscularstrengthandendurance.101Athletesshouldbecautionedthatthislevelofzincintakehasneverbeentestedover
time,soitmaywellhavenegativesideeffects.Toxicityandmalabsorptionofothernutrientsarebothlikelyandpossiblewiththislevelofintake.102104
Iodine(ChemicalSymbol=I)
Iodineisneededtosynthesizeakeyhormoneofthethyroidgland,thyroxin,whichisinvolvedinregulatingmetabolicrate,growth,anddevelopment.Adeficiencyof
iodineleadstogoiter,aswellingofthethyroidglandinthefrontoftheneck.GoiterwasoncecommonintheUnitedStatesbecausecertainareashavefoodsgrownin
soilswithalowiodinecontent.ItremainsaprevalentnutritionaldeficiencydiseaseincertainpartsofAsia,Africa,andSouthAmerica.Pregnantwomenwithlow
iodineintakesgivebirthtocretinousormentallyretardedinfants.IntheUnitedStates,anearlypublichealthmeasuretoassurethateveryonehadanadequateintake
ofiodinewastoaddiodinetosalt.Thisiodizedsalteliminatedgoiterinthiscountry.Anexcessiveintakeofiodinehastheeffectofdepressingthyroidactivity,so
takingadditionalsupplementaldosesofiodineisnotrecommended.
Selenium(ChemicalSymbol=Se)
Seleniumisanimportantmineralantioxidantinhumannutrition.Sinceexercise(particularlyenduranceexercise)isassociatedwithanincreasedproductionof
potentiallydamagingoxidativebyproducts(peroxidesandfreeradicals)inmusclefibers,itispossiblethatseleniummayplayaroleinreducingmuscularoxidative
stress.105Aseleniumdeficiencymayresultinmuscleweaknessandincreaserecoverytimefromexhaustiveexercise.106Thereislittleevidence,however,that
increasingtheintakeofsupplementalseleniumincreasesexerciseperformance.107TheadultRDAforseleniumis55to70micrograms.Itisdifficulttodetermine
dietaryadequacy,sincetheseleniumcontentoffoodisdeterminedbysoilandwaterwherethefoodwasgrown.Nutritionalsupplements,includingsodiumselenite
andhighseleniumyeast,areeffectivesourcesofselenium,butexcessiveintakemaybetoxic,sopropercareintakingappropriatelevelsofsupplementsisimportant.
Page59
Copper(ChemicalSymbol=Cu)
Amongthemoreimportanttraceelementsiscopper,whichispresentinmanyenzymesandincoppercontainingproteinsfoundintheblood,brain,andliver.Copper
deficiencyisassociatedwiththefailuretouseironintheformationofhemoglobinandmyoglobin.Itisalsoimportantinpreventingoxidativedamagetocellsthrough
theenzymesuperoxidedismutase.TheadultRDAforcopperis1.5to3.0milligramsperday.Goodsourcesofcopperincludeshellfish,soybeanproducts,legumes,
nuts,seeds,liver,andpotatoes.Asanothergoodexampleofwhynutritionalbalanceisimportant,excessiveconsumptionofcalcium,phosphate,iron,zinc,andvitamin
Callreducecopperabsorption.
Veryfewstudieshavebeenperformedontherelationshipbetweencopperandathleticperformance.Studiesofbloodcopperconcentrationsinathletesand
nonathleteshavenotrevealedanysignificantdifferences,buttheathleteshaveaslightlyhigher(34percent)concentrationofserumcopperthannonathletes.108Ina
studyevaluatingthecopperstatusofswimmersduringacompetitiveseasontherewasnodifferenceinpreandpostseasoncopperstatus.Inthisstudy,themajority
ofswimmerswereconsumingadequatelevelsofcopper(morethan1milligramperday)fromfood.109
Manganese(ChemicalSymbol=Mn)
Manganeseisatracemineralthatisinvolvedinboneformation,immunefunction,antioxidantactivity,andcarbohydratemetabolism.110Whilemanganesedeficiencyis
rare,deficienciesareassociatedwithskeletalproblems(undermineralizedboneandincreasedriskoffracture)andpoorwoundhealing.Itappearsthatthoseat
greatestriskfordeficiencyarethoseondiets(inadequateintake)orwheremalabsorptionoccurs.Manganeseisincompetitionwithcalcium,iron,andzincfor
absorption,soanexcessintakeoftheseothermineralsmaydecreasemanganeseabsorptionandleadtodeficiencysymptoms.Muchlikeiron,manganeseabsorption
isenhancedwithvitaminCandmeatintake.Foodsourcesofmanganeseincludecoffee,tea,chocolate,wholewheat,nuts,seeds,soybeans,driedbeans(navybeans,
lentils,splitpeas,etc.),liver,andfruits.Aswithseveralotherminerals,theintakeoffoodshighinoxalicacid(presentindarkgreenleafyvegetables)mayinhibit
manganeseabsorption.(Seecalciumsectionforwaysofreducingtheoxalicacidcontentoffoods.)TheadultRDIformanganeseis2
Page60
milligrams.(RDI=recommendeddietaryintakeusedbytheNRC(NationalResearchCouncil)whenthereisinsufficientdatatodevelopanRDA.Formany
micromineralsthereisonlyanRDIbecausetherehasbeenlimitedresearchonhumanrequirements.)Foodsourcesincludetea,coffee,chocolate,soybeanproducts,
legumes,wholegrains,liver,andfruits.Aswithcopper,excessiveintakesofcalcium,phosphorus,iron,zinc,fiber,andoxalicacidalldecreasemanganeseabsorption.
Chromium(ChemicalSymbol=Cr)
Chromiumisalsoknownasglucosetolerancefactor(GTF)becauseofitsinvolvementinhelpingcellsuseglucose.Adeficiencyofchromiumisknowntobe
associatedwithpoorbloodglucosemaintenance(eitherhypoorhyperglycemia),anexcessiveproductionofinsulin(hyperinsulinemia),excessivefatigue,anda
cravingforsweetfoods.(Hypoglycemiaislowbloodsugarhyperglycemiaishighbloodsugar).Itisalsoassociatedwithirritability(acommonconditionwithpoor
bloodglucosecontrol),weightgain,adultonsetdiabetes,andincreasedriskofcardiovasculardisease.111Thereissomeevidencethatfrequentintenseexercise,which
iscommonforseriousathletes,mayplaceapersonatriskofchromiumdeficiency.Highconsumptionofsimplesugars(sweets)mayalsoplacepeopleatriskfor
deficiency.Itappears,fromanumberofsurveys,thatalargeproportionoftheU.S.populationconsumesinadequatelevelsofchromium,afactorthatmaybe
associatedwiththeexcessweightcommonlyfoundingreaternumbersofthepopulation.Thebestfoodsourcesofchromiumincludewholegrainsandmeats.
Nutritionalsupplements,commonlyintheformofchromiumpicolinate,aretakenasameansofreducingweightorbodyfat,buttheresultsofstudiesonthis
supplementhaveproducedmixedresults.Initialstudiesofchromiumpicolinatesupplementationsuggestedthatthissupplementwaseffectiveatincreasingmusclemass
anddecreasingbodyfatinbodybuildersandfootballplayers.112However,subsequentcontrolledstudieshavefailedtoreachthesameconclusions.113,114Other
supplementsforchromiumincludechromiumpolynicotinate,chromiumchloride,andhighchromiumyeast.TheadultRDIforchromiumis120microgramsperday.
Dietarysourcesincludewholegrainbreadsandcereals,meats,andhighchromiumyeast.
Becausechromiumisnotwellabsorbed,thereislittleevidencetosuggestthatanexcessiveintakeofchromiumwillresultintoxicity.
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However,thetoxicityofchromiumhasnotbeendirectlytested,soathletesshouldbecautiousabouttakingsupplements.Onestudysuggeststhatchromiumpicolinate
hasthepotentialofalteringDNA,andthusproducingmutated,cancerouscells.115Takentogether,thesestudiessuggestthattomaintainoptimalchromiumnutriture,
athletesshouldconsumefoodslowinsugarandadietthatcontainswholegrainsand,ifnotavegetarian,somemeat.Supplementationhasnotbeenshowntoaid
athleticperformance.
Microminerals
Mineral
Functions
Sources
Cautions
Iron
Partofhemoglobin,
involvedinoxygenand
carbondioxidetransferin
theblood.Makesoxygen
availabletomusclesfor
aerobicactivity.
Foundinredmeats,dark
poultry,fish,eggs,
legumes,anddriedfruits.
(Absorptionofplant
basedironisenhanced
withvitaminC.)
Inadequateintakeleadsto
irondeficiencyanemia,
whichresultsineasy
fatigue,increased
infectionrisk,poor
concentration,andlower
learningability.
Copper
Involvedintransferring
ironfromstoragetoits
functionalform
(hemoglobin).Alsopart
ofseveralenzymes.
Foundinmeatandmost
drinkingwater.
Inadequateintake
contributestoiron
deficiencyanemia.
Iodine
Animportantcomponent
ofthyroidhormone
(thyroxine),whichisthe
majorcontrolling
hormoneofenergy
metabolism.
Themostcertaindietary
sourceisiodizedsalt,but
itisalsoavailablein
seafood.Soillevelsof
iodinevary,sofoods
grownindifferentareas
haveadifferentiodine
content.
Deficiencysymptoms
includefatigue,lowbody
temperature
(hypothermia),and
weakness.Serious
deficiencyresultsingoiter
(glandenlargement),
mentalretardation
(cretinism),and
cardiovasculardisease.
Toxicityisnot
documented,butregular
supplementalintakes
exceedingtheRDIof150
micrograms/dayshouldbe
avoided.
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
(continued)
Page62
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Microminerals(continued)
Mineral
Functions
Sources
Cautions
Zinc
Partofmanyenzymes
involvedinenergy
metabolism.Also
involvedintaste,wound
healing,andimmune
function.
Foundinmosthighprotein
foods,especiallyredmeat,
fish,andpoultry.Foundin
smallerconcentrationsin
grainsandvegetables.
Inadequateintakeleads
togrowthfailurein
childrenandadelayin
developmentof
secondarysexual
characterstics.Deficiency
alsoleadstoalteredtaste
andpoorhealingof
injuries.Excessmaylead
tonausea,diarrhea,poor
muscularcoordination,
andkidneyfailure.
Flouride
Involvedindeveloping
Fluoridatedwater,
strongbonesandteeth.
fluoridateddentifrices(if
Teethformedwhen
swallowed),andseafood.
fluorideisavailableinthe
systemcreates
decayresistantenamel.
Deficiencymayincrease
riskofdevelopingdental
cavities.Excessmay
causefluorosis
(discoloredteeth)and
nausea.
Chromium
Alsocalledglucose
tolerancefactorbecause
ofitsinvolvementin
controllingbloodglucose
(ithelpsinsulinwork
effectively).
Deficiencyismost
commonlyseenwith
frequentintenseexercise
andhighconsumptionof
simplesugarsandis
associatedwithpoor
bloodglucosecontrol
(hyperglycemiaand
hypoglycemia).Typical
intakesintheU.S.range
from<50to100
micrograms,soa
deficiencyispossible.
Toxicityispossiblebut
notdocumented.
Supplementalintake
shouldnotregularly
exceedtheRDIof120
micrograms.
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Foundinwholegrain
foodsandmeats,andis
availableinsupplement
formaschromium
picolinate,chromium
chloride,andhigh
chromiumyeast.
Page63
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Mineral
Functions
Sources
Cautions
Manganese
Involvedinboneand
cartilagegrowthand
maintenance,
carbohydrate
metabolism,antioxidant
activity,fatmetabolism,
andtheproductionof
glucosefromprotein
(gluconegenesis).
Foundinwholegrain
wheat,nuts,seeds,
legumes(includingsoy
products),andfruits.
Alsofoundinteaand
coffee.Availablein
supplements,butRDIof
2.0mg/dayshouldnotbe
exceededonregular
basis.
Deficiencyassociatedwith
skeletalproblems
(osteoarthrists,
osteoporosis,increased
fracturerisk)andpoor
healing.
Molybdenum
Involvedintheenzyme
thatoxidizesxanthineto
uricacid.Alsoimportant
fornitrogenfixing
bacteria,whicharethe
basisofourprotein
foods.
Molybdenum
concentrationsvary
widelyinfoods,
dependingonthesoil
wherethefoodsare
grown.Concentrations
arehighestinlegumes,
wholegraincereals,and
liver.
Deficiencyofmolybdenum
onlydocumentedwith
longtermintravenous
feeding,andisunlikelyin
peoplewhoregularly
consumeawidevarietyof
foods.Toxicitysymptoms
fromexcessmolybdenum
intakearenotwell
documentedinhumans,
butregularsupplemental
intakesexceedingtheRDI
of75microgramsperday
shouldbeavoided.
Selenium
Animportantcellular
antioxidantthatworks
aspartofacompound
called''glutathione
peroxidase.".Aidsthe
antioxidantfunctionsof
vitaminEandvitaminC.
Foodcontentbasedon
seleniumcontentofsoil
andwaterwherefoodwas
grown,soishighly
variable.Maybeobtained
fromsupplements
(commonlysodium
selenite,
selenomethionine,and
highseleniumyeast).
Deficiencydisordersmay
berelatedtocardiac
dysfunction(Keshan
disease)andosteoarthritis.
Mayalsobeassociated
withincreasedcancerrisk,
muscleweakness,and
impairedimmunefunction.
Potentialtoxicityriskwith
excesssupplementation
(regulardailyintakes
exceeding0.2mg/day)
exists.
Page64
DigestionandAbsorption
Digestionistheprocesswherethebodybreaksdownthephysicalandchemicalconstituentsofconsumedfoodstobringthemtoasufficientlysmallsizeandmolecular
structurethattheycanpassthroughtheliningofthesmallintestinetobeabsorbedintotheblood.Wehavetremendouslycomplexsystemsfordoingthis,withthe
resultthatover90percentoftheenergyconsumedisactuallyabsorbed(seetable1.6).
Theabsorptionratesforvitaminsandmineralsvary,inlargepartduetophysiologicalneed.Ourabilitytocontroltheabsorptionofcertainmineralsisabuiltinsafety
mechanismtomakecertainwedon'texceedasafelevelofthemineralinourtissues.Iron,forinstance,isabsorbedatrelativelylowrates(5to20percentoftheiron
consumed)becausewehavenoeffectivemeansofexcretingtheexcess.Absorbingtoomuchironintothesystemwouldcausetoomuchirontoaccumulateand
wouldcauseserious(evendeadly)problemsasdiscussedearlier.Ontheotherhand,therearemineralsthatweabsorbfreely,suchassodium,becausewehavean
effectivemeansofexcretingtheexcess.
Somevitamins,suchasvitaminB12,requiretheassistanceofanothersubstancetobeabsorbed.Forinstance,vitaminB12attachesitselftoasubstancecalled
intrinsicfactor,whichisproducedbyaspecificsetofcellsinthestomach(parietalcells).TheintrinsicfactortakesvitaminB12totherightplaceinthesmallintestine
forabsorption.Withoutsufficientintrinsicfactorproduction,apersonwouldsufferfromperniciousanemia(avitaminB12deficiencydisorder)evenwithasufficient
intakeofvitaminB12.
ThecooperativenatureofintrinsicfactorandvitaminB12pointstoanothercriticalpoint:afailureofonepartofthedigestiveorabsorptivesystemislikelytoleadto
problemselsewhereinthesystem.TocarrythevitaminB12examplefurther,someonewithastomachproblem(irritation,ulcer,cancer,etc.)maynotproduce
sufficientintrinsicfactortoaidintheabsorptionofvitaminB12.Sincetheparietalcellsthatproduceintrinsicfactorarealsoresponsibleforproducinghydrochloric
acid,akeyelementinachievingtheproperdigestiveacidity,othernutrients(particularlyprotein)wouldalsonotgetproperlydigestedorabsorbed.
Forathletes,theissuessurroundingdigestionandabsorptionarealsoofpracticalimportance,particularlyastheyrelatetothepregameorprecompetitionmeal.The
selectionofappropriatefoodsduringthistimeiscriticalforassuringthatathletesreceivethe
Page65
Table1.6DigestionandAbsorptionSitesforNutrients
Gastrointestinaltract
Digestionandabsorption
Mouth
Involvedinmechanicallybreakingapartfoodstoallowdigestiveenzymesto
mixandchemically"digest"thefoods.Theenzymeproducedinthemouthby
thesalivaglands(salivaryamylase)canchemicallydigestcarbohydrates.No
absorptionofnutrientstakesplaceinthemouth.
Stomach
Foodtravelsfromthemouthtothestomachviatheesophagus.Stomachcells
produceanenzyme(gastricprotease)thatdigestsproteinsintosmallerunits
calledpeptones.Thestomachalsocandigestsmallseizedfats(calledshort
andmediumchaintriglycerides)intoindividualfattyacidsandasmall,3
carbonunitcalledglycerol.Averysmallamountofthedigestedproteinand
fatcanenter(i.e.,canbe"absorbed")intotheveinsinthestomach.However,
thelevelofnutrientabsorptioninthestomachisconsideredtobeextremely
small.
Smallintestine
Inthesmallintestine,thepancreasintroducesenzymesforthecontinued
digestionofcarbohydrate,protein,andfat.Theseenzymes[calledpancreatic
amylase,protease,andlipase],plusbilefromthegallbladderandother
enzymesproducedinthesmallintestine,completethedigestionofconsumed
foods.Itisthesmallintestinewherethemajorityofallnutrient[carbohydrates,
proteins,fats,vitamins,andminerals]absorptiontakesplace.Theabsorption
siteforsomeminerals[iron,calcium,zinc,magnesium]isextremelysmall,
whichcausesthesemineralstocompeteforthesameabosorptionsite.
Largeintestine
Inthelargeintestine,thereisamajorexchangeoffluidandelectrolytes
(minerals).Thelargeintestine(colon)alsohasasignificantpopulationof
friendlybacteriathataidsinthedisposaloffoodremnants.Thesebacteriaare
alsoinvolvedinproducingcertainvitamins,suchasvitaminK.
nutrientsthattheyneed,butit'salsoanimportanttimetoknowthattheyshouldn'tconsumeanythingthatmightstayinthestomachtoolong.Differentfoodsrequire
differentamountsoftimetodigestandabsorb.Thekeyistomakecertainthatthestomachisemptyatthetimethepracticeorcompetitionbegins.Otherwise,the
athletemaydevelopanupsetstomach,afactorthatcouldeasilyimpedeoptimalperformance.Thereasonforthisisstraightforward:whenexercisebegins,bloodis
shuntedtotheworkingmusclesandawayfromthe
Page66
GI(gastrointestinal)tract.ThisshiftofbloodawayfromtheGItractmayimpedeorslownormaldigestiveandabsorptiveprocesses,leavingfoodwhereitdoesn't
belong.
Thepreparationofthefoodsconsumedandthecombinationofthefoodseatenatonetimemayinfluencehowwellenergyandnutrientsaredigestedandabsorbed,
andthisinturnmayinfluencehowyoufeelwhileyoupracticeorcompete.Forexample,thereisamoveinmanyendurancesportstoreduce(oreliminate)redmeat
consumptionandrelysolelyongrains,fruits,vegetables,andsomedairyproductsforprovidingneedednutrients.Inthehandsofaknowledgeableperson,a
nourishingeatingplanthatcontainstheserestrictionscanbedeveloped.However,manypeopledon'tknowwhatittakesandmalnutritionistheresult.Anexampleof
thisistheproblemassociatedwiththeoxalicacidfoundindarkgreenvegetablesdiscussedearlier.Ifnotremoved,oxalicacidcaninterferewiththeabsorptionof
bivalentminerals(iron,zinc,magnesium,andcalcium).
Thefiberportionofgrainscontainsasubstancecalledphyticacid.Inmanyways,phyticacidandoxalicacidaresimilar,becausebothhaveahighbindingaffinityfor
iron,zinc,magnesium,andcalcium.Imagine,forexample,eatingahighfibercerealwithmilk.Thephyticacidinthebranbindswithsomeofthecalciuminthemilk
andmakesitunavailableforabsorption.Therefore,exceptfortheoccasionsthatconstipationoccursorontheadviceofyourphysician,itmakesmorenutritional
sensetoconsumewholegrainproductsratherthanbranaddedproducts.Theaddedbran,whileusefulfromaregularitystandpoint,maybeassociatedwitha
substancethatinhibitstheabsorptionofsomekeyminerals.
AnotherkeypointtomakehereisthatthesubstancesmovingthroughtheGItractareconstantlymoving.Theydon'twaitaroundinoneparticularplacetoget
absorbed.Therefore,thereductioninmineralbioavailabilityimpartedbyoxalateandphytateisonlytemporary.Fortheoxalateorphytatetobindwithminerals,either
ofthesesubstancesandmineralsmustbeinthegutatthesametime.Eatingahighbrancerealinthemorningwon'thaveaneffectonthesoupyoueatforlunch.
CommonNutritionalMyths
ThemostcommonthingIhearathletessayis,"IeatthisbecauseIknowit'sgoodforme."ThesecondmostcommonthingIhearathletessayis,"Idon'teatthat
becauseit'sbadforme."Whilethesestatements
Page67
maybetrue,theyarealsobadmindsetstohave,becausetheyfailtoconsidercontext.What'sgoodorbadhastodowiththecontextofotherfoodsthatare
consumed,bothintheshorttermandinthelongterm.Ifanathletebelievesthatcottagecheeseisaperfectfoodandeatsiteverydayforlunchandmostdaysfor
dinnerthenthatathleteisaprimetargetformalnutrition.Itmayjustbepossiblethatthebestnutritionalthinga"meatavoider"(notavegetarian)coulddoistohavea
hamburgerforluncheveryonceinawhile.Ithasrightlybeensaidthathumanbreastmilkistheperfectfoodforanewborninfant.Butaftersixmonths,eveninfants
needtotrysomeotherfoodsorthey'llbecomeanemic(breastmilkisapoorsourceofiron).Thetruthis,thereisnoperfectfoodinandofitself,andathleteswho
eatamonotonousdietbecausetheyareconvincedthatalimitedsetoffoodsisthetickettocrossingthefinishlinefirstarebadlyfoolingthemselves.
Anothercommonmindsetthatathleteshaveisthatyoucan'tgetenoughofanutrient(orrelatedsubstance)thatisgoodforperformance.So,ifalittleisgoodforme
thengivemealot.Thisalsobreachesakeyruleofnutritionthat"morethanenoughisnotbetter
Page68
thanenough."ThereisanancientLatinsayingthatistrueandrelevanthere:Soladocisfacitvenenum(thedosemakesthepoison).Justashavingtoolittleisbad,so
ishavingtoomuch.ThewayathletesthinkabouttheRDAisaprimeexampleofhoweasyitistogettoomuch.Itis(wrongly)believedthattheRDAisaminimum
requirement,eventhoughitrepresentsmorethanmosthealthypeopleneed.Therefore,athletesaredrawntoproductsthatprovidemultiplesoftheRDA.Thisiseven
trueforthewaytheyfeelaboutsomebreakfastcereals,whichadvertisethattheyprovide100percentoftheRDAformostnutrientsinasingleserving.Athletesjump
atthechanceofeating200,300,or400percentoftheRDAbyeatingbowlafterbowl.Unlessthisissomeformofnewmath(whichIdon'tunderstand),100percent
usuallymeansthatyou'vemettherequirement.Supplementintakebehaviorisalsooftenconsistentwiththis(wrong)philosophythat"morethanenoughisbetterthan
enough."Thelevelofnutrientintakeisoftenexcessive,andevenmoreoftenmistargeted,whentakinghighdosesofsubstancesthatarenotthemostneeded.
Thebestwaytothinkaboutnutrientsandenergyistorememberthesesimplerules:
Eatawidevarietyoffoods.
Morethanenoughisnotbetterthanenough.
Eatfoodsthatprovidealotofcomplexcarbohydrates,someproteins,andlittlefat.Agoodwaytoreducefatintakeistoavoidfriedfoods,preparedmeats
(bologna,salami,sausage,etc.),andvisiblefats,andtoconsumelowfatdairyproducts.
Eatenoughtomeetenergyneeds.
Let'sputallofthisintoperspectivebylookingatasampledailyintake.
Thesampledailyintakeshownintable1.7providesapproximately2,800calories,ishighincarbohydrates(65percentoftotalcalories),moderatelyhighinprotein
(18percentoftotalcalories),andrelativelylowinfat(17percentoftotalcalories).Thislevelofintakeisappropriateforanathleteweighingabout150pounds.
Carbohydrateneedscanbecalculatedas3gramsperpoundofbodyweightorapproximately450grams.Thisdietmeetsthatrequirementbyproviding466gramsof
carbohydrates.Thisdietalsomeetsproteinneedsofa150poundathlete.Proteinrequirementisestimatedtobebetween1.5grams/kilogramand1.8grams/kilogram
(or0.68grams/poundand0.82grams/pound).A150poundathletewouldhaveaproteinrequirementofbetween102and123gramsperday.Thisdietprovides
126grams.
Page69
Asyoucansee,thefoodsinthisdailyintakeconsistofcommonfoodsthatcanbeobtainedanywhere.That'skey,sincedependenceonspecialfoodsthatmayonly
beavailableatthelocalhealthfoodmarketwillbeinclinedtomakeyourlifemiserable,especiallyifyoudoanytraveling.Thereareafewotherimportantfeaturesof
thissamplemealplanthatareimportanttonote:
Page70
1.Frequenteating.You'llnoticethat,inthissampleday,theathletewouldeatsixseparatetimes.Eatingthreemealsaday,althoughtypicalforsomanypeople,is
notthewayhumansshouldeat.Ifyouevaluatethewayfreelivingpeoples(noninstitutionalizedpeoplewhocanmakedecisionsforthemselves)eat,theyeat
frequentlyandsomeaborigineseatconstantly.Oneofthefeaturesofthiskindofeatingpatternisthatmealsizesaresmallbutfrequent.Industrializedculturestypically
eatlargemeals,andtheyeatinfrequentlytofitintoan"industrial"workschedule.Forathletes,themoreidealfoodintakepatternissmallmealsconsumedfrequently.
Ideally,athletesshouldstrivetoeatsomethingeverythreehours(seechapter7,"TimingofMealsandSnacks.").Thegoalistonevergethungryandneverget
thirsty.
2.Energydistribution.Athletesshouldderivethemajorityofenergyfromcarbohydrates.Inthismealplan(see"%Caloriesfrom"attheendoftable1.7),
carbohydratesprovide65percentofthetotalenergy(idealforathletes),proteinsprovide18percent,andfatprovides17percent.Fatintakeisevenalittlelowerthan
itneedstobewiththesefoods,soanathletecouldactuallyputsomemargarineorbutteronthepopcornorthetoastandstillstaywithinthe20to25percentfatlevel
you'retryingtoachieve.
3.Smallmeals.Nomealismorethan800calories.Thisisimportant,becauselargemealsprovidesomuchenergythataproportionofthatenergyinevitably
contributestostoredfat.Withmanyathletes,especiallythosedoingpowerratherthanendurancetypework,gettingfatoutofstorageonceit'sinthereisdifficultand
detracts
Table1.8SelectedNutrientsinSampleMealPlanComparedtotheRecommendedDietary
Allowances
Intake
RDA
Energy(cal)
Nutrient
2,827
2,982
95
Protein(gm)
126
58
218
Calcium(mg)
1,344
1,200
112
Phosphorus(mg)
1,890
1,200
158
19
10
189
Potassium(mg)
4,002
2,000
200
VitaminA(IU)
24,385
5,000
488
Thiamin(mg)
2.94
1.5
196
Riboflavin(mg)
2.66
1.7
156
VitaminC(mg)
337
60
561
Iron(mg)
%ofRDA
Page71
frombothappearanceandthestrength:weightratio.Byhavingsmallbutfrequentmeals,youhelptolimittheamountoffatthatisstored.
4.Carbohydratethroughouttheday.Ifyoulookatnormalfluctuationsinbloodglucose(bloodsugar),itrisesafteramealandthenstartstodropbelowthenormal
levelaboutthreehoursaftereating.Byhavingsomesourceofcarbohydratethroughouttheday,ithelpstomaintainanormalbloodglucoselevel.Besidesmakingyou
feelbetterandmorealert,maintainingbloodsugarmaybeanimportantstrategyformaintainingmetabolicrate.It'simportanttorememberthatthesamefuelthatfuels
thebrain(glucose)alsofuelsmuscles.Muscleandmentalfatiguegotogether.It'snoaccidentthatmostathleticinjuriesoccurattheendoftheeventorattheendof
practicewhenmusclesarefatiguedandthemindcan'tfocusonthetaskathand.Thesefoodsinthiseatingpatternhelptoassurethatcarbohydrate(glucose)is
availablethroughouttheday.
Ifthesefoodswereconsumedbya21yearoldmaleathletewhoweighs150poundsandis70inches(5'10")tall,hewouldmeetorexceedtheRDAformost
vitaminsandminerals(seetable1.8).Thepointhereisthat,withalittleplanning(andnoclinicalconditionthatwouldprohibityoufromdoingso),it'srelativelyeasyto
meetorexceedyournutrientrequirementssimplybyeatingfood.
Eventhoughenergyintakeis95percentofthepredictedrequirementforthis(hypothetical)person,nutrientintakesarefargreaterthantheRecommendedDietary
Allowances.WhywouldanyonefeelasiftheyneedtoconsumevitaminCsupplementswhen,fromfoodalone,vitaminCintakeis561percentoftheRDA!Protein
supplements,whicharesocommonlytakenbyathletes,canbethrowninthetrashbinwhenthefoodsconsumedprovideover200percentoftherequirement.
Summary
Eatingwellmostofthetimeiscriticaltomaintainingoptimalnutritionalstatus.Withoutagenerallygoodlevelofnutrientintake,itisimpossibleforthe
pretraining/precompetitionmealtomakeadifferenceinanathlete'sperformance.Further,eatingwellmostofthetimehelpstoguaranteethattheathletewillgetthe
mostbenefitfromtrainingbyenablingtheathletetotrainharderandlonger.Importantly,eatingwellreducesthechanceformusclesorenessandinjury.
Page72
Asageneralrule,athletesshouldstrivetoeatfoodsthatarehighincarbohydrate,lowinfat,andmoderateinprotein.Ideally,thisdistribution(expressedasapercent
oftotalconsumedenergy)shouldbe25percentorlessfromfat,12to15percentfromprotein,and60percentormorefromcarbohydrate.Allathletes,including
thosewhowishtoincreasemusclemass,willbenefitfromthistypeofenergydistribution.Inparticular,ahighcarbohydrateintakehelpstoguaranteethattheathlete
maintainsahighstoredenergylevel(glycogen)todelayfatigue.
Itisimportantforathletestorelyonfoodsratherthanvitaminandmineralsupplementsforobtainingneedednutrients.Eatingavaried,nutrientdensedietthatcontains
lotsofcomplexcarbohydrates(wholegrainbreadsandcereals,pasta,fruits,vegetables,andbeans)helpstoguaranteethatyouobtainallthevitaminsandminerals
youneedintherightproportions.Calciumandironhavebeenfoundtobelowinsomeathletes,soaregularconsumptionoflowfatfoodsthatarehighincalcium
(lowfatdairyproducts,darkgreenvegetables,cannedsalmon,etc.)andiron(leanmeats,darkgreenvegetables,driedfruit,etc.)isdesirable.
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2
StayingHydrated
MakingtheWaterBottleaPartoftheUniform
Anumberofyearsago,Iwasaskedtoworkwiththefootballteamatamajoruniversity.
Thecoachforthisteamwasasmuchofaninstitutionastheuniversityitself,andhehad
experiencedenoughsuccesstokeeptheuniversityalumniandadministratorshappy,
However,hewasbeginningtofeelthepressureofwinningfewerandfewergamesin
recentyears,andhestartedlookingforwaystoregainacompetitiveedge.Thetraditionin
collegefootballhadbeen,forsometime,toavoiddrinkingfluidsduringpractice,atraining
regimenthiswellseasonedcoachfollowed.Hebelieveditwouldmaketheplayers
''tougher"andhelpplayerscopewithgamesplayedonhotdays.Footballpracticesoften
lastformorethanthreehours,andwhentheseasonisapproaching,twoadaypractices
arecommon.WhenIagreedtoworkwiththeteam,muchofmytimewasspentobserving
practicestodetermineteam,muchofmytimewasspentobservingpracticestodetermine
wherethebestopportunitiesfornutritionalinterventionmightoccur.Itbecameimmediately
andglaringlyobvioustomethatoneofthemajornutritionalproblemsthefootballplayers
wereexperiencingwasinadequatefluidconsumption,andtheplayerswereexperiencing
wasinadequatefluidconsumption,andIwassurethiswasnegativelyimpactingany
conditioninggainstheplayerswereexperiencingwasinadequatefluidconsumption,andI
wassurethiswasnegativelyimpactinganyconditioninggainstheplayersmightgetfrom
practice.Iwasinadequatefluidconsumption,andIwasadangerouspractice(everyyear
therewerepublicizeddeathsamonghighschoolandcollegefootballplayersthatweredue
toseveredehydration),particularlywhenIsawsomesalttablesbeingpassedaroundto
theathletes.(Salttabletsarecommonlygiventopeopleinhotenvironments,butshould
onlybegivenwithwater.Saltisthemajorelectrolyteinthebloodanddrawswaterfrom
insidecellstonormalizethebloodelectrolyteconcentration.Saltwithoutwaterleavescells
dehydratedanddangerouslydysfunctional.)
Atmyfirstopportunitytosharemyconcernswiththeteamcoachesandathletes,Iputthe
fluidissueatthetopofmyagenda.Istartedbysaying,"I'mamazedtoseethefootball
playerarrivingatpracticewithoutbeingfullydressed."Ofcourse,everyonelookedatme
withsurprisedexpressionswonderingwhatIhadseenthatthey,whowerethesport,had
missed.Iexplainedthat,withouttheirwaterbottlesinhand,Iconsideredtheathletesnot
tobefullydressedandreadytopractice.Therewas,ofcourse,vigorousrebuttal,anditis
absolutelycriticaltoleteveryoneexpresstheiropinionsaboutwhytheydothethingsthey
do.Thebasicargumentinfavorofnotdrinkingboileddownto"tradition"."That'stheway
wediditwhenwewereplayers,"saidthe
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coaches,"sothat'swhatwedonow."Therewasabeliefthatdrinkingfluidsduring
practicewouldgivethefootballplayersstomachcramps,whichwouldmakeitmore
difficultforthemtopracticeandruntheirdrills.Therewasnoevidencethatthiswasthe
case,butitwasabeliefamongthecoachingstaff.Alessfrequetlyexpressedbeliefwas
thatthisdehydrationstrategywouldhelpfootballplayerstraintheirmusclestowork
effectivelywithoutfluids,sotherewasabenefitinhavingthempracticewithoutwater.
Supposedly,thesetrainedmuscleshadtheaddedbenefitofallowingathletestorunfaster
andmovemorequicklybecausetheywereabitlighter(becauseoflesswaterweight).
Noneoftheseargumentsstanduptoscientificscrutiny,butitwasgoodtoknowthatthey
weren'trestrictingfluidstobepunitive!
Afterhearingtheirexplanations,Iexplainedthatmuscleswereover70percentwaterand
thattheysimplydonotworkefficientwhentheyaredehydrated.Further,tryingtotrain
musclesthathaveaninadequatewaterlevelsimplymeantthatthepotentialbenefitsthat
canbederivedfromtrainingarediminished.Musclesoreness,musclepulls,andeasy
fatiguearealsoassociatedwithinsufficientwaterintake.Afteralengthydiscussionofthis
issue,weallleftthemeetingonfriendlyterms,butIstilldidn'tknowhowtheywouldutilize
theinformation.Atthenextpracticethefollowingday,thecrustlyheadcoachapproached
meandtoldmetolookcloselybecausetheplayerswerenow"fullydressed."Andthere
theyallwere,walkingontothepracticefieldwithwaterbottlesinhand.
Allnutrientsareimportantforperformance,butwaterisoftenmentionedascriticallyimportanttoperformancebecausetheperformancedeficitsthatadehydrated
athleteexperiencesoccurquicklyandareeasilymeasured.Thebody'srelianceonwaterforcooling,nutrienttransport,jointlubrication,metabolicwasteremoval,
digestion,andabsorptionareallclearlyestablished,anddehydratedathletessimplydon'tperformaswellaswellhydratedathletes,regardlessofthesport.Studies
haveshown,however,thatathletestendtoreplacelessfluidthanthatislostinsweat,andthiscreatesagradualreductioninperformance.Thereareseveralreasons
forthis,includingdrinkingtraditioninthesport,thelackofatimelythirstmechanism,fluidunavailability,ortheavailabilityoffluidsthatdon'ttastegoodtothe
exercisingathlete.Allofthesefactorscanbeovercomewithtrainingandplanningandwillgoalongwaytowardsustainingtheathlete'sperformanceovertheentire
practiceorcompetition.
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Noleveloflowbodywaterisacceptableforachievingoptimalathleticperformanceandendurance,soyoushouldconsiderastrategyformaintainingoptimalbody
waterwhileyouexercise.Imaginethatyouhaveafullglassofwaterthatrepresentsyourbodyatastateofoptimalhydration.Whenyou'renotexercising,it'slike
havingapinholeinthebottomoftheglass.Thewaterlevelwilldrop,butonlyataveryslowrateandatapacethatmakesiteasyforyoutomaintainanoptimal
hydrationstate.Becausethewaterleveldropssoslowly,drinkinganoccasionalglassofwaterorotherfluidisanadequatemeansofmaintainingyourhydrationstate.
Since8cups(8 8ounces=2quarts,orabout1.5liters)ofwaterisacommonrecommendationfornonathletes,whohaverelativelylowsweatrates,itmakessense
tomakeadramaticincreaseinthewaterrequirementforathletes.Anathleteworkinginawarmenvironmentcanlose1.5litersofwaterperhour!Thisisequivalentto
puttingalargerpencilholeinthebottomoftheglass,sotherateofwaterlossismuchfaster.Withinevenashortperiodoftime,therewillbeasignificantamountof
waterlossthatcouldbeenoughtoaffectexerciseperformanceandendurance.Evenminorreductionsinhydrationstatecancausemeasurablereductionsin
performance,sothegoalistostaywithin2percentofyourpreexercisebodyweight.Itdoesn'tmatterifyou'reanaerobicathletetryingtogolongdistances,oran
anaerobicathletewantingtojumphigher,gofaster,orpushbetterlosingmorewaterthanisreplacedcausesperformancereductionsandcanbethedifference
betweenwinningandlosing.
Sincewaterisbeinglostatafasterratewhileexercising,animportantstrategyforavoidingaperformancelossis,clearly,toreplacewateratafasterrate.Ifthe
frequencyofdrinkingwhennotexercisingisonceeverytwohours,thenimaginethatthefrequencyofdrinkingduringexerciseshouldbeonceevery10to15minutes.
Waterislostsofastduringexercisethatitbecomesdifficult,ifnotimpossible,toreplacetheamountofwaterbeinglostandvirtuallyimpossibletoincreasebody
waterwhileexercising.Therefore,waitingtoolongbetweendrinksisabadstrategy,sinceitallowsbodywatertodecreaseinsuchawaythatitcannotbeadequately
replaced.Whenyouexercise,thewaterintheglassdropsquickly,soallyoucanhopetodowhenyoudrinkiskeepthewaterlevelstable.Ifyouwaittodrink,you
maybeabletomaintainthebody'swaterlevelatitscurrentstate,butthatstatewillbetoolow.
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Where'stheWater?
Sixtysixpercentofanathlete'stotalbodyweightisfromwater.1
Thirtysevenpercentoftotalbodyweightisfromwaterinsidecells.
Twentyfourpercentoftotalbodyweightisfromwateroutsidecells.
Fivepercentoftotalbodyweightisfromthewaterthatmakesupbloodplasma.
Wellhydratedmusclesareabout75percentwater.
Bonesareabout32percentwater.
Fathasverylittlewater,about10percent.
Bloodisabout93percentwater.
TemperatureRegulationandWaterBalance
Physicalactivitycreatesheat,andthisheatmustbedissipatedfortheathletetocontinuedoingtheactivity.Failuretodissipatethisheatwilleventuallyleadto
heatstrokeand,potentially,death.Oneofthemainmechanismswehavefordissipatingheatistoproducesweat,whichcoolsthebodydownasitevaporatesoffthe
skin.Itshouldbeobviousthattheinabilitytoproducesweatcausesthebodytooverheat.Thebodyhasafinitestoragecapacityforwaterbutcontinuestoproduce
heatasphysicalworkcontinues.Unlessthewaterlostassweatisreplaced,thesweatratewillbereducedandbodytemperaturewillrise.Therefore,itisperfectly
logicaltosuggestthatathletesmustdrinkenoughfluidstosustainthesweatrate.Itshouldberememberedthat,evenwhennotexercising,thebodyloseswater
throughinsensible(i.e.,notnoticed)perspiration.Whenyouexercise,therateofwaterlossincreasesandbecomessensible(i.e.,noticed)perspiration.
Temperatureregulationrepresentsthebalancebetweenheatproducedorreceived(heatin),andheatremoved(heatout).Whenthebody'stemperatureregulation
systemisworkingcorrectly,heatinandheatoutareinperfectbalanceandbodytemperatureismaintained.Therearebothinternalandexternalfactorsthatcan
contributetobodyheat.Radiantheatfromthesuncontributestobodytemperature,andtheheatcreatedfromburningfuelalsocontributestobodytemperature.
Somehow,thebodymustfindawaytodissipatethesameamountofheatthathasbeenaddedtomaintainaconstantbodytemperature.
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Wehavetwoprimarysystemsfordissipatingorlosingheatwhileatrest:
Movingmorebloodtotheskintoallowheatdissipationthroughradiation.
Increasingtherateofsweatproduction.
Thesetwosystemsaccountforabout85percentoftheheatlostwhenapersonisatrest.Heatlossesthroughconduction(thenaturaltransmissionofheatfroma
hotterbodytothecoolerairenvironment)andconvection(heattransferfromtissuetothebloodandthroughtheskin)accountfortheremaining15percentofheat
out.Duringexercise,virtuallyallheatlossoccursviaevaporation(sweat).
Bothofthesesystemsrelyonmaintenanceofanadequatebloodvolume.Whenbloodvolumedrops,themovementofbloodtotheskinisreducedandsweat
productionisalsoreduced,alteringthebalancebetweenheatinandheatout.Thereis,however,competitionforbloodformetabolicandheatreleasingrequirements.
Workingmusclesdemandmorebloodflowtodelivernutrientsandtoremovethebyproductsofburnedfuel.However,attheverysametimethereisaneedtoshift
bloodawayfromthemusclesandtowardtheskintoincreasethesweatrate.Withlowbloodvolume,oneorbothofthesesystemsfails,andthereisadramatic
decreaseinathleticperformance.Infact,themaintenanceofbloodvolumeissoimportantforathleticperformancethatitisconsideredbymanytobetheprimary
indicatorofwhetheranathleteiscapableofcontinuingphysicalworkatahighrate.
Energymetabolismisonlyabout20to25percentefficient.Thismeansthat,oftheenergyconsumedfromfood,only20to25percentcanbeconvertedtothe
mechanicalenergyofmuscularwork.Theremaining75to80percentofthefoodenergythatisburnedislostasheat.Toacertainextent,thatlossisagoodthing,
sincehumansarewarmbloodedanimalsthatrequireheatproductiontomaintainbodytemperatureatabout98.6 F.Whentherateofenergyburngoesup,however,
theamountofheataddedtothesystemisdramaticallyincreased,sotheheatoutsystemsmustbeturnedup.Infact,heavyexercisecancreateheatproductionthatis
20timeshigherthantheamountofheatproducedatrest.1Withoutanefficientmeanstoremovethisexcessheat,bodytemperaturewillrisequickly.Theupperlimit
forhumansurvivalisabout110 F,only11.5 Fhigherthannormalbodytemperature.Withthepotentialforbodytemperaturetoriseattherateofabout1 Fevery
5minutes,itisconceivablethata
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dehydratedexercisingathletecouldbeatriskforheatstrokeanddeathonly55minutesaftertheinitiationofexercise.
Let'sputwhatcanhappenintorealnumbers.Imaginedoingverymildexercisethatburns300caloriesofenergyduring30minutes.Ifthemusclesare25percent
efficient,then75Caloriesareusedformuscularworkand225caloriesarelostasheatthatmustbedissipatedtomaintainbodytemperature.Nowimagineworking
twiceashardoverthatsame30minutes.Thatmeans450caloriesofheatwouldneedtobedissipatedoverthatsame30minutestomaintainbodytemperature!In
general,everymilliliterofsweatcandissipatehalfacalorie.Sooverthat30minutes,thebodywouldlose900milliliters(almost1liter)ofwater.Inonehourofhigh
intensityactivity,approximately1.8litersofwaterwouldbelost.Tocomplicatematters,nowimagineworkinghardduringasunny,hotdaywhentheheatofthesunis
addedtotheheatproducedfrommuscularwork.Onahumidday,waterdoesn'tevaporateoffthebodyaseasily,somoresweatmustbeproducedtogetthesame
coolingeffect.Nowimaginehowmuchwaterwouldbelostassweatifyouwereworkinghardonasunny,hot,andhumidday.Intheseconditions,apersoncan
easilyloseonetotwolitersoffluid(viasweat)perhour.Awelltrainedathletewhoistraininginahotandhumidenvironmentcanloseoverthreelitersoffluidper
hour.1
MonitoringFluidBalanceduringTraining
Withoutwaterintake,thebloodvolumecanquicklybecomereduced,sweatratesdrop,andbodyheatrisesquicklyanddangerouslyattherateofapproximately
onedegreeCelsiuseveryfivetosevenminutes.However,it'sdifficulttoconsumesufficientfluidsduringhardphysicalwork,soathletesshouldhaveaplanofwhatto
do.Ifanathletelosesoneliterofwaterperhour,theyshouldfindawaytodrinkoverfourcupsofwaterperhour.Theathletewholosestwolitersofwaterperhour
needstofindawaytodrinkovereightcupsofwaterperhour.Ofcourse,it'sdifficulttoknowpreciselyhowmuchwaterisbeinglostduringactivity,butthereisa
simplerulethatwillhelpanathleteestimatehowmuchislostandwhattodo.Oneliterofwaterweighsapproximatelytwopounds,andonepintofwaterweighs
approximatelyonepound.Knowingtheseweightsallowsathletestoestimatehowmuchfluidshouldbeconsumedduringactivity.Dothefollowing:
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1.Writedownwhattimeitisjustbeforetheexercisesession.
2.Writedownbodyweight(preferablynudeweight)inpounds.
3.Dothenormalexerciseandmonitorhowmuchfluidisconsumedduringtheexerciseperiod.
4.Onthecompletionofexercise,calculateexercisetimebysubtractingendingtimefrombeginningtime.
5.Takeoffthesweatyclothingandtoweldry.
6.Oncecompletelydry,writedownbodyweight(preferablynudeweight)inpounds.
7.Calculatetheamountoffluidyoulostviasweatbysubtractingyourbodyweightattheendofexercisefromyourbodyweightatthebeginningofexercise.
8.Theamountofextrafluidthatshouldbeconsumedisequivalenttoonepintoffluidforeachpoundlost,providedinvolumesthatrangefrom2to5ouncesandin
timeintervalsthatrangefrom10to20minutes.(Differencesintheamounttodrinkandthefrequencyofdrinkingarerelatedtothetotalamountoffluidthatmustbe
replaced.It'seasiesttohavethelowestamountwiththeleastfrequency[i.e.,2ouncesevery20minutes],butyoushouldn'tgolongerthan20minuteswithoutdrinking
something.)
Forexample,Johnweighs160poundsatthebeginningofhistwohourfootballpracticeanddrinks1pint(2cups)offluidduringthepractice.Attheendofpractice,
Johnweighs158pounds,soheneedstofigureouthowtotakeinanadditional2pintsofwaterduringthepracticeforatotalof3pints(6cupsor48ounces)over
twohours.Thereare1210minuteincrementsintwohours,soJohnhas12opportunitiestoconsumeatotalof48ouncesoffluidsifhechoosestodrinksomefluids
onceevery10minutes.Fortyeightouncesdividedby12equals4ouncesoffluid(1/2cup)every10minutes.IfJohncan'ttoleratedrinkingthatmuchfluidduring
practicetobeginwith,thenheshouldtry"training"himselftodrinkthatmuchbygraduallyincreasingthefluidconsumptionoverseveralweekstoachieveanequalpre
andpostexerciseweight.Themainpointisanyfluidamountgreaterthanthecurrentamountconsumedisbeneficialiftheathleteexperiencesweightlossduringthe
activity.
Ina150pound(about70kilograms)athlete,fluidlosscanrepresentbetween2to5percentofbodyweighteveryhour.Whenyou
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considerthata3percentlossofbodyweight(fromwaterloss)isconsideredclinicaldehydration,youcanseehoweasilyanathletecanbecomeseriouslydehydrated
(seetable2.1).
Allofthisismademorecomplexbyenvironmentalconditionsandthelevelofconditioninganathletehas.Betterconditionedathletesarebetterabletocool
themselvesbecausetheyhavedevelopedmoreefficientsweatsystems.Thisallowsbetterconditionedathletestoperformlonger,butitalsorequiresthatthey
consumemorefluids.Whentheenvironmentishotandhumid,waterdoesn'tevaporateoffthebodyeasily,soitdoesn'thavearealcoolingeffect.(Allthatsweat
soakedclothingdoesn'tmeanyou'recontrollingbodytemperature,itjustmeansyou'resweatingandlosingwater.)Forsweattohaveacoolingeffectitmust
evaporateofftheskin.Onhotandhumiddays,thewateronyourskindoesn'tevaporateeasilyintotheairbecausethemoisturecontentoftheairisalreadyhigh.
Thereareseveralfactorsthataffecttherateatwhichanathleteloseswaterthroughsweat.Theseincludetemperature,humidity,clothing,conditioning/training,and
fluidbalance.
Thehigherthetemperature,themoretheathletesweats.
Thehigherthehumidity,themoretheathletesweats,butwithreducedcoolingefficiency.
Clothingthattrapssweatagainsttheskin(i.e.,doesnotbreathe)hasareducedcoolingefficiency,soitforcestheathletetosweatmore.Somenewmaterialsmade
forathletesactuallywicksweatawayfromtheskintoimproveevaporativeefficiency.Checkwith
Table2.1RehydrationRecommendations
Initialweight(lb)
Weight(lb)after3%body
weightloss
Amountofwater(inpints)
toreplacetoavoidthe
weightloss
75
72.75
2.25
100
97.00
3.00
125
121.25
3.75
150
145.50
4.50
175
169.75
5.25
200
197.00
6.00
225
219.25
6.75
250
242.50
7.50
275
264.75
8.25
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yoursportsclothingoutfitterformaterialswiththesepropertiesthataresuitableforyoursportoractivity.
Wellconditionedathletescanactuallysweatmore,sotheyhaveabettercoolingpotential.However,thishighersweatraterequiresagreaterduringexercisefluid
consumption.
Thebetterthefluidbalance,themoresweatpotentialthereis.Astheathletebecomesprogressivelydehydrated,thesweatrateisreducedandbodytemperature
rises.Thisisaproblem,sincefluidconsumptionduringactivityisrarelygreaterthantwocupsperhour,oronly30to40percentoftheamountoffluidlostinsweat.
Thislevelofrehydrationinevitablyleadstotheathletebecomingdehydrated.
Therearealsoseveralfactorsthataffectfluidintake,andtherateatwhichfluidleavesthestomachandgoesintotheintestine.Thetwomainfactorsinfluencingfluid
intakearethirstandtaste,interestingly,mostathletesinduceavoluntarydehydrationinthemselvesbecausetheydonotdrinkenough,eventhoughthereareplentyof
drinksaroundthem.Itislikely,however,thatathletesdon'tdrinkenoughtomaintaintheirhydrationstatesimplybecausetheyarenotthirsty.Thethirstsensation,
therefore,shouldnotbeconsideredanappropriateindicatoroftheneedforfluidsinathletes.2Infact,thethirstsensationcouldbeconsidereddelayedinathletes
becauseitdoesn'tappearuntilanathletehasalreadylost1.5to2.0litersofwater.Thereisnohopethatanathletecouldreturntoanadequatelyhydratedstateduring
exerciseiffluidconsumptionbeganatthesametimethethirstsensationoccurred.Thisapparentdelayinthethirstmechanismisagoodreasonforathletestotrain
themselvestoconsumefluidsonaschedule,whethertheyfeelthirstyornot.
Theappealofabeverageisanotherimportantfactorinwhetheritwillbeconsumed.Color,taste,odor,temperature,andmouthfeelallplayaroleindeterminingifthe
beveragewillbeconsidereddesirableandwhetheritwillbeconsumed.Ingeneral,itappearsthatathletesprefercoolbeverageswithaslightlysweetflavor.Heavily
sweetenedbeveragesofarounda12percentcarbohydratesolution,likesodaorfruitjuice,arenotaswidelytoleratedduringexerciseasbeverageswitha6or7
percentcarbohydratesolutionlikeGatorade.3,4Interestingly,whennotexercising,thereversemaybetrue.Thispointstoaninterestingphenomenonofexercise:food
anddrinktastedifferentlywhileexercisingthanwhennotexercising.Giventheextensiveresearchonthebenefitsofconsumingasportsdrinkwitha6to7percent
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carbohydratesolution,regardlessofwhethertheactivitylastshalfanhourorlongerthanfourhours,thereisnoquestionthatathletesshouldgetintothehabitof
drinkingasportsbeverageratherthanwater.Consumptionofsportsbeveragesresultsinbetterperformancethanwaterwhetheryoudosprintsorendurancework.
FactorsAffectingGastricEmptying
Anumberoffactorsinfluencetherateatwhichfluidsleavethestomach,butbeforethesearereviewed,it'simportanttounderstandwhatsloworfastgastricemptying
reallymeans.Whenafoodordrinkisdescribedashavingaslowergastricemptying,itdoesn'tmeanthatallofthefoodstaysinthestomachlonger.Itmeansthatthe
foodordrinktricklesoutofthestomachandintotheintestinesmoreslowly,sosomeofthefoodordrinkisinthestomachlonger.Gastricemptying,therefore,
describesthevolumeoffoodordrinkthatleavesthestomachperunitoftime.Sinceathletesaremorecomfortableexercisingwithoutanextensiveamountoffoodor
fluidinthestomach,abeveragethatleavesthestomachmorequickly(i.e.,hasafastgastricemptyingproperty)isconsidereddesirable.Inaddition,fastgastric
emptyingoffersthepossibilityforafasterdeliveryofenergyandwatertoworkingmusclesbymorequicklypresentingsubstancestotheintestinesforabsorption.
CarbohydrateConcentrationoftheSolution
Whentheconcentrationofcarbohydrateinafluidrisesabove7percent,thegastricemptyingtimeisslower.Atconcentrationsbelow7percentcarbohydrate,gastric
emptyingtimeishardlyaffected.5Thisisoneofthereasonswhytherecommendedcarbohydrateconcentrationinsportsbeveragesisbelow8percent.
TypeofCarbohydrateintheSolution
Carbohydratescomeindifferentmolecularsizesandindifferentmolecularcombinations.Forinstance,glucoseisamonosaccharide(asinglemoleculecarbohydrate),
sucroseisadisaccharide(twomonosaccharidesheldtogetherwithabond),andstarchisapolysaccharide(manymoleculesofmonosaccharidesheldtogetherwith
bonds).Thesmallerthelengthofacarbohydratechainis,theslowerthegastricemptyingtime.Therefore,pureglucose(amonosaccharide)takeslongertoleavethe
stomachthantablesugar(adisaccha
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ride),andtablesugartakeslongertoleavethestomachthanasimplestarch(apolysaccharide).Thesizeofthesugarparticleissoimportantthateveniftwo
beverageshavethesamecarbohydrateconcentration,thebeveragewithsmallercarbohydratemoleculeswilltakelongertoleavethestomachthanthebeveragewith
largercarbohydratemolecules.6
AmountofSolutionthathasBeenConsumed
Theamountoffluidthatisconsumedatonetimehasamajorinfluenceongastricemptyingtime.Whenalargevolumeoffluidisconsumed,gastricemptyingtimeis
initiallyfaster.Whenthevolumeoffluidinthestomachisreduced,gastricemptyingtimeslows.Thissuggeststhat,tobecomemorequicklyhydratedpriorto
competitionorpractice,arelativelylargevolumeoffluidshouldbeconsumed(approximatelyhalfaliter),followedbyfrequentsippingoffluidtomaintainthefluid
volumeinthestomachand,therefore,afastergastricemptyingtime.7
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TemperatureoftheSolution
Moststudiesindicatethatthesolutiontemperatureonlyslightlyaffectsgastricemptyingtime.Whenpeopleareatrest,fluidsatbodytemperatureleavethestomach
morequicklythaneitherveryhotorverycoldfluids.8Thereisevidencethat,duringexercise,coolfluidsleavethestomachmorequicklythanroomtemperatureor
bodytemperaturefluids.9
CarbonationoftheSolution
Whiletherearemanyathleteswhobelievethatconsumingacarbonatedbeveragewillcausegastricdistressanddelayedgastricemptying(thefirstsportsbeverage
wasprobablya''defizzed"cola),thereislittlescientificevidencethatthisoccurs.However,thestudiesthathaveevaluatedtheimpactoffluidcarbonationongastric
emptyingtimehavetypicallyreliedonfewsubjects.Ingeneral,thestudiessuggestthat,allotherthingsbeingequal(carbohydrateconcentration,volume,temperature,
etc.),carbonationhaslittleimpactongastricemptying.10,11
StateofHydrationorDehydrationoftheAthlete
Withtheincreasingdehydrationandhigherbodytemperaturesassociatedwithhighintensityactivity,therateofgastricemptyingslows.12Thisisanexcellentreason
forathletestotry,asmuchaspossible,tomaintaintheirhydrationstateduringactivity.Allowingdehydrationtooccurmakesitalmostimpossiblefortheathleteto
returntoanadequatelyhydratedstateduringexercise.Ifsuchhydrationisattemptedthroughconsumptionofalargevolumeoffluid,itwilllikelyaddtoasenseof
discomfortratherthanfasterrehydration.
DegreetowhichtheAthleteisMentallyStressed
Thementalstressandanxietyassociatedwithathleticcompetitionaremajorfactorsingastricemptying.Higherlevelsofmentalstressandanxietyareassociatedwitha
reducedgastricemptyingthatcanhaveaseriousimpactontheathlete'sabilitytoadequatelyrehydrateduringcompetition.13,14Obviously,thementaltraining
techniquesthatmaybelearnedfromasportspsychologisttoreducestressarean
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importantstrategyforreducingthephysiologicaleffectsofsportsrelatedstressandanxiety.
TypeofActivitytheAthleteisDoing
Studieshavesuggestedthathighintensityactivityisassociatedwithaslowergastricemptyingratethanlowerintensityactivity,butthedifferencesappeartobeminor.
Inaddition,thetypeofactivity(running,swimming,cycling,etc.)doesnotappeartohavealargeinfluenceongastricemptyingrate.15
AthleteConditioningandAdaptation
Thehumanbodyhaswonderfuladaptivemechanisms,andtheabilitytoadapttohigherorlowerglucoseconcentrations,andfasterorslowerratesoffluidingestion,
arenoexception.Toacertainextent,athletescanfindasystemforoptimalrehydrationthatsuitsthembestbyconsistentlypracticingthatsystem.Practicinga
reasonablesystemallowsthebodytoadapttoitandreducethechanceofanydifficultiesthatcouldarisefromtryingsomethingnewjustbeforeanimportant
competition.Therefore,itisimportantforathletestostartwithgeneralrecommendationsforfluidintaketomaintaintheirhydrationstate,buttomakemodificationsthat
arebestsuitedtotheirownindividualcircumstances.
IntestinalAbsorption
Oncethesolution(fluid)leavesthestomachandgoesintothesmallintestine,thewaterandcarbohydratethatmakeupthesolutionmustbeabsorbedintotheblood.
Themainfactorthatinfluencesthespeedwithwhichwaterandcarbohydrateareabsorbedistheconcentrationofcarbohydrateinthesolutionthatentersthe
intestines.16Asolutionthathasaslightlylowerconcentrationofcarbohydrateandelectrolytes,relativetotheconcentrationofplasma,causesafasterabsorptionof
waterthanasolutionthathaseitheramuchhigheroramuchlowerconcentration.17Consumptionofhighlyconcentratedcarbohydratesolutionsduringexercisemay
causeatemporaryshiftoffluidsawayfromthemusclesandintotheintestinestodilutethesolutionpriortoabsorption.Thiswouldhaveanegativeimpactonboth
musclefunctionandsweatratessinceitwouldcause,atleasttemporarily,ashiftofwaterawayfrommuscletocausetissuedehydration.
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PreexerciseFluidConsiderations
Thepurposeofthissectionistolettheathleteandcoachknowhowimportantitisfortheathletetobeinastateofoptimalhydrationbeforetheinitiationofexercise
orcompetition.Ifasinglefactorcanbepointedtothat,byitself,maymakethedifferencebetweenagoodtrainingsessionandabadone,andagoodcompetitionand
abadone,itisthis.Alltheevidencesuggeststhatevenaminorlevelofunderhydration(aslittleas2percentofbodyweight)cancauseameasurabledifferencein
enduranceandperformance,andthegreatertheunderhydrationthegreaterthenegativeimpactonenduranceandperformance.18,19Furthermore,itcantake24hours
orlongertobringadehydratedathletebacktoawellhydratedstate.Therefore,waitinguntiljustbeforepracticeorcompetitiontobringanathletetoawellhydrated
state,orsimplyfailingtotakeanystepstomakecertaintheathleteisinanoptimallyhydratedstate,willdoomthatathletetohavingapoorpracticeorcompetition
performance.
Ofcourse,therearesportswhereathletesaretryingtohaveaparticular"look"ortryingtomakeaparticularweight.Theclassicbodyprofileinrhythmicgymnasticsis
tohavelonggracefullineswith,essentially,nosecondarysexualcharacteristics.Itiscommonforrhythmicgymnaststorestrictwaterintakebeforeacompetition
becausetheythinkitwillhelptogivethemthedesired(butinmymind"cadaverous")look.Wrestlershaveawellestablishedregimenforfluidrestrictiontotryto
achieveaparticularweightclass.Thentheyhaveabout24hourstorehydratethemselvesbeforethecompetition.Besidestheinherenthealthdangersofdoingthis
(therearewelldocumenteddeathsassociatedwiththisstrategy),itisunlikelythatdehydratedwrestlerswouldbeabletoadequatelyrehydratethemselvesinjust24
hours.Therefore,performanceislikelytobeaffected.Otherthanthedesireto''makeweight,"thereisnoreasontowanttoquicklyreducebodywater,andthereis
certainlynosafewaytodothis.Ifexcessivewaterretentionisaconcern(whichitmaywellbeforwrestlersandbodybuilders),thenathletesshouldavoidconsuming
foodsthatareexcessivelysaltyforseveraldaysleadinguptotheevent.
Therearesomeathletesontheothersideofthecontinuumwhotryto"superhydrate"withwaterbeforeexercise.Longdistancerunners,whosewaterlossduringthe
competitionislikelytobegreaterthantheirabilitytoreplaceit,typicallydothis.Therunnerwiththebesthydrationstateattheendofthecompetitionwillhavea
major
Page87
advantageoverlesswellhydratedcompetitors.Whenathletesconstantlysuperhydrate,theymaydevelopagreaterblood(plasma)volumewithresultantlowercore
temperaturesandheartratesduringactivity.20,21Allofthesevaluessuggestthepotentialforimprovedenduranceandperformance.Consumptionoflargefluidvolumes
isalsoassociatedwithfrequenturination,butthismaybemediatedtoadegreebyconsumptionofsodiumcontainingfluids.22
Glycerol(asimplethreecarbonlipidthatismetabolizedlikeacarbohydrate)hasbeenusedbysomeathletestoaidsuperhydrationbecauseitactslikeahumectant
(i.e.,itattractswater).Thereissomelimitedevidencethataddingglyceroltopreexercisefluidsattherateofonegramperkilogramofbodyweightwillimprove
enduranceperformanceinhotandhumidenvironments.Thisimprovementoccursbecauseglycerolenablestheretentionofmoreofthe
Page88
23,24
consumedfluids. However,individualathletesrespondtothisprotocoldifferently.Someathletesfindthatsuperhydratingwithglycerolmakesthemfeelstiffand
uncomfortable,whileothersaremorecomfortablewiththissensation.25Seechapter4formoreonglycerol.
Ingeneral,athletesshouldfollowthesehydrationguidelinesbeforeexercise:
Thesensationofthirstshouldnotbereliedonasanindicatoroffluidneed.Thirstshouldbeconsideredan"emergency"sensationthatoccurswhenthebodyhas
alreadylost1.5to2.0litersofwater.Duringexercise,thethirstsensationmaybedelayed,sotheexercisingathletemayrequiremorewaterlossbeforethesensation
ofthirstoccurs.
Athletesshouldbecomeaccustomedtoconsumingfluidswithoutthethirstsensation.Asapracticalmatter,thisismadeeasierifathletescarrywaterwiththemall
thetime,wherevertheyareandwherevertheygo.Fluidconsumptionismuchmorelikelytooccurifthewateristherethanifyouhavetogolookingforit,especiallyif
theathletedoesn'tfeelthirsty.
Enoughfluidshouldbeconsumedpriortoexercisethattheathleteproducesurinethatisclear.Clearurineisagoodsignthattheathleteiswellhydratedand
producingadilute,largevolumeurine.Darkurineisasignthattheathleteisproducingalowvolumeconcentratedurine,whichsuggeststhatthebodyneedstoretain
asmuchfluidaspossiblebecauseitisunderhydrated.
Approximately1to1.5hourspriortoexercisetheathleteshouldconsumealargevolumeoffluid(uptohalfaliter)toassureadequatehydrationandtoimprove
gastricemptying.Followingthis,athletesshouldsiponfluids(approximatelyhalfacupevery10minutes)tomaintaintheirhydrationstatebeforeexerciseor
competitionbegins.Athletesshouldconsumefluidasfrequentlyandinashighavolumeascanbetoleratedtoreplacewaterlosses.
Athletesseekingtosuperhydrateshouldbeverycarefulnottotrythistechniquewithoutcarefulmonitoring,especiallyiftheyaresuperhydratingusingglycerol.
Individualswhohavecardiovascularsystemsthatarenotinperfectconditionshouldneverattemptthis.Asapracticalmatter,thesafestwaytosuperhydrate
istoconsumefluidsfrequently.
Avoidfoodsanddrinksthatmayhaveadiuretic(waterlosing)impact.Forinstance,caffeineandrelatedsubstancescommonly
Page89
foundincoffee,tea,chocolate,andsodascauseanincreaseintherateatwhichwaterislost.Therefore,thesesubstancesarecounterproductiveintermsofoptimizing
thehydrationstatebeforeexercise.
FluidConsiderationsduringExercise
Whenathletesconsumefluidsduringexercisethereareclearbenefitsthatoccur,includingabettermaintenanceofexerciseperformanceandaslowingoftheexercise
inducedriseinheartrateandbodytemperature(seefigures2.1and2.2).Inaddition,thereisanimprovementormaintenanceofbloodflowtotheskin.Thedegreeto
whichthecardiovascularandheatmaintenancecapacityismaintainedisdirectlyrelatedtothedegreetowhichdehydrationcanbeavoided.Itisclearthatafailureto
consumesufficientfluidsduringexerciseisamajorriskfactorintheonsetofheatexhaustion.26Itisalsoclearthatthebeststrategyforathletestofollow,toavoidheat
exhaustionandmaintainathleticperformance,istoconsumefluidsduringexercise.2729
Moststudiesthathaveevaluatedtheinteractionbetweenhydrationadequacyandathleticperformancehaveusedeitherplainwater
Figure2.1
Comparisonofheartrateinathletesconsumingfluidsandnotconsumingfluids
duringexercise.
AdaptedfromHargreaves1996.
Page90
Figure2.2
Comparisonofcoretemperatureinathletesconsumingfluidsandnotconsuming
fluidsduringexercise.
AdaptedfromHargreaves1996.
orsportsbeveragesthatcontain,indifferingdegrees,carbohydratesandelectrolytes(seetable2.2).Theresultsofthesestudiesaresimilarinconfirmingthe
importanceoffluidconsumptionduringexercise.However,theinclusionofcarbohydratesandelectrolytesinthefluidsaffordstheathletecertainadvantagesoverplain
water.Recentstudiessuggestthatincludingcarbohydratesintherehydrationsolutionimprovesboththeathlete'sabilitytomaintainorincreaseworkoutputduring
exerciseandincreasesthetimetoexhaustion.3033Thisoccursbecauseconsumedcarbohydrateshelptoavoidthedepletionofmuscleglycogenandprovideafuelto
muscleswhenmuscleglycogenislow.
Differentactivitiesresultindifferenttypesofcarbohydrateutilization,butineachcaseconsumingacarbohydratecontainingfluidhelpstomaintainathletic
performance.Forinstance,instrenuouscyclingtherateofmuscleglycogenuseisnotaffectedwhenacarbohydratesolutionisused.34Inlongdistancerunning,there
isareductionintherateofmuscleglycogenusagewhenacarbohydratecontainingfluidisconsumed.35Andinstopgointermittentexercise,thereisareductionin
muscleglycogenusagewhenacarbohydratecontainingfluidisconsumed.36,37Ineachofthesescenarios,carbohydratedepletionisgenerallyconsideredtobethe
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Table2.2CarbohydrateandElectrolyteContentofCommonSportsBeverages
Beverage
Carbohydratetype
Carbohydrate
concentration(%)
Sodium(mg)per Potassium(mg)
8ozserving
per8ozserving
10K(BeverageProducts,Inc.)
Sucrose,glucose,andfructose
6.3
52
26
AllSport(PepsiColaCo.)
Highfructosecornsyrup
89
55
25
BodyFuel450(VitexFoods,Inc.)
Maltodextrinandfructose
4.2
80
20
Cytomax
Fructosecornsyrupand
sucrose
711
10
150
Everlast
Sucroseandfructose
100
20
Exceed(RossLaboratories)
Glucosepolymerandfructose
7.2
50
45
Gatorade(QuakerOatsCo.)
Sucroseandglucose
110
HydraCharge
Maltodextrinandfructose
HydraFuel
Glucosepolymers,fructose,
glucose
25
50
Powerade(CocaColaCo.)
Highfructosecornsyrupand
maltodextrin
73
33
PowerBurst(PowerBurstCorp.)
Fructose
6.0
35
55
Quickick(CramerProducts,Inc.)
Glucose
2.5
80
25
SportaLyte
Maltodextrin,fructose,and
glucose
7.5
100
60
Sqwincher(UniversalProducts,
Inc.)
Glucoseandfructose
6.8
60
36
11
9.2
Trace
1115
2.7
510
25
Trace
Comparedwithsodaandorangejuice
CocaCola
Highfructosecornsyrup
Orangejuice
Fructoseandsucrose
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PerformanceBenefitsofWaterandCarbohydrate
6.7percentimprovedperformancewithlargevolumeoffluidcomparedtoingestionof
smallvolumeoffluid38
6.3percentimprovedperformancewithingestionofcarbohydratecomparedtoon
carbohydrate
12.4percentimprovedperformancewithcombinationoflargefluidvolumewith
carbohydratecomparedtosmallvolumeoffluidwithoutcarbohydrate
Basedon50minutesofexerciseat80percentVO2max
causeofperformancedegradation.However,thereisgoodevidencethatconsumingacarbohydratecontainingbeveragemayalsobeimportantforimprovingathletic
performanceinhighintensityactivitieswherecarbohydrateisnotexpectedtobedepletedbecauseoftherelativelyshortdurationoftheactivity.3941
Thesedataallsuggestthatathletesshouldbecomeaccustomedtoconsumingacarbohydratecontainingfluidduringexercise.Seetable2.3foropportunitiesfor
replacingfluidsindifferentsports.However,theconcentrationofcarbohydrateandthetypeofcarbohydrateareimportantconsiderations.Thereappeartobeno
majordifferencesamongglucose,sucrose,maltodextrins,andstarch(alldifferenttypesofcarbohydrates)onexerciseperformance.4244(Seetable2.2.)Beverages
thatrelysolelyonfructoseforcarbohydrates,however,maycauseintestinaldistressandmaynotbequicklyabsorbed.45,46Maltodextrinsarelesssweetthansucrose
andfructose,sotheymaybeusedtoaddcarbohydrateenergytosolutionswithoutmakingthemunpalatablysweettasting.47Inanycase,carbohydrateenergy,
regardlessofwhetheritisinliquidorsolidformandalmostregardlessofthetypeofcarbohydrate,willaidathleticperformance.48However,sinceproviding
carbohydratesinliquidformallowstheathletetotakecareoftwoissuesatonce(energyandfluid),liquidsthatcontaincarbohydratesarepreferred.
Theamountofcarbohydratetobeprovidedduringexerciseisimportanttoconsider,sinceprovidingtoomuchtoofastmayinducegastrointestinaldistressand,at
leasttemporarily,takeneededfluidsawayfrommuscleandskintodilutethisexcessivelyconcentratedsolution.Ontheotherhand,providingafluidthathasjusta
scantamountofcarbohydrateinitmaylendnoperformancebenefit.Ingeneral,athletesshouldstrivetoconsumeaboutonegramofcarbohydrateperminuteof
exercise.Thislevelofintakecanbeachieved
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Table2.3OpportunitiesforFluidReplacementinDifferentSportsDuringCompetitions
Event
andduration
Opportunitiesforfluidbreaks
Eventslastingless
than30minutes
Consumptionoffluidsbetween
events,butnofluidsconsumed
within15minutesofevent.
Notneededduringtheevent,
butrequiredbetweenevents
duringthecourseoftheentire
competition.
Sprints
Jumping
Throwing
Gymnastics
Intermediate
eventslastingless
than1hour
Consumptionoffluidsbetween
events.Runnersshouldconsume
somefluidatleastevery5kilometers
(moreoftenifhotandhumid).All
athletesinthiscategoryshould
bringbeveragecontainer.
Fluidreplacementisneeded
before,during,andafterevent,
andcarbohydrateisneeded
beforeandafterevent.
However,carbohydratewill
aidfluiduptakeduringevent,
sobeveragesshouldcontain
carbohydrate.
10kilometerrun
Rowing
Aerobicsclass
Tennislesson
Trackcycling
Enduranceevents
Marathonrunnersshouldconsume
somefluidatleastevery5kilometers
(moreoftenifhotandhumid).
Triathletesshouldconsumefluids
every10kilometersduringcycling
andevery2to4kilometersduring
running.Tennisplayersshouldtake
asmuchtimeasallowableduring
courtchangesandafter3rdsetto
takefluids.
Fluids,electrolytes(sodium),
andcarbohydratereplacement
areallrecommendedduring
theseevents.Theamounts
neededwillvarybasedon
environmentalconditions,
initialglycogenstores,and
exerciseintensity(i.e.,
difficultyofthematch).
Marathon
80kilometer
cycling
Olympicdistance
triathlon
5setsoftennis
(continued)
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Fluidandcarbohydrate
requirements
Page94
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Table2.3(continued)
Eventandduration
Ultraenduranceevents
Fluidandcarbohydrate
requirements
Consumptionoffluidsatevery
Fluids,electrolytes
opportunity,withaplantoconsume (sodium),andcarbohydrate
fluidsonceevery10minutes.Where
replacementareall
fluidsarenotmadeavailablebyrace recommendedduringthese
organizers(asmayoccurwithcycling
events.Theamounts
races),afluidconsumptionplanwith neededwillvarybasedon
carriedfluidsmustbeinplace.
environmentalconditions,
initialglycogenstores,and
exerciseintensity.
Ironman
Englishchannelswim
Roadcycling
StageracessuchasTourde
France
Teamsportslastingaround
90minutes
Plantoconsumefluidsatbreaksthat
naturallyoccur,butnoless
frequentlythanonceevery15
minutes.Ideally,fluidsshouldbe
consumedevery10minutes.
Naturallyoccurringlongerbreaks
(halftime,betweeninnings,between
aurters,etc.)shouldbeconsideredan
opportunitytoreplenishfluids.
Fluids,electrolytes
(sodium),andcarbohydrate
replacementareall
recommendedduringthese
events.Theamounts
neededwillvarybasedon
environmentalconditions,
initialglycogenstores,and
exerciseintensity.
Hockey
Basketball
Football
Volleyball
Baseball
Soccer
AdaptedfromO'Connor1996.
Opportunitiesforfluidbreaks
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49,50
byconsumingsolutionsthatcontainbetween4percentand8percentcarbohydrate,atavolumeof.6to1.2litersperhour. Somesportsbeverageshave
carbohydratespreciselywithinthisrange,whileothershavehigherconcentrations(seetable2.2).Higherconcentrations,however,maycauseadelayingastric
emptyinganddonotnecessarilyleadtoafasterorbettercarbohydratemetabolismduringexercise.51Anotherrealadvantageofconsuminga4to8percent
carbohydratesolutionisthatithasafasterrateofintestinalabsorptionthanwateralone.Thismeansthatfluidstatuscanbemoreefficientlymaintainedandthedelivery
ofcarbohydratetothebloodandmusclesisenhanced.Ifyouknowofanyonewho'severhadababywithdiarrhea,youknowthatphysicianscommonlyprescribe
Pedialyte(sugarwater)becauseitdeliverswaterfasterthanwateraloneandcanmorequicklyrehydratethebaby.Thiseffect,apparently,doesnotchangewithage.
Aboveall,remembertheseimportantconsiderations:
Havefluidscloselyavailabletoconsumeduringtheexercise.Theseshouldpreferablybecoolandhaveaflavorthatyouenjoydrinkingwhileyouexercise.
Avoidsharingyourdrinkingcontainerwithotherssincethisisaterrificwaytomaketheentireteam(orallyoursportsmates)sick.
Drinkonafixedschedule,whetheryou'rethirstyornot.Thegoalistoavoidthirst.
Monitoryourfluidintakeadequacybycheckingyourpreandpostexerciseweight,ascoveredearlierinthischapter.
PostexerciseFluidConsiderations
Itisverylikelythatathleteswhohaveexercisedintenselyforhalfanhourorlongerwillexperiencesomedegreeofunderhydration.Forthoseathleteswhoexercise
everydayormostdays(i.e.,mosteliteathletes),postexercisefluidconsumptionbecomesacriticallyimportantpartoftheexerciseregimenbecauseitallowsthe
athletetobegineachsubsequentdayofactivityinawellhydratedstate.Theimportantpointtoconsideristhatittakestimetorehydratemuscles.Thelesstimethere
istorehydrate,thelowerthelikelihoodthattheathletewillbecapableofbecomingoptimallyhydratedbythebeginningofthenextexercisesession.
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Atbest,athletesconsumefluidsduringexerciseatarateofonlyupto70percentoffluidlossviasweat,butmostathletesreplacesweatlossesataratesignificantly
lessthanthis.52,53Therefore,itislikelythatathleteswillneedtobeadequatelyrehydratedbeforethenextexercisesessionbegins.Inspiteofthisclearneedforfluids,
athletesareknowntoremaininanunderhydratedstateevenwhenfluidsaremadeavailabletothem.54This''voluntarydehydration"suggeststhatathletesshouldbe
placedonafixedfluidreplacementschedulethatwilldecreasethedegreetowhichthisdehydrationismaintained.Awayofencouragingthisistomakecertainthat
goodtastingfluidsareeasilyavailabletotheathleteassoonastheexercisesessionisover.55
Thereissomeevidencethatcommercialsportsdrinksthatcontainbothcarbohydrateandsodiumaremoreeffectiveatrestoringwaterbalancethanplainwater.56It
appears,however,thattomaximizerehydrationalevelofsodiumgreaterthanthatprovidedinmostsportsdrinksisdesirable.57Thisaddedsodiumcanbeobtained
throughthenormalconsumptionoffoods,manyofwhichhaveaddedsalt(sodium).58Thisisonecasewhereloweringtheintakeofsaltorconsumingsaltfreefoods
wouldnotbebeneficial.
Ingeneral,athletesshouldfollowtheserulesforfluidconsumptionfollowingexercise:
Alargevolumeoffluid(asmuchascanbetolerated,perhapsahalfliter)shouldbeconsumedimmediatelyfollowingexercise.Thislargefluidvolumeenlargesthe
stomachandincreasestherateatwhichfluidsleavethestomachandenterthesmallintestinetobecomeabsorbed.
Followingtheinitialconsumptionofalargefluidvolume,athletesshouldconsumeapproximatelyaquarterliteroffluidevery15minutes,toachieveafluidintakeof
approximatelythreelitersoffluidinthreehours.Thelargertheathleteandthegreaterthesweatlossexperiencedduringactivity,thegreatertheamountoffluidthat
mustbeconsumed.
Fluidsshouldcontainbothcarbohydrateandsodium,sincebothareusefulinreturningtheathletetoawellhydratedstate.Inaddition,thecarbohydratecontentof
thebeveragehelpsinreturningstoredglycogen(energy)tomusclesinpreparationforthenextexercisesession.
Sportsdrinkstypicallyprovideapproximately10to25millimolesofelectrolytes(mainlysodium)perliteroffluid.However,the
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59
optimalsodiumconcentrationforfluidretentionisapproximately50millimolesofelectrolytesperliteroffluid. Sinceaddingmoresodiumtofluidsmaymakethefluid
unpalatableandcausetheathletetoconsumelessfluid,theathleteshouldbeencouragedtoconsumesomelightlysaltedsnacks(suchaspretzelsorsaltinecrackers)
duringtheperiodimmediatelyfollowingtheexercise.
Thelossinbodyweightthatresultsfromexerciseshouldbethekeytodeterminingthetotalamountoffluidthatmustbereplacedbeforethenextexercisesession.
Asageneralguide,onepintofretainedfluidisequaltoonepoundofbodyweight.Sincenotallconsumedwaterisretained,twiceasmuchfluidmayneedtobe
consumedthanthefluidequivalenttoweightloss.
Fluidsandfoodscontainingcaffeineandrelatedsubstances(coffee,tea,colas,chocolate,etc.)shouldbeavoidedsincetheyincreaseurinarywaterloss.
Summary
Thereisperhapsnootherfactorthatsoclearlyimpactsonperformancethanhydrationstate.Mostathletes,regardlessofthesport,couldgainanimmediate
performancebenefitbytakingstepstoassurethatphysicalactivitybegins,continues,andendswithbodywateratanoptimallevel.Todothis,athletesshouldtrain
themselvestodrinkfluidsonafixedscheduleratherthanbyrelyingonthirstastheonlystimulustodrinking.Sincethethirstmechanismdoesn'toccuruntiltheathlete
hasalreadylostasubstantialamountofwater(about1.5liters),relianceonthirstguaranteesthattheathletewillperforminanunderhydratedstate,andperformance
willbenegativelyaffected.Wellformulatedsportsbeveragesthatcontainasmallamountofelectrolytes(sodiumandpotassium)andcarbohydrate(6to7percent
carbohydratesolutionisoptimal)havebeenfoundtoencouragefastabsorption,sotheycanreplacebothneededwaterandfuelquickly.Athletesshouldfindagood
sportsbeveragethattastesgoodwhiletheyarephysicallyactiveandconsumeenoughtomaintainbodyweightduringexercise.Enteringphysicalactivityinawell
hydratedstateisimportant,sinceimprovinghydrationstatuswhileexercisingisimpossible(waterislostatsuchafastratethattheathletecanonlyhopetomaintain,
butnotincrease,bodywaterduringexercise).Thisiseasiestiftheathletehasagoodsourceofwaterorotherfluideasilyavailable.Manyathletescarryaroundaliter
bottle
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ofwaterorsportsbeveragewiththemwherevertheygo.Afterexerciseiscompleted,theathleteshouldcontinuetodrinktoreplaceanyamountoffluidthatwas
unreplacedduringtheexercise.Insummary,theathleteshoulddrinkbefore,during,andafterexercisewiththeconfidenceofknowingthisstrategyiscritically
importanttoperformance.
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3
AssessingBodyComposition
LeanasCanBeButallYouSeeIsFat
Imagineatalentedathleteatthepeakofhercompetitivelife.ThiswasanOlympianwho
wasjustahair'swidthbehindthebestpersonontheswimteam,andsomeonewhowas
willingtodoanythingtomakethatplacehers.Ofcourse,everyonehasaninherited
physique,andthispowerhouseclearlyhadinheritedallthequalities(bothgoodandnot
sogood)ofhergeneticdonors.Shewasontheshortsideofsmallandhadablockhouse
figure.Nevertheless,whileswimmingherlaps,therewasnoonebettertolookat:great
strokes,perfectflipturns,powerfulstartsofftheblocks,arocketfinishanditallcame
togethertomakeheroneofthebest.However,despitehernationalandinternational
competitivesuccesses,shestillwasn'tconsideredthebestthiscountryhadtooffer,and
thisateawayatherpshychelikenothingelsecould.WhenIsaythatshetriedeverythingin
herarsenaltogetbetter,Imeanjustthat.Shespentmorehourspracticingshebecame
morecarefulaboutwhatsheateandshebeganbugginghercoachformoreideasonhow
toimproveeverypartofthestroke,eveniftheresultantimprovementwouldbe
incrementallyminiscule.
Ultimately,shebecamesounhappywithherself(mindyou,thisisoneofthetopswimmers
intheworld)thatshefoundfaultwithherappearance."IfonlyIwereleaner..."and"If
onlyIhadlessfat..."werecommoninterjectionsinherconversations.Itwasasif
everythingultimatelyboileddowntoasimpleequationthatsaid,"lessfatequalsimproved
speed."Butwhenyouhavesomeonewho,forhersport,isalreadyinthe10thpercentile
forbodyfatpercent,it'shardtoimaginethathavinglessfatwouldcauseacompetitive
improvement.(Infact,swimmersmayfindthatthereductioninbuoyancyassociatedwith
toolittlefatcanactuallyincreasedragandreducesspeed.)Nevertheless,shebeganseeing
herselfasfatandtooktheonlydramaticactionshecouldthinkofdietingtothepointof
starvationtomakeherselfseemlessfat.Aneatingdisorder,regardlessofhowitrearsits
uglyhead,isneveranattractiveproposition.Foranathletetryingdesperatelytodo
anythingtogainafractionofasecond,aneatingdisordercanbedisastrous.
Aspartofourregularevvaluations,wenoticedthatalltheswimmersinthelabwere
comfortablywalkingaroundintheirswimsuitsoringymshortsandTshirtsallofthem
excepttheswimmerinquestion.Shehadontwosweatshirts,gympants,andajacketand
wasstillshivering.Weknewrightawaywehadaproblemonourhands,butwealso
knewwe
(textboxcontinuedonnextpage)
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(textboxcontinuedfrompreviouspage)
hadtodocumentwhatwasgoingon.Aswesuspected,shehadlostweightandwas,
therefore,"smaller."However,shehadlostmoreweightfromherleanbodymass(muscle)
thanfromherfatmass,soshewaslessable,tomoveherdoyweightthanbefore
(strengthtoweightratioiscriticallyimportantinallsports).Infact,shelostinmusclethe
equivalentmuscleweightrepresentedinoneentirearm.Whenwespoketohercoachto
seeifhehadanyconcerns,heimmediatelyblurtedoutthatshehadbecomeimpossibleto
workwith.Herstartswereshort,herturnshaddeteriorated,andshenolongerhadakiller
finish.Allthestrengthandskillsthatwereatthecoreofhersuccesseshadvirtually
disappeared.Hercoachwasreadytoincreasehertrainingschedule(eventhoughshewas
alreadyspendingmorehoursinthepoolandweightroomthananyoneelse)becausehe
couldn'tseehowshecouldcompeteinthenextbigcompetitiongivenherstateof
unreadiness.Ofcourse,therewasnowayshecouldcontinuetodoevenwhatshewas
nowdoing,soincreasinghertrainingschedulewouldhavebeenimpossible.
Whenwereviewedherdiet,itbecameclearthatshewastryingtocoveruphereating
disorder.Itwouldhavebeenimpossibleforhertohaveeatenwhatshereportedsheate
(barringaclinicalmalabsorptiondisorder)andhavelostsomuchweight.WhenIbecame
convincedthatwereallyhadaseriousproblemonourhands,ItooktheonlyactionI
knewtotake.Iconvincedhercoachtoremoveherfromtheteamuntilshepresentedhim
withaletter,fromapsychiatristtrainedtoworkwitheatingdisorders,clearlystatingthat
hercontinuedparticipationincompetitiveswimmingwouldnotplaceheratristforan
eatingdisorder.Inotherwords,ifshewantedtocomeback,shehadtochangewhatshe
wasdoing,andshehadtoconvinceanappropriatemedicalprofessionalthatthischange
wouldnotbealteredifshereturnedtoswimming.Thisstrategywasnoteasytoinitiate,
anditwasdevastatingfortheathlete.Imaginetryingallyoulifetobeonateam,
succeedingingettingonthatteam,andthenbeingtakenofftheteambecauseyouwere
tryinganything(albeitwrongly)tobemorecompetitive.
Fortunately,thisstoryhasahappyending.Shedidit.Shewenthome,wenttocounseling,
learnedwhatsheneededtodo,acceptedherphysiqueasitwas,atebetter,trained
smarter,gotherOKletterfromherphysician,andbecameastar.Ifyou'vewatched
swimmingcompetitions,you'veseenherswimandsucceed.
Thebodyiscomposedofdifferentcomponents(water,muscle,fat,bone,nervetissue,tendons,etc.),andeachhasadifferentdensity.Fromafunctionalstandpoint,
tissuesaregroupedtogetherintothosethataremainlyfat(fatmass),whichhaslittlewaterassociatedwithit,andthosethathavelittlefat(fatfreemass),whichhasa
greatdealofwaterassociatedwithit.Thefatfreemassisalsocommonlyreferredtoasleanmass,althoughthisisatroublingtermformany,becausethe
Page101
fatfreemassincludesagreatdealofwater(greaterthan65percent).Morerecently,becauseofnewtechniquesandimprovementsinestimatingbodycomposition,
bonemassorskeletalmasshasbeenincludedasathirdcommonlyassessedcomponentofbodycomposition.Butforthepurposeofthisbook,thecomponentsof
bodycompositiongenerallyarereferredtoasfatmass(theamountoftissueinthebodythatismainlyfat)andleanmass(theamountoftissueinthebodythatismainly
freeoffat).
Thefatmassiscomposedofessentialfatandstoragefat.Theessentialfatisarequiredcomponentofthebrain,nerves,bonemarrow,hearttissue,andcellwalls
thatwecannotlivewithout.Adultfemalesarepredictedtohaveapproximately12to15percentoftotalbodyweightasessentialfat.Themajorityofthisfatis
associatedwithreproductionandincludestheadditionalfatassociatedwithbreasttissue.Becausemalesdonothavethisreproductivefunction,essentialfatinmalesis
approximately3percentoftotalbodyweight.Storagefat,ontheotherhand,isanenergyreservethatbuildsupinfat(adipose)cellsunderneaththeskin(subcutaneous
fat)andaroundtheorgans(interabdominalfat).Itisnormalformenandwomentohaveapproximately11to15percentoftotalbodyweightfromstoragefat.
Combiningtheessentialfatandstoragefatcompartments,normalbodyfatpercentformalesisapproximately15percent(3percentessential12percentstorage),
whilenormalbodyfatpercentforfemalesis26percent(15percentessential11percentstorage).1
Womenwithextremelylowbodyfatpercentareatriskfordevelopingreproductivesystemproblems.Thiscommonlymanifestsitselfasirregularmenstrualperiods.
Oligomenorrhea(infrequentmenses)andamenorrhea(cessationofmenses)areassociatedwithlowestrogenproduction,whichincreasestheriskofosteoporosis(a
bonediseaseassociatedwithlowbonedensity),andincreasedfracturerisk.Itappearsthatabodyfatpercentof17percentto22percentisneededtomaintaina
normalmenstrualcycleinmostwomen.2Womenwhodevelopanexcessivelylowbodyfatpercenttypicallyexerciseexcessivelyfortheamountofenergythey
consume,orhaveaneatingdisorder.The"femaleathletetriad"isaconditionthathasrecentlybeendescribedasprevalentinmanyfemaleathletes,andincludesthe
interrelatedpresenceofaneatingdisorder,amenorrhea,andlowbonedensity.
Leanmassismainlywaterandprotein,butalsoincludessmalllevelsofmineralsandstoredcarbohydrate(glycogen).Themainconstituentsofthefatfreemassinclude
skeletalmuscle,theheart,
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andotherorgans.Whiletotalbodyweightisapproximately60percentwater,thewatercontent(byweight)ofthefatfreemassis70percent.Thiscanbecompared
tothewatercontentofthefatmass,whichisbelow10percentwater.3Athletestypicallyhavealargerleanmassandalowerfatmassthannonathletesdo,sowell
hydratedathleteshaveahigherproportionoftotalweightthatcomesfromwater.
Usingthe"fatmassleanmass"modelofbodycomposition,thecombinedweightoffatmassandleanmassequalstotalbodyweight.However,weightbyitselfdoes
notdiscriminatebetweenthetwocomponents,soitisconsideredtobeaninappropriatemeasureofbodycomposition.Therefore,thestatement"Myweightis
increasing,soImustbegettingfat,"iscommonbutincorrect.Itisquitepossibleforanathletetoincreasethelean(i.e.,muscle)masswithoutincreasingthefatmass.
Clearly,therewouldbeanincreaseinweight,butnotfatweight.Itisalsopossibleforanathletetomaintainweightbutexperiencechangesinfatorleanmass.This
couldbeeitherdesirableorundesirabledependingonwhichelementisincreasing.Ahighstrengthtoweightratioshowsanincreaseinleanmass(strength)witha
maintenanceorloweringoffatmass(weight)equalingtotalweight.Thisscenarioisobviouslydesirable.However,shouldanathleteincreasethefatmass,strengthis
lostandthestrengthrelativetoweightratiodecreasesorislow.Assessingtheseaspectsofbodycompositionhasbecomeastandardtoolfortheevaluationofbody
changesthatoccurasaresultoftime,training,andnutritionalfactors.
Bodycompositionassessmentgenerallyresultsinobtainingavaluereferredtoasbodyfatpercent,ortheproportionoftotalweightthatismadeupbythefatmass.
Let'sassumeanathleteweighs150poundsandhasabodyfatpercentof20percent.Thismeansthat30pounds(150 .20=30)isfatweightand120poundsis
fatfree(i.e.,lean)weight.Ifthisathleteexperiencesareductioninbodyfatpercentto15percentwhilemaintainingweight,thiswouldmeanthat22.5pounds(150
.15=22.5)isfatweightand127.5poundsisleanweight.Thisincreaseof7.5poundsinleanweightandreductioninfatweightmeanstheathleteisnowsmaller
(poundforpound,leanmasstakesuplessspacethanfatmassbecauseithasahigherdensity),whichmeanstheathleteshouldbeabletomovemorequicklyand
moreefficiently(lessdrag)thanbefore.However,ifthis150poundathleteweretomaintainweightbutincreasefatmasswhilereducingtheleanmass,potentialspeed
andefficiencyof
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movementwouldbereduced.Therefore,weightisapoormeasureforpredictingathleticsuccess.Thisexamplealsoemphasizestheimportanceoflookingat
changesthatoccurinboththeleanandfatmass,sinceunderstandingchangesinbothcompartmentsisnecessarytounderstandthepotentialimpactonperformance.
PurposeofBodyCompositionAssessment
Thepurposeofbodycompositionassessmentistodeterminetheathlete'sdistributionoflean(muscle)massandfatmass.Ahighleanmasstofatmassratioisoften
synonymouswithahighstrengthtoweightratio,whichistypicallyassociatedwithathleticsuccess.However,thereisnosingleidealbodycompositionforallathletesin
allsports.Eachsporthasarangeofleanmassandfatmassassociatedwithit,andeachathleteinasporthasanindividualrangethatisidealforhimorher.Athletes
whotrytoachieveanarbitrarybodycompositionthatisnotrightforthemarelikelytoplacethemselvesathealthriskandwillnotachievetheperformancebenefits
theyseek.Therefore,thekeytobodycompositionassessmentistheestablishmentofanacceptablerangeofleanandfatmassfortheindividualathlete,aswellasthe
monitoringofleanandfatmassoverregulartimeintervalstoassurethestabilityorgrowthoftheleanmassandaproportionalmaintenanceorreductionofthefat
mass.Importantly,thereshouldbejustasmuchattentiongiventochangesinleanmass(bothinweightofleanmassandproportionofleanmass)astheattention
traditionallygiventobodyfatpercent.
HowImportantIsBodyCompositiontoPerformance?
Athleticperformanceis,toalargedegree,dependentontheathlete'sabilitytosustainpower(bothanaerobicallyandaerobically)andtheathlete'sabilitytoovercome
resistance,ordrag.Bothofthesefactorsareinterrelatedwiththeathlete'sbodycomposition.Coupledwiththecommonperceptionofmanyathleteswhocompetein
sportswhereappearanceisaconcern(swimming,diving,gymnastics,skating,etc.),attainmentofan"ideal"bodycompositionoftenbecomesacentralthemeof
training.Besidestheaestheticandperformancereasonsforwantingtoachieveanoptimalbodycomposition,
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theremayalsobesafetyreasons.Anathletewhoiscarryingexcessweightmaybemorepronetoinjurywhenperformingdifficultskillsthantheathletewithamore
optimalbodycomposition.However,themeansathletessometimesuseinanattempttoachieveanoptimalbodycompositionareoftencounterproductive.Dietsand
excessivetrainingoftenresultinsuchasevereenergydeficitthat,whiletotalweightmaybereduced,theconstituentsofweightalsochange,commonlywithalower
musclemassandarelativelyhigherfatmass.Theresultinghigherbodyfatpercentageandlowermusclemassinevitablyresultinaperformancereductionthat
motivatestheathletetofollowregimensthatproduceevengreaterenergydeficits.Thisdownwardenergyintakespiralmaybetheprecursortoeatingdisordersthat
placetheathleteatserioushealthrisk.Therefore,whileachievinganoptimalbodycompositionisusefulforhighlevelathleticperformance,theprocessesathletesoften
usetoattainanoptimalbodycompositionmayreduceathleticperformance,placethematahigherinjuryrisk,andincreasehealthrisks.
Themindsetthatmanypeoplehavethatfood,regardlessoftheamountandtype,is"fatproducing"isunhealthy.Amuchhealthier(andfromthepointofviewofan
athlete,moreappropriate)mindsetisthatfoodistheproviderofenergyandthenutrientsassociatedwithburningenergy.Youwouldn'tthinkofnotputtingfuelin
yourautomobile(youknowforcertainitwouldn'trun).Youshouldalsoimagineputtingfuel(food)inyourbodytomakeyourmusclesrunisnormalanddesirable.
Thekeyistoknowwhatfoodsmakeyourmusclesrunbest,andhowtodeliverthefoodtokeepyourhighoctanetankfull(glycogenstorage),whilelimitingthe
storageoflowoctanefuel(fat).
Bodyfatpercentageshouldbethoughtofashavinganappropriaterangefordifferentsports,andit'sOKforathletestofallanywhereonthatsportspecificrange.For
instance,thesevenmembersofthegoldmedalwinning1996U.S.GymnasticsTeamwerenottheleanestindividualsonthe20membernationalteam.Theywere,for
themostpart,rightinthemiddleoftherangeofbodyfatpercentagesforthegirlsonthenationalteam.Despitethis,theywereselectedthroughcompetitiontobethe
girlsthatrepresentedtheUnitedStatesintheOlympicGames,andtheywontheteamgoldmedal.
Withinsomereasonablebounds,havingarelativelylowbodyfatpercentagemayaidathleticperformance.Itdoesthisbyimprovingthestrengthtoweightratio:fora
givenweight,moreofitisrepresentedbyleanmassthatispowerproducingandlessofitbyfatmass
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thatrepresentsstoredfuel.Italsohelpsbyloweringtheresistance,ordrag,anathletehasasshe'sgoingthroughtheair,swimminginwater,orskatingonicethe
smallerthebodyprofile,thelessresistanceitislikelytoproduce.
Lessresistance,ordrag,issoimportantforsomesports(typicallythefasteryougothegreatertheimportanceofdragreduction)thatperformancetechniquesare
basedonreducingdrag.Speedskaters,forinstance,spendtheentireracebentovertoreducewindresistance.Cyclistswearspecialstreamlinedhelmetsandclothing,
positiontheirbodiesonthebicycletoreducedrag,andevenstrategizeaboutthebesttimetosprintaheadofthecycleinfrontofthem.Goingtoosooncanleadto
prematureexhaustionbecauseittakesagreatdealmoreenergytogothesamespeedifyou'retheonefacingwindresistance.Agymnastwhoweighs110poundsand
is5feettallwithabodyfatpercentageof15percentwillhavealowerwindresistance(i.e.,lessdrag)tumblingthroughtheairthanagymnastwiththesameweight
andheightbutwithabodyfatpercentageof20percent.
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Forsomesports,however,thismaymakelittleornodifference.It'shardtoimaginehowapowerlifterwouldhaveaproblemwithwindresistance,andlinemenon
footballteamsaremoreinterestedinmovingmassthangoingfastoveradistance(althoughquicknesshelps).(Seetable3.1.)
Table3.1BodyFatFercentagesRangesforMaleandFemaleAthletesinDifferent
Sports
Sport
Bodyfatpercentage(rnageofaverage)
Males
Baseball(age2028)
1216
Basketball(age2527)
711
2027
Cycling
89
1315
Figureskating
910
1213
FootballDefensivebacks(age
19.320.3)
1314
FootballOffensivebacks(age17
24.5)
1012
FootballLinemen(age1724.7)
912
FootballQuarterbacks(age24.1)
1619
Hockey(age22.526.3)
1314
Rowing(age25.6)
1315
Racquetball(age2125)
57
Speedskating(age21)
89
SkiingAlpine(age16.521.8)
911
SkiingCrosscountry(age20.2
25.6)
911
2021
SkiingNordic(age21.7)
713
1522
SoccerU.S.Junior(age17.5)
89
SoccerU.S.Olympic(age20.6)
910
SoccerU.S.Collegiate(age20.0)
910
SoccerU.S.National(age22.5)
911
SwimmingAllstroke/distances
(age15.121.8)
91O
SwimmingSprints
511
1314
2627
SwimmingMiddledistance
1718
Sychornizedswimming(age20.1)
2324
Tennis(age3942)
1517
2021
TrackandfieldDistancerunning
(age2026)
57
1519
TrackandfieldMiddledistance
(age2025)
613
TrackandfieldSprint(age2047)
517
TrackandfieldCrosscountry(age
15.6)
1920
1516
TrackandfieldRacewalking(age
26.7)
78
TrackandfieldDiscus(age2128)
1617
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Females
2426
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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Sport
Bodyfatpercentage(rangeofaverage)
Males
Females
TrackandfieldHurdles(age20.3)
2021
TrackandfieldShotput(age21.527)
1620
2729
Triathlon
78
1213
Volleyball(age1926)
1113
1722
WeightliftingPower(age24.926.3)
920
WeightliftingOlympic(age25.3)
1213
WeightliftingBodybuilding(age25.629)
814
1314
Wrestling(age11.327)
415
Note:Thevaluespresentedareestimatesfromlimitednumbersofathletesassessedindifferent
settingsusingskinfoldsorhydrodensitometryandshouldnotbeconsideredideals.Thevaluesin
thistablecanbeusedtocomparecommonbodycompositionvaluesfoundindifferentsports.
AdaptedfromWilmoreandCostill1988.
Insportswherebeingaerodynamichelps,bodycompositioncouldmakeabigdifference.Thereasonforthisissomethingmanyofushavealreadyexperienced:
poundforpound,fattakesupmorespacethanleanbecauseitislessdensethanlean.Peoplewithahighbodyfatpercentagearelikelytobeabletofloatbetterin
waterthanpeoplewithalowbodyfatpercentagebecausethegreateramountoffat(whichislessdense)makesiteasierforthemtofloat.Leanmassis65to75
percentwater,whilefatmassisessentiallyanhydrous(hasnowater).Onewaytothinkabouttherelativedensitiesofwaterandfatistothinkaboutoilandvinegar
saladdressing.Theoilalwaysfloatstothetopbecauseitislessdensethanthewaterbasedvinegar.
HowBodyCompositionIsEstimated
Youcan'ttellaboutaperson'sbodycompositionbyweighingthemorbylookingatthem.Therearemany''thin"peoplewhohavelostsomuchleanmassthatthey
actuallyhavearelativelyhighbodyfatpercent.Therearealsomany"large"peoplewhomyoumightassumeareobesebutwhoareactuallyrelativelylean.Evenwith
modemequipmentandsophisticatedequationsitisextremelydifficult(ifnotimpossible)toaccuratelymeasurebodyfatpercentageandtoaccuratelyrepeatthat
measure.Themostaccuratemeansofmeasuringfatmassandleanmassifyoulivedinahorrorstory!
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(Don'ttrythis)wouldbetodeterminethenudeweightofaperson,putthepersoninaboilingpotofwater,letrisetothetop,andthenweighthefat.However,since
wecan'tanddon'twanttodothis,alltheothertechniquesavailableformeasuringbodyfatpercentagearemerelyestimatesofwhat'sreallythere.Sinceeach
techniqueusesadifferentmeansofestimatingbodycomposition,crosscomparisonsbetweentechniquesshouldnotbemade.Forinstance,ifyouhadyourbody
compositionmeasuredusingaskinfoldcaliperlastyear,andyouusedabioelectricalimpedanceanalysis(BIA)yesterday,itwouldbemisleadingtousethesevalues
asameansofdetermininghowyourbodycompositionhaschangedovertime.
Thecommonmethodsforassessingbodycompositioninclude
hydrostaticweighing(underwaterweighing),
skinfoldmeasuresappliedtopredictionequations,
bioeletricalimpedanceanalysis(BIA),and
dualenergyxrayabsorptiometry(DEXA).
HydrostaticWeighing(Hydrodensitometry)
Thisisthe"classic"meansfordeterminingbodycompositionandapplieswhatisknownasthe"ArchimedesPrinciple."4Inessence,thisprinciplestatesthat,foran
equalweight,lowerdensityobjectshavealargersurfaceareaanddisplacemorewaterthanhigherdensityobjects.Fromabodycompositionstandpoint,thisprinciple
isappliedinthefollowingway:
1.Thesubjectisweighedonastandardscaletogeta"landweight."
2.Usingspecializedequipment,thesubject'slungvolumeisestimated(thesubjectblowsintoatube).
3.Thesubjectsitsonachairthatisattachedtoaweightscale.
4.Thechairandweightscalearepositionedoverwaterandthechairisslowlyloweredintothewater.
5.Whenthesubjectisloweredintothewaterjustbelowthechin,theyareaskedtofullyexhaleandcompletelylowertheirheadintothewatertobecompletely
immersed.
6.Whileimmersed,"underwaterweight"isreadoffthescalethatisattachedtothechairthesubjectissittingon.
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Subjectsweighlessinwaterthanoutofwaterbecausebodyfat(regardlessoftheamountpresent)makesthesubjectmorebuoyant.Thegreaterthedifference
betweeninwaterweightandoutofwaterweightisafunctionofhowmuchbodyfatthesubjecthas.Averyobesesubjectwithahighlevelofbodyfatwouldappear
lightinwaterrelativetolandweight.Sincelungvolumeismeasuredpriortotakingthe"waterweight,"thereisanadjustmentforthebuoyancythatcanbeattributedto
theairinthelungs.Tominimizethelungaireffect,thesubjectisaskedtoexhalepriortofullsubmersion,butthereisalwayssomeremainingairinthelungsthatis
referredtoas"residualvolume."
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Whilethereissomepotentialforerrorwithhydrodensitometryrelatedtoaperson'shydrationstatus,andtheresidualvolumeofairinthelungsmentionedearlier,this
techniqueisusefulfordeterminingthechangeinbodycompositionovertimeifthetechniciansperformingthemeasurementsaregoodatpreciselyreplicatingthe
measurementprocedure.Itisalsoausefulmeansofdeterminingthebodycompositionofapopulation,sincetheerrorsassociatedwiththetechniquearelikelyto
averagethemselvesoutovermanymeasurements.However,individualswithinthatpopulationwouldneverbesureiftheirpersonalbodycompositionresultswere
accurate.Goodlaboratoriesthatdoresearchinbodycompositionalmostalwayshaveinvestedtheseveralthousanddollarsfortheequipmentneededtoaccuratelydo
hydrostaticweighing.Importantly,theyalsoinvestinmakingsuretheyhavehighlyqualifiedpeopletotakethemeasurements.
Skinfolds
Skinfoldcalipers,whichvaryincostfromfreeto$500,areusedtomeasureadoublethicknessofthefatlayerundertheskin.Thisfatlayer(calledsubcutaneousfat)
ishypothesizedtorepresentapproximately50percentofaperson'stotalbodyfat.Therefore,ifyoucangetagoodestimateofthesubcutaneousfatlayer,youshould
beabletopredictthetotalbodyfatlevel.Thepredictionequationscommonlyusedtodeterminebodycompositionfromskinfoldsarebasedonthebodycomposition
determinationsderivedfromhydrodensitometry.Itworkssomethinglikethis:Youmeasureagroupofpeopleusinghydrodensitometrytodeterminetheirbodyfat
percentages.Thenyoumeasurethesesamepeoplewithaseriesofskinfolds,whichareusedinstatisticstopredictthebodyfatpercentageobtainedfrom
hydrodensitometry.Iftheskinfolds,whenappliedtothenewlycreatedequation,cansuccessfullypredictthehydrodensitometryvalue,thenyouhaveaskinfold
equationforpredictingbodyfatpercentage.
Thereareanumberofdifferentequationsavailableforthegeneralpopulation,andtherearealsoseveralequationsavailableforathletes.Ingeneral,usinganequation
thatismorespecifictothepersonyou'remeasuringyieldsmoreaccurateresults.Also,equationsthatusemoreskinfoldmeasurementsaregenerallymoreaccurate.
Forinstance,anequationmayrequireheight,weight,age,tricepsskinfold,andabdomenskinfold.Anotherequationmayrequireheight,
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weight,age,andskinfoldsatthetriceps,subscapular,midaxillary,suprailiac,abdomen,andmidthighsites.
It'simportanttosayawordaboutthevaluesthatarederivedfromskinfoldequationsandusedtopredictbodyfatpercentage.Manyoftheequationsusedwith
athletesareactuallymeantforthegeneral(i.e.,nonathlete)population.Sincemanyathletesareconsiderablyleanerthantheaveragenonathlete,theresultsthatare
derivedfromskinfoldequationsareunrealisticallylow.Manyathletescometothelabsayingthattheyhaveabodyfatpercentageof2percentor3percent,andI
knowimmediatelythattheseareestimatesfromequationsthathavenotbeennormalizedonathletes.It'ssimplynotpossibletohaveabodyfatpercentthatissolow.
Whenathletesthinktheyhavesuchalowbodyfatpercentandaregiventhetruevaluefromamorerealisticassessment(usingeitherbetter,morepopulationspecific
equationsoramoreaccuratetechnique),theydon'tusuallyrespondpositivelywhentheyreceivethenewnumber(usuallysomewherebetween8and18percent).It's
importantforyoutorememberthat,whenskinfoldequationsareused,thesinglenumberyougetisnotgoingtobeperfectlyaccurate.However,thatnumbercanbe
usedasabaselinetodeterminechangeovertimeifthesametechniqueandsameequationareusedtogetthesecondvalue.Itiscompletelyinappropriatetocompare
thefirstvaluewithonethatwasobtainedusingadifferentsetofskinfoldsandadifferentequation.
BioelectricalImpedanceAnalysis(BIA)
Forthoseofyouwhoknowwhattodoifyou'reinaswimmingpool,andyoubegintohearthunderandlightningnearby,youalreadyknowtheprinciplebehind
bioelectricalimpedanceanalysis(BIA).Waterisagoodconductorofelectricity,andmostbodywaterisfoundintheleanmass.Fat,whichhasalmostnowaterinit,
issuchapoorconductorofelectricitythatitactuallyimpedestheelectricalflow.BIAequipmentcomesintwobasicforms.Inoneform,thesubjectliesdownand
electrodesareconnectedtotherightwristandrightankle,whichproducesanelectricalcurrentthatrunsfromthewristtotheankle.Inanotherform,thesubject
standsonaplatformwithbarefeet,andanelectricalcurrentrunsfromtherightfoot,uptherightleg,downtheleftleg,andouttheleftfoot.RegardlessoftheBIA
equipmentused,theprinciplebehindthetechniqueisthesame.Ifyouknowthebeginninglevelofenergy(electricity)thatentersthesystemandyoucanmeasurethe
levelofenergythatexitsthesystem,
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youknowhowmuchoftheenergyhasbeenimpededinthesystem.Sincemuscle,becauseofthewaterandelectrolytesitcontains,isanefficientconductorof
electricity,andfatisanefficientinsulatorof(thereforeitimpedes)electricity,thegreatertheimpedance,thegreatertheleveloffat.Ifyoustartwith100unitsof
electricitygoingintoyoursystemand80unitsofelectricitycomeoutofthesystem,youhavemorewaterandmusclethansomeonewhohas100unitsgoinginand60
unitscomingout.
Ofcourse,anumberofadjustmentstothepredictionarenecessary.Atallerpersonwouldhavetheelectricalcurrentrunningalongerdistance,sowouldautomatically
haveagreaterlevelofimpedance.Theratioofweighttoheightisalsoimportant,becauseithelpstopredictthedistancethecurrentisrunningandthecompositionof
thetissuesitisrunningthrough.Sincebodycompositioncommonlychangeswithage(peoplebecomelessleanandmorefatwithincreasingage),ageisalsoan
importantpredictorofbodycomposition.Attheinitiationoftheadolescentgrowthspurt,malesandfemalesbegintodifferentiatethemselvesonbodycomposition,
withwomenhavingrelativelymorefatthanmen.Sogenderisalsoanimportantconsiderationinthisprediction.Therefore,whenperformingaBIA,thevariablesage,
height,weight,andgenderareincludedintheequationthatpredictsbodyfatpercentage.
WhileBIAhasanexcellenttheoreticalbasisformakinggoodbodycompositionpredictions,thereareseveralimportantprotocolsthatmustbefollowedfortheresults
tobeaccurateandrepeatable.Sincethetechniqueisdependentonelectricalconductivitythroughtheleanmass,thehydrationstateofthesubjectcanaltertheresults.
IfsomeonehasaBIAmeasurementtakenandisnotwellhydrated,theelectricalcurrentwillnotbeconductedthroughtheleanmassaswell,sothesubjectwill
appeartohavemorefatmassthantheyreallyhave.Therefore,itiscriticallyimportantthatthepersonhavingaBIAmeasurementtakenbeinawellhydratedstate.It
isgenerallybelievedthatdrinkingalcohol,exercising,consuminglargeamountsofcoffee,andspendingtimeoutsideinhotandhumidweatherwithin24hoursofaBIA
testleadstosufficientdehydrationthattheresultswillnotbeaccurate.Sinceseriousathletesexercisemostdays,thistechniquemayprovideresultsthatshowthemto
havemorebodyfatthantheyreallyhave.Therefore,athleteswhoaremeasuredwiththistechniqueshoulddoitafteradayofrestandshouldmakecertaintheyare
wellhydrated.Aneasyhydrationcheckistoseeiftheurineisclear.Themoreclearitis,thebetterhydratedyouare.
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DualEnergyXRayAbsorptiometry(DEXA)
Dualenergyxrayabsorptiometry(DEXA)isthelatest,mostaccurate,andmostexpensive($50,000to$80,000)meansofdeterminingbodycomposition,anditis
generallyconsideredthecurrent"goldstandard"forthispurpose.Theinformationyoucanderivefromafullbodyscanonanathleteisinvaluable,includingbone
density,bodyfatpercentage,leanbodymass,fatmass,andthedistributionoffatandleaninthearms,bodytrunk,andlegs.DEXAoutputevenprovidesthe
differencesinleanmassandfatmassbetweentheleftandrightsides.Thisinformationcanbeparticularlyimportantforathleteswhowishtodevelopsymmetrical
bodiesorwho,becauseofthenatureofthesport,needtoproducethesamemuscularpowerineachlegorineacharm.
DEXAworksbypassingtwoxraybeamsthroughthesubjectandmeasuringtheamountofxraythathasbeenabsorbedbythetissueithaspassedthrough.One
beamisahighintensitybeamandoneisalowintensitybeam,sotherelativeabsorbanceofeachbeamisanindicationofthedensityofthetissueithaspassed
through.Thehigherthetissuedensity,thegreaterthereductioninxrayintensity.Don'tbefrightenedbyallthistalkofxraybeamspassingthroughyourbody.Infact,
theamountofradiationenergythatisusedwithDEXAisextremelysmall.Youwouldneedtohaveapproximately800fullbodyDEXAscansbeforeyougotthe
sameamountofradiationreceivedfromonestandardchestxray.Infact,thelevelofradiationissolowthatDEXAisapprovedbytheFDAasascreeningdeviceto
predictbodycomposition.Usually,xraydevicesarereservedasdiagnosticinstrumentsbecauseoftheamountofradiationtheyimpart,butnotsoforDEXA.
TheprocedureforDEXA,whichwasoriginallydevelopedtodeterminethedensityofbone,couldn'tbeeasier.ThesubjectliesontheDEXAtableforapproximately
20minutes,andthepencilbeamxrayspassthroughthesubjectandareinterpretedbyamechanicalarmabovethesubject.Becausemetalhassuchahighdensity,
thesubjectisaskedtoremovealljewelryandmustwearclothingthatcontainsnometal.Theresultantvalueistranslatedintoadensityvalueforbone,lean,andfat
tissue.Becausethedensityvaluesarederivedfromadirectassessmentoftissuedensity,thisisascloseaswecangettodirectlyassessingtissuedensity(shortof
surgery!).IfyoucanfindalabwithDEXA,theusualcostforafullbodyscanissomewherebetween$100and$250.
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WhyDoesBodyCompositionChange?
Bodycompositionchanges.Wecaninfluencethatchangebytakingchargeofwhatweeatandhowweexercise.Thegeneralruleforleanmass(includingbonemass)
is"useitorloseit."We'rewonderfullyadaptivecreatures,andwequicklyadapttoourenvironmentandouractivity.Weknow,forinstance,thatastronautsquickly
demineralizetheirbonesbecausethegravityfreeenvironmentofouterspaceeliminatestheneedforhavingastrongskeleton.Wewoulddoquitewellinthat
environmentlookinglikeajellyfish,andthebonesquicklyadaptbyreleasinglotsofcalcium.Theeffectofthisenvironmentissostrongthatastronautsmustspenda
significantamountoftimedoingexercisethatplacesstressontheskeleton.Again,we'readaptivecreatures,soplacingthisartificialstressontheboneshelpstokeep
themstrong,eveninagravityfreeenvironment.Thesamethinghappenswhenpeoplearebedriddenbecauseofaninjury.Bothboneandmusclemassesarerapidly
reducedbecausetheysimplyaren'tneededwhenyou'relyinginbed.Theimportantthingtorememberaboutourtissuesisthattheyarealiveandwilldowhat's
neededtoadapttotheircurrentsituation.Evenbone,whichtothecasualobservermightappeartobeahard,rocklike,unadaptivestructure,isactuallyverymuch
aliveandchangingitselfallthetime.Mineralsmoveinandmineralsmoveout,andthisprocessleadstoaconstantremodelingofbone.
Whenyouconsidertheinfluencesonbodycomposition,theyboildowntothefollowing:
Geneticpredisposition.Thisiseveryone'sbottomlineand,nomatterhowhardyoutry,youcan'tchangeit.Peoplehavedifferentinheritedbodytypes,andeach
typehasadifferentpredispositiontowardaccumulatingmoreorlessfat.Endomorphs(largetrunk,shortfingers,shorterlegs)haveapredispositiontowardhigher
bodyfatpercentages,andectomorphs(longlegs,longfingers,shortertrunk)haveapredispositiontowardaslenderbuildwithlessbodyfat.Whatyou'rebornwith
can'tchange,soallyoucanhopetodoisoptimizewhatyou'vebeengiven.
Age.Peoplegenerallydevelopalowerleanmassandhigherfatmassaftertheageof30.However,whilethisagerelatedchangeinbodycompositionisnormal,it
isn'tamandate.Ithasbeenclearlyshownthatagooddietandregularactivitycankeepyoulean.Sinceenergymetabolismdropsabout2percentforeachdecade
afterage30,
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itgetsprogressivelymoredifficulttomaintainadesirableweightandbodycomposition.Tomaintainwhatyou'vegot,youwouldhavetomakeeithera2percent
increaseinenergyexpenditureora2percentdecreaseinenergyintakeeachdecadeafter30tomatchthedropinenergymetabolism.Whilethis2percentdifference
seemssmall,itcouldmakeamajordifferenceinyourbodycomposition.Considerthattheaveragepersonconsumesabout2,500caloriesperday.Ifyouneed2
percentlessthanthisanddon'tmakeanadjustment,thatrepresentsa50calorieerrorofexcesseachday.Multiplythatover365daysanditrepresents18,250
excesscaloriesperyear.Sinceanexcessof3,500caloriesrepresentsaonepoundweightgain,inthecourseofoneyearthissmall50calorieerrorwouldmanifest
itselfasaweightgainofoverfivepounds.Infiveyears,that'saweightgainof25pounds,andin10years,that'saweightgainof50pounds!
Gender.Allotherthingsbeingequal,womenhaveahigherbodyfatpercentagethanmen.There'snothingthatcanbedonetoalterthis,andthereiscertainlynothing
wrongwiththis.Thegenderdifferenceisjustamanifestationofthedifferentbiologicalexpectationsofmenandwomen.However,therearemanywomenwhohavea
lowerbodyfatpercentagethanmenbecausetheyexercisemoreandeatbetter.Therefore,despitethisbaselinedifference,doingtherightthingscanhelpyou
(regardlessofyourgender)optimizeyourbodycompositionforyoursport.
Typeofactivity.Differenttypesofactivitiesplacedifferentstressesonthesystemand,asyouwouldexpect,thebodyrespondsdifferentlytothesestresses.The
standardforexerciseforreducingbodyfatpercentageis"aerobic"exercise.However,thereisgoodevidencethatanytypeofactivity(includinganaerobicactivity)
willreducethebodyfatpercentage.5Highintensityactivity(suchasthatdonebysprintersandweightlifters)mayincreaseleanbodymassandreducebodyfat
percentage,sotheimpactonweightmaybeminimal.Nevertheless,thisshiftinbodycompositionisstilllikelytomakethepersonappearslightlysmaller,since,pound
forpound,fatweighttakesupmorespacethanleanmassweight.Lowintensityactivity,ontheotherhand,appearstoreducebodyfatpercentagewithminimal
impactonleanbodymass,soweightisreduced.Whenenergyexpenditure(caloriesburned)isequivalent,bothanaerobicandaerobicactivityappeartolowerbody
fattothesameextent.
Amountofactivity.Clearly,themoreapersonexercises,thegreaterthepotentialbenefitsindesirablyalteringbodycomposition.However,
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activitymustbesupportedbyanadequateintakeofenergy.Increasingthetimeofactivitywithoutalsoincreasingtheamountofenergyintakecausesabreakdownof
musclemasstosupportenergyneeds.Thereisnoquestionthatthiswouldbeanundesirablechangeinbodycompositionforanathlete.Inaddition,overtraining,
althoughitwillnotnecessarilyleadtoareductioninleanbodymass,causesanincreaseinmusclesorenessandreducesmuscularpowerandendurance.Therefore,
theamountofactivityshouldbecarefullybalancedwithadequateenergyintakeandwithadequateresttoassuremaintenanceofmusclemassandathletic
performance.
Nutrition.Eatingtoomuchortoolittlecanbothnegativelyimpactbodycomposition.Eatingtoomuch,eitheroverthecourseofadayoratonetime,islikelyto
increasefatstorage,andeatingtoolittlewilllowerbothlean(muscle)massandfatmass.Inadditiontoenergyintake,therearealsonutrientsthatareimportantin
energymetabolicprocesses.Afailuretoconsumeanadequatelevelofthesenutrients(Bvitamins,zinc,iron,etc.)mayreduceyourabilitytoproperlyburnfuel,
therebylimitingyourabilitytoburnfatthroughexercise.
TheIssueofWeight
Thereisnoquestionthatweightisanimportantissueforathletesbecauseitinfluencestheeasewithwhichtheycanperformtheskillstheyneedtodo.However,
lookingatweightbyitselfmayprovideathleteswithamisleadingpictureofwhatisgoodorbadaboutthenbodycomposition.
Inanumberofsports,athleteswillincreasethetimeorintensityofatrainingregimentoimproveperformance,butthentheyinappropriatelyusechangesinweightasa
markerofsuccess.Imagineafootballplayerwhocomestotrainingcampataweightmuchhigherthanthecoachisaccustomedtoseeinginthisplayer.Itmaywellbe
thatthefootballplayerworkedhardduringtheoffseasontoincreasemusclemass,andtheincreaseinweightisaresultofmoremuscle.Wouldn'tthecoachbewrong
intellingthatplayerthathehastoloseweight?Gymnastsoftenreachtheircompetitivepeakduringadolescence,atimewhenfastgrowthisthenormalbiological
expectation.Inspiteofthis,gymnastsaresometimesweighedweeklytomakecertaintheyaremaintainingtheirweight.Shouldn'tallthetrainingthey'redoingincrease
theirmusclemassandthereforetheirweight?Shouldn'ttheybegrowingandthusincreasingtheirweight?These
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areexamplesofhowweightisoftenusedarbitrarilyandwrongly.Trackingtheconstituentsofweightmakesmuchmoresenseandgivesyouamuchmoreimportant
ideaofwhetheryourbodyischanginginadesirableway.
Changingbodycompositionisnotasstraightforwardasmanypeoplethinkitis.Themostcommonbeliefisthatdietingisaneffectivebutunpleasantmeansofweight
loss.Logicsuggeststhata25percentreductioninenergyintakewillleadtoa25percentreductioninweight.Thereality,however,isthatenergyexpenditure
followingweightlossislessthanwouldbeexpectedbytheamountofweightthatwaslost.6Thismeansthattheadjustmentinenergyexpendituretoinadequateintake
isgreaterthanthemathematicalexpectation,andleadstoareturntotheoriginalweight,evenonalowerenergyintake(i.e.,thelessyoueat,thelessyoucaneatto
maintainweight).Logicalsosuggeststhata25percentincreasein
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energyintakewillleadtoa25percentincreaseinweight.Infact,althoughweightgaindoesoccur,itdoesn'tappeartoincreaseasmuchastheincreaseinenergy
intakesuggestsitshould.However,whenyoupurposefullyoverfeedpeopletogainweight,theamountofweightgainisproportionatetotheamountofoverfeeding.7
10Thesestudiesstronglysuggestthatwehavehomeostaticmechanismsduringperiodsofenergydeficitthathelpusmaintainourweight.Thismaybea''survivalofthe
species"mechanismthathelpshumanssurviveperiodsoffamine.Wealsoappearabletostoreenergyeffectively(asfat)duringperiodsofexcess.Thismayalsobea
"survivalofthespecies"mechanismthatenablesustostoreenergywhenweareluckyenoughtohaveexcessfoodavailable.
Sincemajorenergysurplusesanddeficitsappeartoactivatehomeostaticmechanisms,apossiblemeansofmakingadesiredchangeinweightandbodycompositionis
toavoidmajorenergybalanceshifts.Exerciseshouldbeatthecoreofanydesiredbodycompositionchange(i.e.,anincreaseinleanmassandadecreaseinfatmass,
coupledwithasmalldecreaseinweight).Butsuchachangemightbeeasiertoachieveiftheenergydeficitandenergysurpluscreatedarenevertoolargeduringthe
day.Seefigure3.1forexample,whatcanhappentobodycompositionwiththreedifferenteatingpatterns.Energysurplusesanddeficitsarerepresented,respectively,
byvariationsaboveandbelowzero(0)energybalanceline.Inthefigure,whenthelinemovesabovezero,theathletehasconsumedmoreenergythanwasexpended.
Whenthelinemovesbelowzero,theathletehasexpendedmoreenergythanwasconsumed.Eatingpattern1representsanathleteeatingsmallmealsfrequently,and
neverhasenergysurplusesordeficitsthatexceed400calories.Eatingpattern2representsinfrequenteatingwithexcesscaloriesconsumedateachmeal.Eating
pattern3representsanathletewhospendsthemajorityofthedayinanenergydeficitstatefromnoteatingenoughwhentheenergyisneeded.Whenthishappensthe
bodywillbreakdownmuscletissueforenergy.Attheendoftheday,averylargemealbringstheathleteintoenergybalance,butmuchofthismealwillbestoredas
fat.Withinanyonegivenday,energybalance(400calories)isimportantforbothperformanceandbodycomposition.
Sincethestandardthreemealadayscheduleforcesathletestoconsumealargeamountofenergyateachmealtoobtainthenecessaryenergy,stayinginenergy
balanceiseasieronasixmealpattern.Frequentconsumptionofsmallmealstomaintainasteady
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Figure3.1
Relationshipofeatingpatternstobodycompositionchanges.
energyflowcanbeanimportantstrategyinmakingthedesiredchanges.Chapter7discussestheimportanceofmealtiming.
CommonIssueswithBodyCompositionAssessment
Bodycompositionassessmenthasbecomeanimportantpartofathleteassessment.Theamountofmuscleandfatthatanathletehascanbepredictiveofperformance,
andbonemassassessmentisimportantforunderstandingifdevelopmentalproblemsexistoriftheathletewillfacecurrentorfutureriskforfracture.Aperiodic
assessmentofbodycompositionalsohelpstheathleteunderstandifthetrainingregimeniscausingthekindsofphysicalchangesthatarebeingsought.However,there
aresomeimportantthingstokeepinmindwhenassessingbodycomposition.
DesirableBodyCompositionChangeisPossible
Youcanchangebodycompositionbymakingchangesinyourdietandexercise,butthesetwoshouldbeconsideredtogetherwhenmakingchanges.Makingdramatic
changesineitherdirectionislikelytocause
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unpredictableproblemsinyourbodycomposition.Ifyouareincreasingyourtrainingregimen,itisnecessarytoincreaseyourenergyintaketosupporttheincreasein
energyexpenditure.Puttingyourselfinasevereenergydeficitstatebyincreasingexerciseandmaintainingorloweringenergyintakeislikelytolowermetabolicrate,
increasefatstorage,andalsocauseabreakdownofmuscletosupportenergyneeds.Eatingtoomuchisalsolikelytoincreasefatstorage.It'sbesttomaintainenergy
intakethroughouttheday,soathletesshouldbecarefulaboutconsumingenoughenergytosupportexercise,ratherthanmakingupforanenergydeficitattheendof
theday.
KeepingInformationPrivate
Athletesoftencomparebodycompositionvalueswithotherathletes,butthiscomparisonisnotmeaningfulandmaydriveanathletetochangebodycompositionina
waythatnegativelyimpactsonbothperformanceandhealth.Healthprofessionalsinvolvedinobtainingbodycompositiondatashouldbesensitivetotheconfidentiality
ofthisinformation.Theyshouldalsoexplaintoeachathletethatdifferencesinheight,age,andgenderarelikelytoresultindifferencesinbodycomposition,without
necessarilyanydifferencesinperformance.Strategiesforachievingprivacyandhelpingtheathleteputtheinformationinthepropercontextincludethefollowing:
Obtainbodycompositionvalueswithonlyoneathleteatatime,tolimitthechancethatthedatawillbeshared.
Giveathletesinformationonbodycompositionusingphrasessuchas"withinthedesirablerange"ratherthanarawvalue,suchassaying,"yourbodyfatlevelis18
percent."
Provideathleteswithinformationonhowtheyhavechangedbetweenassessments,ratherthanofferingthecurrentvalue.
Increasethefocusonmusclemass,anddecreasethefocusonbodyfat.
Usebodycompositionvaluesasameansofhelpingtoexplainchangesinobjectivelymeasuredperformanceoutcomes.
ComparingBodyCompositionResultsObtainedfromDifferentMethods
Differentmethodsforassessingbodycompositionproducedifferentstandardresults.Therefore,itisinappropriatetocomparetheresultsfromonemethodwiththe
resultsofanother.Ifathletesarebeing
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evaluatedtodeterminebodycompositionchangeovertime(anappropriateuseofbodycompositionassessment),thiscomparisonshouldonlybemadeifthesame
methodhasbeenusedfortheentireassessmentperiod.Forinstance,thedifferenceintwoDEXAscanstakenseveralmonthsapartprovidesvaluableinformationon
howbodycompositionhaschangedinanindividual,asdoesthedifferenceintwoskinfoldassessments.However,thedifferencebetweenbodycompositionvalues
fromaDEXAscanandskinfoldequationisnotusefulindeterminingchange.Evenwithinmethods,thesamepredictionequationsshouldbeusedtodetermineifan
athlete'sbodycompositionhaschangedbetweenmeasurements.
SeekinganArbitrarilyLowLevelofBodyFat
Mostathleteswouldliketheirbodyfatleveltobeaslowaspossible.However,athletesoftentrytoseekabodyfatlevelthatisarbitrarilylow(solowthatithas
nothingtodowiththenormsinthesportortheirownbodyfatpredisposition),andthiscanincreasethefrequencyofillness,increasetheriskofinjury,lengthenthe
timetheathleteneedsbeforereturningtotrainingfollowinganinjury,reduceperformance,andincreasetheriskofaneatingdisorder.Bodycompositionvaluesshould
bethoughtofasnumbersonacontinuumthatareusualforasport.Ifanathletefallsanywhereonthatcontinuum,itislikelythatfactorsotherthanbodycomposition
(training,skillsacquisition,etc.)willbethemajorpredictorsofperformancesuccess.
Seekingarbitrarilylowbodyfatlevelsand/orweightisaparticularproblemforathletesinsportswheremakingweightisacommonexpectation.Wrestlers,in
particular,makedangerouseffortssometimesleadingtodeathtolowerbodyfatlevelsandweightinordertobemorecompetitive.Readmoreaboutthissubject
inthesectiononwrestlinginchapter9,"PowerSports."
ExcessiveFrequencyofBodyCompositionAssessment
Athleteswhoareassessedfrequently(frequentweightand/orskinfoldstaken)arefearfuloftheoutcome,sincetheresultsareoften(andinappropriately)used
punitively.Realchangesinbodycompositionoccurslowly,sothereislittleneedtoassessathletesweekly,biweekly,orevenmonthly.Assessingbodycomposition
twotofourtimeseachyearisanappropriatefrequencytodetermineandmonitorbodycompositionchange.Insomeisolatedcircumstanceswhenanathletehasbeen
injuredorissufferingfromadisease,suchas
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malabsorption,fever,diarrhea,oranorexia,itisreasonableforaphysiciantorecommendamorefrequentassessmentratetocontrolforchangesinleanmass.
Coacheswhohavetraditionallyobtainedweightand/orbodycompositionvaluesweekly,biweekly,ormonthlyshouldshifttheirfocustoamorefrequentassessment
ofobjectiveperformancerelatedmeasures.
Summary
Theassessmentofbodycompositioncanbeausefultoolinhelpingtheathleteandcoachunderstandthechangesthatareoccurringasaresultoftrainingand
nutritionalfactors.Healthprofessionalsinvolvedinobtainingbodycompositiondatashouldfocusonusingthesametechniquewiththesamepredictionequationsto
derivevalidcomparativedataovertime.Careshouldbetakenthatbodycompositionvaluesareusedconstructivelyaspartoftheathlete'stotaltrainingplan.Ideally,
theemphasisshouldbeonaperiodic(biyearlyorquarterly)monitoringoftheathlete'sbodycompositiontodeterminechangeofboththeleanandfatmass.Many
athletesaresensitiveaboutbodyfat,socareshouldbetakentousebodycompositionvaluesinawaythatenablestheirconstructiveuseintheathlete'sgeneral
trainingplan.
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4
TrainingwithSupplements
ToCreatineorNottoCreatine
Ifthereisasingle,prominentergognincaidthatvirtuallyeveryoneiseithrtakingoris
willingtotake,it'screatine.WhenIgoaroundthecountrytalkingaboutsportsnutrition,
thefirstandmostfrequentlyaskedquestionis"ShouldItakecreatinte?"Interestingly
enough,thesepeoplearealreadytakingcreatine,andwhattheyreallywantisa
confirmationthatwhatthey'redoingisright.That'sthewayitgoeswithsomany
supposedly"ergogenic"products.Manyathletesareinsuchahurrytoimprovethatthey're
willingtotryalmostanything,evenbeforeweknowifitworks.Theinterestingthingisthat
theplaceboeffectinnutritionissopowerfulthatwhenathletesbelievesomethingworks
(evenifthey'retakingasugarpill),theymayactuallyderiveameasurablebenefit.Thisisa
storyaboutexactlysuchanathlete.
Weweredoingadoubleblindpretest,postteststudyoncretinemonohydrate9the
supplementalformofcreatine)onateamofworldclassfemaleatheletes.Ontheirfirstvisit
tothelab,weperformedaWingatetesttomeasureanaerobicpowerandanaerobic
endurancebyusingresistanceonalaboratorybicycle(calledanergometer).Wedida
triangletest(astandardtestingmethodforassessingtaste)tomakecertainnoonecould
tellthedifferencebetweenthecreatineandnoncreatinebeverges.Sincethiswasadouble
blindtest,neithertheathletenoranyoneindirectcontactwiththeathletesknewwhowas
inwhichgroup.(Thekeyforwhowasinwhichgroupwassecretlyandcloselyheldbya
graduatestudent.)Thusneithertheathletesnotehresearcherscouldinfluencetheresults.
Webasicallydidwhatwehadtodotoassurethattheresultsweobtainedwere"real."
AfterthefirstWingatetest,theathleteswereputonaprotocolofeitheraglassofplain
fruitjuicefourtimeseachday(inadditiontoeverythingelsetheywereeating)or,forthe
exprimentgroup,asaglassoffruitjuicethatcontained2.5gramsofcreatinemonohydrate.
Wekeptthisprotocolupforthreedayswhiletheathletesparticipatedinanintensive
trainingcamp.Attheendofthethreedays,weagainperformedaWingatetesttoseeif
thecreatineintakeexplainedanydifferencesineitheranaerobicpoweroranaerobic
endurance.
Sally,fromherveryfirstdrinkoffruitjuice,wascertainshewasinthecreatinegroup.She
saidshefeltmorelightonherfeet,faster,andhad
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moreenergy.I,ofcourse,hadnoideawhethershewasorwasn'tandtoldherwe'dhave
towaittotheendoftheexperimenttofindout.Shepersistedintellingeveryonewithin
earshotthatshewasinthecreatinggroup,andthatshethoughtthatstuffwasgreat!OPn
thesecondroundofWingatetests,Sallyreallydiddobetter.Afterwehadcompletedthe
expriment,shewasthefirstinlinewaitingtoconfirmthatshehad,indeed,beentaking
creatingoverthelastseveraldays.Asyoumayhaveguessedbynow,Sallywasn'tinthe
creatinegroup.Whilewefoundthatthecreatinggroupwasgenerallybetterableto
maintainanaerobicpowerandanaerobicenduranceafterthreedaysofanintensetraining
camp,wedidn'tfindthattherewereindividualsinthecontrolgroupwhodidbetterwithout
creatingandindivudualsintheexperimentalgroupwhodidworsewithcreatine.Youcan
seetheproblem.Humansaredifferent,andthewaytheyreacttodifferentsubstancesis
different.Sometimesthebeliefthatsomethingwillhelpreallydoes,asitdidwithSally.The
idealcurcumstance,andwhatscientistsarededicatedtodoing,istofindwhatreally
workssoathletescanderiveadoublebenefitfromanutritionalintervention.Athletes
wouldgainthebiologicalbenefitfromtheergogenicaid,andtheywouldgainfromthebelif
thatisreallyworks.
Thetermergogenicaidsisusedtorefertosubstancesthatmakeclaimstobeperformanceenhancing.Someofthesesubstancesaredefinedasnutritionalergogenic
aidsbecausetheyworkbyenteringawellestablishednutritionalmetabolicpathway,orbecausetheyconsistofoneormoreknownnutrients.Forinstance,taking
extracarbohydratetoimproveperformancemakescarbohydrateanutritionalergogenicaid.Also,takingcreatinemonohydratetoimprovesprintperformancemakes
creatineanutritionalergogenicaidbecausecreatineisanormalconstituentoffoodconsumingitcausescreatinetoenteraknownmetabolicpathway.1,2,3,4Non
nutritionalergogenicaidsrepresentproducts(oftenofunknownoriginbecauseproducersdon'tclearlyspecifywhattheyconsistof)thatareneithernutrientsnorother
substanceswithnutritionalproperties.Thebestknownnonnutritionalergogenicaidsareanabolicsteroids.
Inmostcases,theclaimsforperformanceenhancementattributedtoergogenicaidsexceedreality.Sincemanyoftheproductsareconsideredfoods,nutrients,or
nutrientbased,therearefewcontrolsforgovernmentagenciestopolicetheclaimsmadeforthem.Theonly
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trulycrediblesourcesofinformationcomefrompublishedscientificworksandthenewlyformedOfficeofDietarySupplementsoftheNationalInstitutesofHealth.
Whereimprovementsareseen,itisoftenduetoaplaceboeffect:Peoplebelieveitwillhelp,soitactuallyhelpseventhoughthereisnobiochemicalbasisforthe
improvement.Inothercases,improvementsoccurbecausetheproductisprovidingachemicalmissingfromthefoodsthatanathletecommonlyconsumes.For
instance,proteinpowdersoraminoacidpowdersareoftentakenbybodybuilderstoaidintheenlargementofmusclemass.However,studiesclearlyindicatethatthe
rateofproteinusagebythebodyiswellbelowthelevelconsumedbythosewhotaketheseproteinpowders.Thismeansthatthebody'slimitforusingproteintobuild
muscleandmaintaintissuesismuchlowerthantheamountofproteinthatiscommonlybeingconsumedthroughfoodandproteinsupplements.Theupperlimitfor
proteinusageisbelow2gramsperkilogramofbodyweight,andthosewhotakeproteinsupplementsoftenaretakingmorethan4gramsofproteinperkilogramof
bodyweight.Theexcessproteinisburnedasafuelorstoredasfat,butitcan'tbeusedtobuildmoremuscle.Itisalsoknownthatbodybuildersoftenhavean
inadequatelevelofenergyintake(theydon'teatenough),makingitdifficultforthemtosupporttheirlargermusclemass.5
Thereasontheextraproteinhelps(if,infact,itdoes)ismorelikelybecauseitisusedasanenergysubstrate(burnedascalories)thanbecauseofitspotentialtissue
buildingeffect.Infact,bodybuilderswoulddomuchbetterbyconsuming300extracaloriesfromcarbohydratethanbytakingtheextracaloriesasproteinpowders
anditwouldalsobemuchcheaper!
Therearenumerousergogenicaids,rangingfromknownnutrientstosupposednutrients,(suchasvitaminB15,whichhasnoofficialdefinition,variesincontentby
manufacturer,andisnotarecognizedvitamin),toherbswithnoknownchemicalcontentorknownactiveingredient.Thereissomuchmisinformationinthe
marketplaceandinthelockerroomabouttheseproductsthatthebuyershouldbeware.Ratherthanfocusingonamagicbullettoimproveperformance,athletes
shouldtakearealisticapproachandconsumeabalancedintakeoffoodsthatprovidessufficientenergyandnutrientstosupportgrowth,activity,andtissue
maintenance.Thischapterdiscussessomeofthemorecommonergogenicaids.
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Carbohydrate(Glycogen)Loading
Sincecarbohydrateistypicallythelimitingenergysubstrate(thatis,itwillrunoutbeforefatorproteinrunsout)inexercise,startingexercisewithmoreofitinthe
tissuesshouldaidexerciseendurance.Inhighintensityexercise,carbohydrateistheprimaryfuelusedbythemuscles.Inlowintensitybutlongdurationexercise,fat
maybetheprimaryfuel,butfatrequirescarbohydratestoburncompletely.6Ineithercase,whencarbohydrates(glycogenstoresandbloodglucose)aredepleted,
exerciseperformanceisdramaticallyreduced.7,8Thebasisbehindcarbohydrateloadingistoputasmuchcarbohydrateinthetissuesastheycanhold.
Thetraditionalorclassicalregimenforcarbohydrateloading(referredtoastheAstrandregimenforthepersonwhofirstdescribedit)achievesmaximalmuscle
glycogenstoresbyfirstcompletelydepletingthemusclesofglycogen.Thisisfollowedbyaphaseinwhichmuscleglycogenisrestoredtomaximallevels.Thisregimen
isnolongerrecommendedbecauseofthedangersassociatedwithglycogendepletion,whichincludeirregularheartbeatsandasuddenlossofbloodpressure.There
havealsobeendeathsreportedintheliteraturethathavebeenattributedtotheglycogendepletionofthistechnique.TheAstrandregimenwasfollowedfor
approximatelyoneweekinpreparationforacompetition:
Sevendaysbeforethecompetitiontheathleteperformsexhaustiveexerciseandconsumesalowcarbohydratediet(0to10percentcarbohydrate)todeplete
carbohydratestores.
Afterthedepletionphase,theathletetapersexercisetoalmostnothingandconsumesahighcarbohydratediet(80percentcarbohydrate)toreplenishcarbohydrate
stores.
Whilethistypeofregimenhasbeenshowntobeusefulforsupersaturatingtissueswithglycogen,thedepletionphaseisdangerous.9,10Athleteshavefoundserious
disturbancesinheartrhythmandglycosemetabolism.Therefore,thisregimenisNOTrecommended.
Therecommendedmethodforcarbohydrateloadingiscommonlyreferredtoasthe"Sherman/CostillMethod."ThismethodwasdevelopedaftertheAstrandmethod
byShermanandCostillandwasfoundtobesaferthantheAstrandmethod,butequallyeffectiveinmaximizingglycogenstorage.Thisapproachisbasedon
maintainingcarbohydratestoresatalltimesandtriestoavoidcarbohydratedepletion.Theathleteshoulddothefollowing:
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Consumeadietthatis55to65percentcarbohydratedaily.Onthisregimen,thecarbohydrateintakeshouldbeincreasedslightlyto60to70percentcarbohydrate
inpreparationforcompetition.
Taperdownexercisegraduallyoversevendayspriortothecompetition,withthegoalofnotexercisingonthedaybeforethecompetition.Duringthistapering
phase,ahighcarbohydrateintakeismaintained.
Thismethodisjustasusefulinsupersaturatingthetissueswithglycogen(storedcarbohydrate)astheAstrandregimen,butitavoidsthedifficultiesassociatedwith
carbohydratedepletion.11
Notallsportsandactivitiesaresuitableforcarbohydrateloading.Itisimportanttorememberthat,foreverygramofstoredglycogen,thebodystoresapproximately
threegramsofwater.Ifthetissuesarepackedfullwithglycogenandwater,theathleteislikelytoexperiencesomedegreeofmusclestiffness.Insportswhere
flexibilityisimportant,carbohydrateloadingmaycausedifficulties.Seetable4.1foralistofactivitiesthatareconsideredappropriateforandmaybenefitfrom
carbohydrateloading.
Thetypeofcarbohydratedoesappeartomakeadifference.Glucosepolymerproducts(includingcommerciallyavailablesportsgelsandpolycose)andmaltodextrins
(whicharefoundinnumeroussportsbeverages)areeasilydigestedintoglucoseandappeartobe
Table4.1ActivitiesThatMayBenefitFromCarbohydrateLoading
Clearbenefit
Lessclearbenefit
Marathon
Gymnastics
Triathlon
Baseball
Crosscountryskiing
Middledistance/shortdistancerunning
Cycling(longdistance)
Weightlifting
Swimming(longdistance)
Sprinting
Anyenduranceeventlastingmorethan90minutes
Rowing(shortdistance)
Practicesessionslastinglongerthan2hours
Note:Highcarbohydrateintakesarerecommendedforallsportsandactivities.Thetaperingofactivity
maynotbeneededinthesports/activitiesontherightcolumn.
AdaptedfromBucci1993.
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moreeffectiveinglycogenproductionthanothercarbohydrates.However,starchesfrompasta,bread,rice,andothercerealsarealsoeffectiveatmaximizingglycogen
storage.12,13
CreatineMonohydrate
Phosphocreatineservesasastoragedepotformaintainingadenosinetriphosphate(ATP)levelsduringhighintensityactivities,suchassprinting,thatcanquickly
depleteATP.(Note:ATPisthehighenergyfuelusedbycells.)Creatineisacompoundmadefromthreeaminoacidsthatjoinswithphosphorustomake
phosphocreatine.Itisbelieved,therefore,thatsaturatingmuscleswithcreatinewillenhanceourabilitytomaintainthehighenergycompoundATPanddelayfatiguein
highintensityactivity.14Wecansynthesizecreatineintheliverfromtheaminoacidsarginine,glycine,andmethionine,andwecanalsoobtaincreatinefromfoods,
mainlymeats.However,normalcookingcaneasilyreducethecreatineleveloffoods.Giventheeverincreasingimportanceoffullycookingmeatproductstoreduce
thechanceofbacterialinfection,theamountofdietarycreatineislikelytobesmall.
Manyathletesarenowtakingdailycreatinesupplements,andthereissomelimitedevidencethatcreatinesupplements(commonlyintheformcalled''creatine
monohydrate")mayenhanceanaerobicpowerandanaerobicendurance.15,16,17Whilecreatineissynthesizedbythebodyfromthreeaminoacids,thecreatine
monohydratesupplementisthecommerciallysynthesizedformofcreatine.Itispossible,however,thatthebenefitderivedfromtakingcreatinemonohydratemaybe
duetotheinadequateenergy(caloric)intakecommonlyseeninathletes.18Aspreviouslymentioned,inadequateenergyintakeisoneofthemajorproblemsthat
athletesface.Itispossiblethatathleteswithanadequateenergyintakewouldnotbenefitfromthesesupplements,althoughthishasneverbeenadequatelytested.
Ifanathletedoestakecreatinemonohydrate,thedailytotalshouldbebetween10and28gramsthataredividedintofourdosesovertheday.Forinstance,ifthegoal
istotake10gramsperday,individualdosesshouldbe2.5gramsfourtimesdaily.Thesmallertheathlete,thesmallerthedailydoseshouldbe.
Thereisevidencethattakingdailycreatinesupplementscausesasaturationofcreatineinmuscletissueafterfivedays.19Therefore,creatineshouldnotbetakenfor
longerthanfivedays.Thereshouldalsobeanapproximatelyfivedaybreakinsupplementationbeforesupple
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mentsareresumed.Somestudiessuggestthattakingcreatinesupplementsfivedayspermonthisadequatetosaturatemuscletissue.20,21
Athletesshouldknowthatthelongtermsafetyofcreatinemonohydratesupplementationhasneverbeentestedonchildren,adolescents,oradults.Inonerecent
articlebytwoBritishresearchers,creatinesupplementationwaslinkedtorenal(kidney)damage.22Inthisarticle,thescientistsfoundthattheathletewithrenaldamage
hadbeentakingoralcreatinesupplementstoprepareforthesoccerseason.Hehadnotbeenexceedingtherecommendeddoses,butoncehestoppedthe
supplements,renalfunctionrecovered.Thereisalsoevidencethatcreatinestorageinmusclecausesaretentionofwaterwithaconcomitantincreaseinweight.23These
potentialproblemsshouldgiveathletesareasontobevigilantaboutwhethercreatinesupplementationisappropriateforthem.Beforeanathlete
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triescreatinesupplementation,itmaybeprudenttofirstbecertainthatanadequatelevelofenergy(calories)isbeingconsumed.
Thereisnoevidencetosuggestthatcreatinesupplementationisunsafeforhealthyadults,noristherenoinformationonitssafetyiftakenoverlongperiodsoftime,or
bychildren.Therefore,eventhoughcreatinesupplementationmaybebeneficialforshort,repetitiveboutsofhighintensityexercise,athletesshouldbecarefulabout
supplementationuntilmoreinformationonlongtermeffectsisknown.Areasonableapproachwouldbetoconsumesufficientenergyand,withinthatcontext,
periodicallyconsumefoodsthataregoodsourcesofproteinandcreatine(meatandfish).
Glycerol
Glycerol(orglycerine)isathreecarbonsimplelipidthatismetabolizedlikecarbohydrate.Itisthethreecarbonunitthatholdsdietaryfattyacidstogethertoform
triglycerides.Glycerolisapowerfulhumectantandhastheabilitytoholdahighlevelofwater.Anumberofenduranceathletesuseglycerolasameansof
superhydrationbecauseofthiscapacitytoholdwater,aswellasglycerol'sabilitytobeeasilymetabolizedforenergy.Addingalittleglyceroltowaterenablesthe
athletetostoremorewaterand,indoingso,mayaidtheathleteinendurancecompetitionsthattakeplaceinhotandhumidenvironments.Refertochapter2"Staying
Hydrated"formoreinformationaboutsuperhydration.
FormulaforAddingGlyceroltoWaterforSuperhydration
Tomakeaglycerolbeverageuse,1gramglyceroland21.4milliliterswaterperkilogramof
bodyweight.24
1.Drinktheentireglyceroladdedfluidportion,except16ounces,usingtyphicalfluid
consumptionprotocol,withintwohoursbeforeexercise.
2.Reserve16ouncesoftheglyceroladdedfluidtodrinkabout20minutesbeforeexercises.
3.Drinkadditionalpurewaterorasportsbeverageasnecessarytomakeurinecleanpriorto
race.
4.Continuetodrinkasportsbeverageateveryopportuinityduringtherace.Usualintake
shouldappraoch3to6ouncesevery10minutes.
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Storingadditionalwaterinyourbodywillmakeyoufeelstiff.Manyathletescomplainthatatthebeginningofanyraceforwhichtheyhaveaddedglyceroltotheir
watertheyfeel,atleastinitially,stiffandsluggish.However,anumberofthemclaimthatthebenefitsofhavingextrawaterattheendoftheracefaroutweighsthe
feelingofsluggishnessatthebeginningoftherace.Whileotherathletesaredehydratedandoverheating,theseathletesclaimthattheyfeelmorefreshwhenitcounts
themost.
Awordofcaution:Whileanumberofenduranceathletesuseglycerolinwatertoenhancetheirhydrationstate,thisproducthasneverbeenadequatelytestedfor
safety.Sinceitisanormalcomponentofthedietandiseasilymetabolized,itisunlikelythatglycerolitselfwouldcauseanydifficulty.However,itisunclearhowmuch
additionalstressthereisonthecardiovascularsystemwhenadditionalwaterisstoredinthesystem.
Bicarbonate(SodiumBicarbonateorBicarbonateofSoda)
Researchershavetheorizedthatsodiumbicarbonatebufferstheacidity(lacticacid)createdbyanaerobicmetabolism,allowingforprolongedmaintenanceofforceor
power.25Sincemanyactivitiesinvolvemainlyanaerobicmetabolicprocesses,itwouldappearthatsomeathletescouldderiveabenefitfromsodiumbicarbonate
consumption.Studyresults,however,aremixedandgenerallyindicatethatwellhydratedathletesdonotderiveaperformancebenefit.
Itispossiblethatthesodiuminthesodiumbicarbonateismoreusefulthanthebicarbonate(theacidbuffer).Sodiumisanelectrolytethathelpstoincreaseormaintain
bloodvolume,creatingalargerbufferingspace(morefluid)formusclestoexcretetheextraaciditycreatedbyhighintensityactivity.Forinstance,thinkofsugarasthe
acidproducedfromanaerobicactivityandaglassofwaterasbloodvolume,andyoucanseewhatmighthappen.Iftheglassofwaterishalffull,andyouputacube
ofsugarinit,theconcentrationofsugarwouldbehigherthanifyouputthesameamountofsugarinafullglassofwater.Nevertheless,thenegativesideeffectsfrom
takingsodiumbicarbonate,includingthepotentialforseveregastrointestinaldistressandnausea,shouldgiveathletesreasontobecautiousbeforetakingthispotential
ergogenicaid.
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ProteinsandAminoAcids
Aminoacidsarethebuildingblocksofproteins.Puttingaminoacidstogetherindifferentsequencesandnumbersresultsinproteinsofdifferentcharacteristics.For
instance,theproteininhairhasasequenceofaminoacidsandtheproteininmusclehasanothersequenceofaminoacids.Whenyoubreakproteinsapart,whatresults
isapoolofaminoacidsthatconstitutetheprotein.Inthiscontext,youcanalmostspeakofproteinsupplementsandaminoacidsupplementsasbeingessentiallythe
same.
Manyathletestakeproteinsupplementsandbelievethishelpsthembuildmuscles.However,assessmentsoftheirdietsindicatethattheproteinsupplementissimply
providingthecaloriesneededtosupportthelargermusclemassdesired.Itwouldbeeasier,cheaper,andsafertosimplyeatmorefoodthatishighincarbohydrates.
Studiesareingeneralagreementthathumanscannotusemorethan1.5gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight.26,27Youcanthinkoftheproteinrequirementas
beingdirectlyrelatedtotheamountoffatfreemassthepersonhas,plusaverysmallamountthat
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isusedtosupplyenergy.Takentogether,thisamountstoarequirementrangeforathletesthatisbetween1.0to1.5gramsperkilogramofbodyweight.Havingmore
thanthissimplymeanstheproteinwillbeburnedasenergyorstoredasfat.Burningproteinasenergyisundesirablebecauseitcreatesagreatdealofnitrogenous
waste(ammonia,urea,etc.)thatistoxicandmustbeexcreted.Thisurinaryexcretioncausesanincreaseinwaterlossandincreasesthechancefordehydration.
Sincethevastmajorityofathletesalreadyconsume1.5gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweightwithoutconsumingproteinoraminoacidpowders,thereislittle
reasontosupplementwiththeseproducts.Instead,athletesshouldincreasetotalenergyintake,mainlyfromcarbohydrates,tosupportthelargermusclemassthey
seek.Ifproteinisneeded,itismuchlessexpensivetoeatpoultryorfish.Theseproductsalsohavetheaddedbenefitofprovidingotherimportantnutrients,including
ironandzinc,whichareoftenlowinthedietsofathletes.
Caffeine
Caffeine,oneofseveralmethylxanthinesfoundincoffee,tea,cola,chocolate,andavarietyofotherfoodsandbeverages(seetable4.2),hasbeenshowntohelp
endurancetypeperformanceinthosewhoareunaccustomedtoconsumingcaffeinatedproducts.28Inanumberofstudies,itwasfoundthatcaffeineingestion
increasedthe"freefattyacid"(FFA)concentrationinplasmasignificantly.29TheincreasedavailabilityofFFAenhancestheabilitytousethesefatsasafuelin
endurancetypelowintensityactivities.Sincehumansadapttocaffeineintake,frequentandregularconsumptionresultsinareduceddoseeffect.Inotherwords,the
moreyouhave,themoreyoumusthavetoachievethesameeffect.
Therearenostudiesdemonstratingthatcaffeineisusefulinpowerorspeedtypeevents,suchasweightlifting,sprinting,orgymnastics.Also,becauseofthepotential
ergogenicpropertiesthatcaffeineimpartsinendurancetypeevents,suchaslongdistancerunning,theInternationalOlympicCommittee(IOC)hasplacedlimitsonits
use(nomorethan12microgramsperliterofurinarycaffeine).Thislevelofcaffeineexcretedintheurinecanbereachedbydrinking8cupsofcoffeeinatimespanof
12hours(seetable4.2forotheritemscontainingcaffeine).Asyoucansee,acombinationoffoodsand
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Table4.2CaffeineContent*ofCommonBeveragesandFoods
Caffeinecontainingfoodproducts
Softdrinks(12oz,or1can)
Caffeinecontent(mg)
CocaCola
45
Dr.Pepper
40
Jolt
75
MellowYellow
53
MountainDew
54
Mr.Pibb
41
PepsiCola
38
Coffee(1cup,or8oz)
Brewed,dripmethod
130
Brewed,percolatormethod
94
Decaffeinated
Instant
74
Tea(1cup,or8oz)
Brewed(importedtea)
96
Brewed(U.S.brandtea)
64
Icedtea
47
Instant
48
Chocolatebrownie(1.25oz)
Chocolatecake(1mediumslice)
14
Chocolatecandy(1oz)
Chocolateicecream(2/3cup,or6
oz)
Chocolatemilk(1cup,or8oz)
Chocolatepudding(1/2cup,or4oz)
*TheUnitedStatesOlympicCommitteeconsidersurinarycaffeinelevels
greaterthan12microgramspermilliliterasdoping,makingcaffeinea
bannedsubstanceatthislevel.Asaguide,twocupsofcoffeetypically
producesaurinarycaffeinelevelof3to6microgramspermilliliterandtwo
colasproducesaurinarycaffeinelevel1.5to3microgramspermillileter.
Consumptionofproductsmorehighlyconcentratedincaffeinewillresult
inhigherlevelsofurinarycaffeineexcretion.
productscanalsoexceedtheIOCcaffeinelimits.Forinstance,threecupsofcoffeeplustwoNoDozeplusthreecolascouldprovideenoughcaffeinetocausethe
urinaryexcretionofcaffeinetoexceedtheacceptablelimit.Caffeineisadiuretic(causesanincreaseinurinaryoutput)thatmayexacerbatethestateofdehydration.
Thisfact,plusthelackofevidenceforabenefitinhighintensitysports,includinggymnastics,sprinting,bodybuilding,andweightlifting,shoulddiscourageathletesfrom
increasingcaffeineconsumptiontoachieveperformanceenhancement.
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Carnitine(TypicallyLCarnitine)
Thetheorybehindtakingcarnitinesupplementsissound.Lcarnitineisacommonnameforbetahydroxybutyrate,whichwasfirstdiscoveredinmusclesintheearly
1900s.Itismainlyinvolvedwithtransportinglongchainfattyacidsthatresideinsidecellsintothemitochondriaofthecells,wheretheyaremetabolized.Carnitine
increasesbloodflowbyimprovingfattyacidoxidationinthearterywall,anditdetoxifiesammonia,abyproductofproteinbreakdownthatisassociatedwithearly
fatigue.30Wesynthesizecarnitinefromtheaminoacidslysineandmethionine,anditisfoundinabundantquantitiesinallmeatsanddairyproducts,soadeficiencyis
unlikely.Ifthereisadeficiency,itismostlikelytobefoundinvegetarianswhoavoidconsumptionofdairyproducts.Withanadequateintakeofmeatsordairy
products,thereislittlereasontotakethisexpensivesupplement.Whilenevertested,itispossiblethatvegetarians,whoconsumenodairyproductsandhavea
marginalproteinintake,mightbenefitfromLcarnitinesupplementation,iftheyareinvolvedinhighintensityexercise.
Studiesofcarnitinegenerallyshownobenefitforlowintensityenduranceactivities.Somestudies,however,havedemonstratedabenefitinhighintensityactivities
whentakeneitherjustbeforetheactivityorforseveraldays.Thetypicaldoseisbetweenonetotwogramsperday.ButthesafetyofLcarnitinesupplementation
hasnotbeenadequatelytested.Thetypeofcarnitinetakenisalsoimportant.TherearereportsthatDLcarnitinesupplementation(alessexpensiveformof
carnitine)maycausemuscleweakness.Therefore,ifanathleteinsistsontakingthissupplement,onlytheLcarnitineformshouldbeconsidered.
Omega3FattyAcids
Thesefattyacids,commonlyfoundincoldwaterfish,maybeusefulinreducingmusclesoreness.Theymayhaveseveralothereffectsincludingthefollowing:31
Improveddeliveryofoxygenandnutrientstomusclesandothertissues.
Improvedaerobicmetabolismduetobetterdeliveryofoxygen.
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Higherreleaseofsomatotropin(growthhormone)inresponsetonormalstimuli(exercise,sleep,hunger).Thismayhaveananaboliceffectandmayimprove
muscularrecovery.
Reducedinflammationoftissuesthatresultsfrommuscularfatigueandoverexertionallowingforfasterrecovery.
Omega3fattyacidsareavailableasoverthecountersupplements.Youcanalsoincreaseyourregularconsumptionofcoldwaterfishsuchassalmon,herring,and
sardinestoobtainthesefattyacids.
MediumChainTriglycerides
Mediumchaintriglycerides(MCT)arefoundincoconutoilandpalmkerneloil,whichareamongthemostsaturatedfattyacidsinhumannutrition.Mediumchain
triglycerideshavecarbonlengthsof6to12carbonatoms,whilethemajorityofthetriglyceridesconsumedhaveconsiderablylongercarbonchains.Thisdifference,
however,allowsMCToilstobeabsorbedandmetabolizeddifferentlythanotherfats.Theliverreadilytakesthemupwheretheycanberapidlyoxidizedforcellular
energy.32Inaddition,MCToilsdonotrequireLcarnitinetodeliverenergytocellmitochondriaformetabolism(otherfatsrequireLcarnitine).33MCToilshave
severalpropertiesthatmaybeusefulforathletes.Theseincludethefollowing:31
Quicksourceofenergy.
Aidsinmobilizingbodyfatstoresforenergy.
Increasesthemetabolicrate.
Sparesleanbodymass(muscle).
MCToilshavebeenusedformanyyearsasasourceofenergyforthoseonenteral(tube)feedings,andtheyhavealonghistoryofsafety.Theyarewidelyavailablein
drugstoresandhealthfoodstores.
Ginseng
GinsenghasbeenusedforcenturiesinAsianculturestoreducefatigue.Inalimitednumberofstudies,componentsofginsenghavebeenshowntospareglycogen
usageandincreasetheoxidationoffattyacids.31Exercisedanimalsthathavebeeninjectedwithaginsengextracthaveshownreducedfatigue.34However,human
studiesthathaveevaluatedvariousdosesofginsengrootforperiodsofup
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totwomonthshaveshownnoclearergogenicbenefit.Thereisonlylimitedevidencethatprovidingasupplementofginsengextractmayimproveendurance
performancebyimprovingoxygendeliverytothemuslces.
Summary
Thereisanalmostneverendingarrayofproductsthatadvertisethemselvesashavingergogenicpropertiesavailabletoathletes.Forthemostpart,thereislittle
evidencethatwellnourishedathletesderiveanybenefitsfromconsumptionoftheseproducts.Ontheotherhand,thosesellingtheproductscertainlyderiveagreat
dealofbenefit.Athletesshouldcarefullyconsidertheadequacyoftheirowndietsbeforeattemptingtouseergogenicaids.Theseproductsareexpensive,andfewof
themhaveeverbeenadequatelytestedforsafety.
Ifyouchoosetouseanergogenicaid,proceedcautiously.Callanappropriatelycredentialedhealthprofessionaltogetasmuchinformationontheproductas
possible.Whenyoutakeitforthefirsttime,observecarefullywhetheryouexperienceanygastrointestinalupset,andtrytodocumenthowyoufeel.Mostofthese
ergogenicaidsarepowerfulchemicalsthatareeasilyhandlediftakeninthesmallamountscommonlyprovidedbythefoodsweeat.However,whentheyaretakenin
thelargebolusdosesoftenprescribedtoachieveanergogenicbenefit,theimpactonyoursystemmaybeentirelydifferentandunexpected.
OfalltheergogenicaidsIhavementioned,itisveryclearthatcarbohydratesholdthegreatestpromiseforimprovingbothenduranceandpowerperformance.Before
tryinganythingelse,tryconsumingahigh,regularamountofcarbohydrateswithplentyoffluids.Theergogenesisyouexperiencefromthisislikelytobereal.
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PARTII
TAILORINGNUTRITIONTOYOURTRAINING
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5
EatingforAnaerobicPower
ProteinforBreakfast,Lunch,andDinner
Oneofmyfavoritegraduatestudentsofalltimewasayoungmanwhotookup
competitivebodybuildingafterhecompletedhisundergraduatebiologydegreeand
severalyearsbeforeheenteredourgraduateprograminsportsnutrition.WhenIfirst
sawhim,IknewIdidn'twanttomakehimangry,butIcametofindoutthathismuscular
appearancedidnotreflecthispersonality.Hehadarmsthesizeofmyneck,andhislegs
werethesizeofmywaist,buthewasgentle,caring,andvery,verybright.WhenIasked
himwhyhewantedagraduatedegreeinsportsnutrition,heknewexactlywhy.Hewas
tiredofgettinginformationonhowtotrainandhowtoeatfrompeoplewhowere
unqualified,andhewantedtobethepurveyorofgoodinformationratherthanthe
recipientofbadinformation.
Hetookallhiscorerequirements(nutritionalbiochemistry,nutritionandmetabolism,
researchdesign,etc.)andfinallybecameeligibletotakemyclassinadvancedsports
nutrition.Duringhisentiretimeingraduateschool,hewastrainingandcompetingasa
bodybuilder,butheoccasionallysharedthathissuccesseswerenotwhattheyshould
havebeen.Inoticedinclassthathewasalmostalwaystiredandthathewasalways
eatingsomething.Hedidthisdiscreetlyenough,soitdidn'tdisturbanyone.Besides,I'm
suchanadvocateofsnackingbehaviorthatIwasactuallypleasedtoseeanathletefind
waystotakeinenoughenergy.
Wecametoapointinclasswhenwewerediscussingthevariousnutritionalprotocols
thatmightworkfordifferentsports,andIaskedourbodybuilderifhewouldn'tmind
sharingwhathedidtobuildmuscleandstaycompetitiveinthesport.Hesaidhefound
thatthecriticalthingwasto''eatproteinallthetime,andeatlotsofit."Eventhoughthis
wasthestandardforsomanyathletesinthesport(albeitabadone).Iwasstunnedby
hisanswer.Howcouldsomeonesoeducatedgodownthisproteinpath?Hisstatement,
ofcourse,initiatedadiscussiononwhetherthiswasanappropriatestrategyandwhat
washappening,metabolicallyspeaking,withallthatprotein.Whatcameoutinthe
discussionboileddowntothis:heknewthateatingtoomuchproteincouldcause
difficultieswithhydration(gettingridofallthatextrametabolicwastefromproteincauses
anincreasedwaterloss)andthatitwasn'tthebestfuelforhismuscles,butwheneverhe
triedeatingcarbohydratesinsteadofproteinhestartedlosingweightandthatwasn't
somethingthis
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bodybuildercouldaffordtodo.Asitturnsout,whathewaseatingallthetimewassteak,
roasts,andchicken(friedandotherwise),whichalsohasagooddealoffatassociated
withit.Allofthisproteinandfat(fatisahighlyconcentratedformofenergy)helpedhim
maintainhiscaloricrequirementandweight,butwasn'tthebestcombinationformuscle
function.However,whenhetriedeatingmorecarbohydrateandlessprotein,histotal
energyintakedroppedbecausehewaseatingalmostnofat.Imadeitaclassprojectto
findawaythathecouldeattherightfoodsandtakeinenoughtotalenergytomaintain
(andevenbuild)hismusclemass.Theresultwaslotsoffluidswithabalanceddietheavy
oncarbogydrates(about60percentofcalories),moderatelylowinfat(about25percent
ofcalories),consumedsixtimesperday.
Aboutoneyearafterhegraduated,hecamebacktosayhello,andheshowedmeone
enormoustrophywithhisnameonit.Hesaidhischangeoffoodintakegavehimsomuch
more"energy"thathewasabletotrainharderandlonger,andhefeltbetterallthetime.
Imaginethat.Followingthesciencereallydoeswork.
Differentsportsplacedifferentdemandsontheenergysystem.Somesportsrequirequickburstsofactivity,somerequiresteadycontinuousmovementwithoccasional
periodsoffastactivity,whileothersrequirethatmusclesworkslowlyandcontinuouslyforhours.Eachtypeofactivityplacesuniquedemandsonthemusclesandon
thefuelsthatmusclesdemand.
Thereareclearmetabolicdifferencesinactivitiesthatrequireenduranceandactivitiesthatrequirepower.Poweractivitiesmandatethattheathletehavetheabilityto
explodeoffastartingblock,jumphighdistances,throwaheavyweight,orpushsomeoneofequalsizebackwards.Thebetterthepowerathletecandosomeofthese
things,themoresuccessfultheathleteis.Gettingpowerathletestotrainmusclesfortheseactivitiesiscriticalforcompetitivesuccess,andthistrainingregimenmustbe
supportedbypropernutrition,orallthathardworkwillbefruitless.
EnergyDemands
Poweractivitiesaredependentontheconditioningofthefasttwitchmusclefibers.Thesefibershaveuniquecharacteristicsthathelptoexplainthebasisforthe
nutritionalrecommendationsforpowerathletes.Fasttwitch,orTypeIIBfibers,havethecapacitytoproduce
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atremendousamountofpower,aswellasahighcapacitytostoreglycogen(storedcarbohydrate),buttheyhavealowcapacitytostoretriglycerides(fats).The
intermediatefasttwitchmusclefibers(TypeIIA)alsoproduceatremendousamountofpower,butthesemusclefiberscanbetrainedtobehavemoreliketheTypeI
slowtwitchfibersthatarecharacteristicofenduranceathletes.Thetypeoftrainingthatisdone,therefore,isimportantbecauseitcaninfluencethebehaviorofthe
musclefibers.Powerathleteswantallthefiberscapableofproducingahighlevelofpowertoproducethatpower.Ifthereisalotofaerobicconditioninginthe
trainingregimenofthepowerathlete,theTypeIIAfiberswilllosesomeoftheirpowerpotentialbecausetheyarebehavingmorelikeendurancefibers(seetable5.1).
Interestingly,thereisevidencethattheintermediatefasttwitchfiberswillreverttotheirgeneticbaseline(morelikeTypeIIBthanTypeI)ratherquicklyiftheaerobic
trainingceases.Tosummarize,slowtwitchmusclefibershaveatremendouscapacitytostoreandburnfats,andfasttwitchmusclefibershaveatremendouscapacity
tostoreandburnglycogen.Theintermediatefiberscanbetrainedtobehavelikeeitherslowtwitchorfasttwitchfibers,butattheirbaseline,aremorelikefasttwitch
fibers.
Table5.1CharacteristicsofDifferentMuscleFiberTypes
Musclefiber
Type1(slowtwitch)
TypeIIA
(intermediatefast
twitch)
TypeIIB(pure
fasttwitch)
Glycolyticcapacity
(abilitytoburnglycogen)
Low
Moderate
High
Oxidativecapacity
(abilitytouseoxygenin
energyreactions)
High
Moderate
Low
Contractionspeed
(abilitytoproducepower)
Slow
Fast
Fast
Glycogenstorage
(abilitytoholdglycogenfor
energyreactions)
ModerateHigh
ModerateHigh
ModerateHigh
Triglyceridestorage
(abilitytoholdfatforenergy
reactions)
High
Moderate
Low
Capillarysupply
(bloodflowintothefibers)
Good
Moderate
Poor
Adapted,bypermission,fromB.Saltin.J.Henriksson,E.Nygaard,1979,Musclefibertypesandtheir
characteristics.AnnNYAcadSci301:329.
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Ingeneral,suddenhighspeedactivitythatisnotlonglasting(suchasthegymnasticsvaultora50to100metersprint)demandsfuelthatisalreadyinthemusclesina
readytogooralmostreadytogostate.Musclescan'tholdtoomuchofthistypeoffuel,sothereisalimittohowlongmusclescangousingthistypeofsystemthe
phosphagensystem.Forawellnourishedathlete,thephosphagensystemmayprovideenoughfuelforthefirstfivetoeightseconds.Ofcourse,that'snotenoughtime
formostevents,somusclesalsohavetheabilitytoquicklyconvertstoredglycogenintouseablefuelwithoutoxygen.However,sincethefuelisbeingburnedwithout
oxygen,there'salotof"smoke"inthistypeofsystemthatlimitshowlonganathletecangoanaerobically.Mostscientistsbelievethattheanaerobicmaximum(i.e.,the
amountoftimeanathletecanworkatabsolutefulltilt)is1.5minutes.Whenyoucombinethephosphagensystemwiththeanaerobicsystem,bothofwhichareused
whenanathleteisgoingashardandfastaspossible,you'vegotalimitonactivityofslightlyoveraminuteandahalfofcontinuousmovementbeforetheathletestops.
That'scertainlynotlongenoughforabasketballplayerorasoccerplayer,but,fortunately,wehaveanothersystem(aerobicmetabolism)thatallowsustoburnfuel
withoxygen,andforalongtime.However,thissystemworksbestwhenyou'reabletoprovideenoughoxygentotheworkingmusclesfortheworkthey'redoing.
Thefastertheywork,themorefuelthat'sburned,andthemoreoxygentheyneedtoburnthefuel.Whenthemusclesworkhardandfastenoughsothatyoucan't
provideenoughoxygen,thenwestarttoburnsomefuelwithoutoxygen.Doenoughanaerobicworkandthesystemstopsbecauseofthebyproductsproduced.The
secrettoallofthisistobecomesufficientlywellconditionedsothatyoucanprovidealotofoxygentoyourmuscleswhenyouneedto.Thatlimitstheamountof
anaerobicmuscularworkyou'llneedtodoand,importantly,delaysfatigue.Ofcourse,havingtherightfuelsavailabletothemusclesisalsoimportant,sincenoneof
thesystemsworkwelliftheydon'thavethefueltheyneed.Forinstance,everyonehaslotsofstoredfat(eventhemostleanpeoplearoundhavealotoffatavailable
forfuel),andfatisanexcellentfuelforaerobicwork.However,forfatstoburncleanly,carbohydratesarealsonecessary.Ifyourunoutofcarbohydratefuel,you
loseyourabilitytoburnfatseffectivelyandmuscularfatiguesetsin.
Tosummarize,wehavetwobasicmeansforgettingenergyfromthefoodweeat.Wecangetenergyanaerobically(withoutoxygen)
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andwecangetenergyaerobically(withoxygen).Anaerobicenergypathwaysaretypicallyusedwithveryhighintensityactivitiesofshortduration,whileaerobic
energypathwaysaretypicallyusedwithactivitiesoflowerintensitybutlongerduration.Let'stakeacloserlookatthesefuelsystemsthatwehaveavailabletous.
PhosphagenSystem(CreatinePhosphate)
Enoughenergycanbereleasedanaerobicallyfromthephosphatesinadenosinetriphosphate(ATP)andcreatinephosphate(CP)tosupporthighintensityexercisefor
uptoeightseconds.Thissystem,referredtoasthephosphagensystembecauseoftheimmediateavailabilityofhighenergyphosphate,isthebasisforthepopularity
ofawidelyusedergogenicaidcreatinemonohydrate(seechapter4).Thissystemis,toalargeextent,dependentoncreatinephosphatetoquicklyprovideahigh
energyphosphatemoleculetoformATP,whichistheultimatesourceofenergyformuscularwork.Intheory,ifyouhavemorecreatineinthetissues,youcanincrease
theamountofcreatinephosphateavailableforformingATP.WithmoreATP,youcandomoreextremelyhighintensitywork.Thereareanumberofsportsthatrely
heavily(ifnotexclusively)onthisphosphagensystem.Thesesportsincludeshotput,longjump,triplejump,discus,gymnasticsvault,andshortsprints.Inaddition,
othersportsthathavequickburstsofactivityintermingledintheactivity(suchasfootball,volleyball,andhockey)arealsoreliantonthisenergypathway.Insomeof
thesesports,theabilitytodorepeathighintensitymovesoftendeterminesthewinner.Forinstance,thehighjumper,longjumper,andpolevaulterallneedtwoorthree
stellareffortswiththehopethatoneofthemwillbegoodenoughtowin.Theserepeatedboutsofhighintensityworkplaceatremendousrelianceonthephosphagen
system.Theathletewhohastheabilitytostoremorecreatinemaybeatanadvantageintheseactivities.Withimprovedcreatinestorage,itispossiblethattheathlete
wouldretainmuchofthepowerproducedonthefirstattemptinthesecondandthirdattempts.
Assumingthatyourtotalenergyandproteinintakeisadequate,yourbodycanmanufacturethecreatineitneedsformultiplequickburstsofhighintensityactivity.To
improvethestorageofATPCPinthemuscles,athletesmustpracticeactivitiesthatfocusonthissystem(i.e.,activitiesthatlastnomorethaneightseconds,thatare
highintensity,andthatarerepeatedmultipletimesduringanexercise
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session).Thistypeoftraining,byitselfisnotsufficienttoimproveshortduration,highintensityperformance.Atthesametimeconsumingsufficientenergyandprotein,
byitself,isalsonotsufficienttoimproveshortduration,highintensityperformance.However,whenbothpropertrainingandpropernutritionarecombined,the
athletecanexperienceveryrealgainsinshortduration,highintensityperformance.
AnaerobicMetabolism(Glycolysis)
Thisenergypathwayistypicallyusedduringhighintensityexercisethatexceedstheathlete'sabilitytoprovidesufficientoxygenfortheworkbeingdone.When
exerciseisthisintense,thepredominantsourceofenergyisstoredmuscleglycogen(thestorageformofglucose/carbohydrate).Whenthestoredglycogenrunsout,
theathleteperformingthistypeofhighintensityactivityfatiguesquicklyandtheexercisestops.Typically,anaerobicmetabolismprovidesonlyasmallproportionofthe
totalenergyusedbymuscles.Nevertheless,itisimportantbecauseitcanprovideenergyquickly,andhelpstofilltheenergygapbetweentheinitiationofexerciseand
thetimeittakesforaerobicenergymetabolismtotakeover.Ifsomeonetriestomaintainahighintensity(i.e.,anaerobic)activity,thefuelforthiswillrunoutafter
approximately1.5minutes,andtheathletewillbecomequicklyfatigued.This1.5minutesisthelimitthatahumanbeingcanworkifinananaerobicexercisemode,
andaperiodofrestmustfollow(typically3to5minutes)toallowtimeformusclestobecomereplenishedwithenergy(glycogenandphosphocreatine).Thereare
somesportsthatareintentionallylimitedto1.5minutesbecauseoftherealizationthathumanssimplycan'tgolongerthanthisatfulltilt.Forexample,thefloorroutine
ingymnasticslastsupto1.5minutes.Ifyou'veeverseenagymnastpracticethefloorroutine,itwouldbeunthinkableforthegymnasttorepeataroutinewithouttaking
abreak.Itsimplywouldn'tbepossible,becausethemuscleshavebeendepletedoftheallimportantenergyneededforthattypeofhighintensitywork.Infact,when
youviewagymnasticstrainingsession,whichoftenlastsfourtofivehours,muchofthetimeisspentstandingaround.This"standingaround"timeisimportantfor
lettingthemusclesgetreadytodothenextroundofhighlyintensework.
Somesportsarepredominantlyaerobic,butmayrelyontheanaerobicenergypathwaytomakethedifferencebetweenwinningandlosing.Thelongdistancerunner
thathasmanagedtogomost
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ofthedistancewhilepreservingsomemuscleglycogen,stillhastheenergyreservestofinishtheracewithastrong(anaerobic)"kick."Theabilitytodothisattheend
oftheracemaybetheonlydifferencebetweenfirstplaceandthosewhofollow.Forrunnersrunningshortdistanceraces,forswimmersinshortraces,andforhockey
playersskatingatfullboreattheendofagametogoforawinningscore,thisanaerobicpathwayisthekeytosuccessandcarbohydratemakesithappen.
Powerathletesareperformingpoweractivitiesthatusemainlythephosphocreatineandglycolyticanaerobicsystems.Toalargedegree,thishelpstoexplainwhat
powerathletesneedtobeeating.Thelimitedstorageoffatsinthesefibersmeansthattheydon'tmetabolizefatsasanenergysubstrate.Thisisconfirmedbythefact
thattheyalsohavealowoxidativecapacity,whichmeansthattheycan'tuseoxygenwellenoughtoburnfatscompletely.Tomakemattersworse,thesefasttwitch
fibershavearelativelypoorcapillary(blood)supply,soitisdifficulttogetnutrientsintothefibersandtogetmetabolic
Page148
byproductsoutofthefibers.Thisisoneofthereasonsthatpurelyanaerobic(highintensity,power)activitiesnevergobeyond1.5to2.0minutes.Becausefuelcan't
easilygetintothemuscles,theathleteneedsarecoverybreakoftwotofiveminutestoallowthemusclestorecover.Therecoveryphaseallowsthemusclestobe
refueledandcleanedbylettingtoxicmetabolicbyproductsout(seetable5.2).
Duetoaheavydependenceonfasttwitchfiberstodomainlyhighintensityanaerobicwork,powerathletesfinditmoredifficult,toagreatextent,toburnfatasan
energysubstratethanathletesdoingaerobicactivities.Thistranslatesintoahigherpotentialforgaining(fat)weight.Powerathletescontinuetoburnsomelimited
amountsoffat,buthighintensityanaerobicactivitydramaticallyfavorscarbohydrate(glycogen)overfatasafuelbecauseofthekindofmusclefibersthatarebring
used.Thisclearpreferenceforglycogenfuelisimportant,sincemanypowerathleteshavecompetitiveseasonswhereactivityishighandoffseasonswhereactivity
drops.Thesealterationsinactivitypatternsoftentranslateintowidemodulationsinweightandbodyfatpercent.Itisnotuncommontohearoffootballplayerswho
havebeenfinedforshowingupatpreseasontrainingcamptoofat.Whenpowerathletesstoptheirintensiveinseasontrainingbutmaintaintheirhighcalorie,relatively
highfatdiets,asufficientdifferenceinenergybalanceoccursthatcausesinevitableincreasesinbodyfat.
Table5.2CharacteristicsoftheThreeMajorEnergySystems
Speedof
energy
provision
Relativeenergy
(ATP)produced
Fuel
Oxygen
required
Phosphocreatine
No
Fastest
Littlelimited
Anaerobic(without
oxygenviaglycolysis)
Glycogen
(carbohydrate)
No
Fast
Littlelimited
Aerobic(withoxygen)
proteins
Glycogen,fats,
Yes
Slow
Muchunlimited
(assuming
adequate
provisionof
energysubstrates)
System
Anaerobic(without
oxygenviaPC)
Note:PC=phosphocreatineATP=adenosinetriphosphate
AdaptedbypermissionfromE.FoxandD.Matthews,1981,Thephysiologicalbasisofphysical
education&athletics,3rded.(NewYork:SaundersCollegePublishing).Reproducedwithpermission
oftheMcGrawHillCompanies.
Page149
Fasttwitchmusclefibersandanaerobicactivityhavesuchalowcapacitytoburnfatsthatpowerathletescouldeasilyconsiderthemselvestobeatafateating
disadvantage.However,somanypowerathletesrequirealargemass,thatitbecomesinevitablethattheyconsumeasubstantialamountoffattomeettheir
tremendousenergyrequirements.Linemenonfootballteamscommonlyreporthavingenergyintakesthatexceed5,000caloriesperday!Onahighcarbohydrate,low
fatintake,anathletewouldhavetospendmuchofthedayeatingtomeettheseenergydemands.Fats,whicharemorethantwiceasconcentratedinenergyas
carbohydrates(9calories/gramvs.4calories/gram),helptheseathletesmeettheirenergyrequirementswithoutspendingalldayinthekitchen.Inseasonexercise
patternshelptheseathletesburntheconsumedcalories,butmaintainingthesedietsoffseasonalmostguaranteesasignificantfatgain.Besidesthepoorcompetitive
shapethisresultsin,thereisgoodevidencethatalltheweightcyclingthatmanypowerathletesexperience(eitherfromtryingtomakeweightorfromdietaryor
exerciseerrors)makesthembecomeobeseaftertheyretirefromthesport.Thereisalsoevidencethatweightfluctuationsareassociatedwithmorefrequentillnesses
andearliermortality.1,2
BuildingLean(Muscle)Mass
Powerathletesareusuallylookingforwaystoincreaseleanbody(muscle)mass.Thegreaterthemass,thegreaterthepotentialforincreasingstrengthandpower.
Therearemanytechniquesemployedforincreasingmusclemass,includingresistancetraining,consumptionofmoreenergy(calories),andtheintakeofproductsthat
claimtoenhancemuscledevelopment.Someofthesetechniquesandproductswork,whileothersdonot.Athletesshouldcarefullyevaluatetheadequacyoftheirdiets
beforeembarkingonaregimenofcostlyandunprovensupplementsthataremeanttoenhancemusculardevelopment,muscularstrength,orboth.
Buildingmusclemasshasbeenthetraditionforcenturieswithpowerathletes.TheGreekOlympicwrestlingchampionofthesixthcentury,MiloofCrotona,was
famousfordoingprogressiveresistancetrainingandeatinganenormouslyhighproteinintake:hecarriedagrowingcalfthelengthofthestadiumeachday,andafter
fouryearsofcarryingit,heatethecalf.ItwasestimatedthatMilohadanaveragemeat(beef)intakeof20poundsperday!3,4
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WhenIviewtheeatingbehaviorsofpowerathletes,IwonderifmuchhaschangedsincethetimeofMilo.Surveyssuggestthatpowerathleteshavetremendouslyhigh
meatintakesandsupplementallthisproteinwithadditionalproteinpowders,proteinshakes,andaminoacids.Thereisclearevidencethatcompetitiveweightlifters
needabout1.5gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight.However,surveyssuggestthattheproteinintakeofliftersisuptofourgramsperkilogramofbody
weight.5Thequestionis:doesallthisproteinintakework?Theansweris:notaswellastheythinkitdoes.Sinceproteinprovidedatalevelabove1.5gramsper
kilogramofbodyweightislikelytobestoredasfatorburnedasafuel,thereisnoanabolicorergogenicadvantagetohighlevelsofhighproteinintake.Whetherthe
excessproteinisstoredorburned,thereisanincreasedneedtoexcretethenitrogenassociatedwithprotein,andthiscausesagreaterurinaryoutputthatcanleadto
dehydration.Infact,manyathletesclaimtheyloseweightonahighproteinintake,butthisislikelytobeduetothehighlevelofbodywaterthatislostratherthanfrom
thelossoffat.
NutrientsthatControlMuscleDevelopment
Itiswellestablishedthatresistancetrainingstimulatesmuscledevelopment,andthatthelevelofmuscledevelopmentmaybeinfluencedbythecirculatinglevelof
humangrowthhormone(HGH),insulin,testosterone,andotheranabolichormones.6,7,8,9Inasmuchasnutritionmayimpactontheavailabilityofthesesubstances,it
seemsreasonabletobelievethatspecificnutrientsmayplayaroleinmuscledevelopment.However,itisalsoreasonabletobelievethatnutrientintakewouldnot
influencethebody'sproductionofthesesubstancesiftheirlevelsarealreadynormal.Inotherwords,intheabsenceofaspecificnutrientdeficiency,itisdifficultto
believethattakingmoreofanutrientwouldaltertheproductionofmusclebuildinghormones.Again,morethanenoughisnotbetterthanenough.Onceyou've
providedwhatthecellsneed,providingmoredoesn'thelp.Infact,studiesaremixedandinconclusiveonwhetherincreasingthespecificnutrientintakeofawell
nourishedsubjectaltersthehormonalmilieu.
IndividualaminoacidshavebeenwidelytestedtodetermineiftheirintakemightchangetheproductionofHGHinathletes.Infact,aminoacidmixturesarethelargest
categoryofsupplementsusedbybodybuilders.10Whilesomeearlierstudieshaveshownthatincreas
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ingtheconsumption(viasupplement)oftheaminoacidornithinemayincreaseHGHproduction,thereismorerecentevidencethatthereisnosignificantincreasein
HGHfromtaking,eitherindividuallyorinvariouscombinations,theaminoacidsarginine,lysine,ornithine,andtyrosine.11,12,13,14,15Inaddition,thereisevidencethat
takingabroadrangesupplementcontainingall20aminoacidshasnoeffectoneitherHGHortestosteroneproduction.16
Twostudiesinthe1980ssuggestedthattakingonegramoftheaminoacidornithineandonegramoftheaminoacidarginineeachdaywouldhelptoreducebodyfat
andwouldincreaseleanbodymassandstrengthiftakeninconjunctionwithastrengthtrainingprogram.17,18Foodsupplementvendorshaveusedthisstudytoclaim
thattheseaminoacidsstimulateHGHandincreasemusclemass.19However,recentstudiesthathaveusedmoreappropriatestatisticaldesignsandprocedures
(incorporatingadoubleblindprotocolwhereneitherthesubjectsnortheresearcherknowswhatsubjectsarereceivingthenutrientandwhatsubjectsarereceivingthe
placebo,
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sotheoutcomecannotbeinfluenced)indicatethatoralsupplementationoftheseaminoacidshasnoimpactonstrengthorendurance.
20,21
Whenamoleculeortwoofornithineisattachedtoamoleculeofalphaketoglutarate,theresultantmolecule(calledOKGforornithinealphaketoglutarate)issaidto
haveamusclebuildingaffect.Althoughareportinthe1980s,indicatedthatanincreasedinsulinproductionwastheresultofOKGadministration,thereareno
availablescientificreportstoconfirmthatOKGactuallystimulatesmuscledevelopmentorenhancesstrength.22,23Thereareseveralothernutrientsandsubstancesthat
mayhaveacontrollingeffectonmusculardevelopment.Seetable5.3forasummaryofthesesubstances.
Table5.3Nutrients/SubstancesThatMayHaveaControllingEffectonMuscularDevelopment
Substance
Whatitis
Choline
Anaminethatispartof
phospholipidscommoninplantand
animalfoods.Itisaprecursorto
acetylcholine(acommon
neurotransmitter)andlecithin(an
emulsifyingagentimportantinfat
absorptionandtransport).
Itissuggestedthatcholine
supplementationincreasesstrengthand
aidsinthelossofbodyfat,butthereis
noevidencetosupporteitherofthese
actions.
Creatine
Anitrogenoussubstancefoundin
meatandsynthesizedinthebody
fromthreeaminoacids.Combines
quicklywithphosphatetoform
phosphocreatine,ahighenergy
compoundstoredinmuscle.
Thereisevidenceofasignificant
increaseinleanbodymassfollowingsix
daysofsupplementationwithcreatine
(25grams/day).Itisunclearwhetherthis
increaseinmassisduetoagreater
productionofmuscleproteins(unlikely)
orduetoagreaterretentionofwaterin
themuscles(likely).Morescientific
evidenceisneededtoconfirmthat
creatineincreasesmusclemassand
increasesperformanceonrepeatedbouts
ofshort,highintensityactivity.
Glandulars
Theseareextractsfromanimalglands
(pituitary,thymus,adrenal,and
testes).
Itissuggestedthattheglandularsimpart
thesameeffectastheeffectofthegland
ithasbeenderivedfrom(e.g.,testes
extractenhancestestosterone
production).However,theseextractsare
degradedintheextractionanddigestion
process,sotheyareinactive.Thereisno
evidencetosupporttheirpurported
action.
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Howitworks
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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Substance
Whatitis
Howitworks
Inosine
Anucleotidethathelpsinthe
formationofpurinessuchasadenine.
Itissuggestedthattheformationof
adeninestimulatesagreaterproduction
ofadenosine,whichispartofthehigh
energycompoundadenosine
triphosphate(ATP).Thereisno
evidencetosupportthis.
Yohimbine
Anitrogenousalkaloidfoundinthe
barkoftheyohimbetree.Itincreases
theserumlevelsofnorepinephrine
(adrenaline).Itisusedinthetreatment
ofobesityandimportence.
Itissuggestedthatyohimbineincreases
serumtestosteronelevels,butthereisno
evidencetosupportthatithasan
anaboliceffect.
AdaptedfromWilliams1993.
Thesinglemostimportantfactorinmuscledevelopmentisassuringthattheathletehassufficientenergyintaketosupportalargermass.Ifantheathletehasan
appropriateenergydistribution(about60percentfromcarbohydrate,15percentfromprotein,25percentfromfat),approximately3,500caloriesareequivalentto
onepound.Therefore,foranathletetogainonepoundofmusclemassinoneweek,anexcessof3,500caloriesneedstobeconsumedduringthatweek.Dividedout
oversevendays,that'sanexcessof500calorieseachday.Itisimpossibletoincreasemusclemassbyaddingnoncalorieprovidingsupplementstoanexistingintake.
Therefore,whenathletesareinaweightstablestate,itisimportantforthemtotakestockoftheamountandtypeoffoodthattheyconsumetomaintainthatweight.
Oncedetermined,thenanadditionalamountofenergyisrequiredtosupportalargermass.
Thereissufficientevidencetosupportaproteinintakeforathletesthatisapproximatelydoublethatfornonathletes.Thisincreaseinrequirementisduetoanincrease
inmuscledamage,someproteinlossesintheurine,andsomebreakdownofproteininnormalenergymetaboliccycles,allofwhichoccurfornormalregular
exercise.24TheRecommendedDietaryAllowance(RDA)forproteinforadultnonathletesis0.8gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight,andtherecommended
intakeforathletesisapproximately1.5gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight.Thisdifferenceisbecauseathleteshaveahigherleanbody(muscle)massthat
requiresmoreproteintosustainit.However,thereisalmostnosurveyevidenceto
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suggestthatathleteshaveproteinintakesbelow1.5gramsperkilogram.Infact,surveysshowthattheproteinintakeofathletesiscommonlydouble(approximately3
gramsperkilogram)therecommendedlevel.Athletestakingproteinoraminoacidsupplementsoftenhaveproteinintakesthatexceed4gramsperkilogram.Theone
exceptiontothisisathleteswhoarefollowingvegetarianeatingpatterns.ThesevegetarianathletestendtomeettheRDAforprotein,butconsumelessthanthelevel
commonlyrecommendedforathletes.25
Giventhegenerallyhighintakeofproteinthatathletescurrentlyhave,itmakeslittlesensetoconsumemoreproteintosupportalargermusclemass.Nevertheless,if
moreproteinisconsumeditwillclearlybeusedtosupportenergyrequirementsratherthantosupporttissueandhormonesynthesis.Infact,itislikelythattheprotein
intakeconsumedbymanyathletesismisinterpretedasbeingimportantforenlargingmusclemass.Thisexcessproteinisburnedasenergy,allowingthebodytobetter
meettheenergydemandsofalargermass.Withoutthisextraenergy,theresultantenergydeficitmakesitdifficultfortheathletetoenlargethemusclemass.Itisthe
generalconsensusofstudiesthattheextra500caloriesconsumedtoaidintheenlargementofmusclemassshouldbemainlyfromcarbohydrates,sincethisisamore
efficientenergysourceand,unlikeprotein,onethatdoesnotincreasemetabolicwastethatmustbeexcreted.
Thenitrogenouswastesthatarecreatedfromburningproteinasanenergysourceresultsinincreasedurinaryoutput,whichincreasestheriskofdehydration.Some
athletesbelievethatproteinsupplementsarebetterormoreeffectiveinsupportingleanmassthanfoodsthatarehighinprotein.Goodfoodsourcesofprotein,suchas
meat,fish,poultry,dairyproducts,andlegumesincombinationwithcerealsareallexcellent.Thereisnoevidencethattakingsupplementaryproteinisbetterthan
eatingthesefoods.Asanaddedbenefit,thesefoodstypicallycontainagreatdealofzincandiron,bothofwhichtendtobelowinthedietsofmanyathletesand
whicharecriticallyimportantforworkingmuscles.26,27,28
Itiscommonforathletestotakemultivitaminandmultimineralsupplements,butthereisnoevidencethatthesesupplementsenhanceperformanceinsportsthatrequire
power.29,30Despitethelackofscientificevidencetosupporttakingsupplementaldosesofvitamins,thereisacommonbeliefamongpowerathletesthatanumberof
thesevitaminsenhancestrength.Thevitaminsandmineralssold
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toenhancestrengthincludevitaminB12,vitaminsC,E,andbetacarotene(antioxidants),chromium,boron,andmagnesium.
VitaminB12
ThetheorybehindvitaminB12isthatitisessentialforthesynthesisofDNA,andhavingmoreDNAenhancesmusculardevelopment.However,thereisnoevidence
thatvitaminB12orB12derivativeshaveanybeneficialimpactonmusculardevelopmentoronimprovementsinstrength.
Antioxidants
Theantioxidantvitamins(C,E,andbetacarotene)mayspeedrecoverytimeforsoremuscles.Ifthisisfoundtobetrue,theremaybearealbenefittotaking
antioxidants(whichareeasilyobtainedbyconsumingfreshfruitsandvegetables)attheinitiationofastrengthtrainingprogram.Itisduringthisphasethatmuscles
moreeasilybecomesore,sothebenefit(ifthereisone)wouldbegreatestatthistime.
Chromium
Chromiumisessentialfortheeffectivemetabolismofglucoseandisthekeycomponentinacompoundcalled''glucosetolerancefactor,"orGTF.Chromiumenhances
theeffectivenessofinsulinandismarketedasasubstancethatcanenlargemuscles,improvestrength,andlowerbodyfat.Typically,chromiumismarketedinthe
"chromiumpicolinate"form(chromiumattachedtoapicolinatecarrier).Recentevidencesuggeststhatchromiumpicolinateisineffectiveindoinganyofthethingsitis
supposedtodo.31,32
Boron
Boronisanimportantmineralthatmayhelppreventthebonediseaseosteoporosis.In1992,astudyonborondeprivedpostmenopausalwomenreportedthatboron
supplementsdoubledtheirserumtestosteronelevels.33However,thisstudyshowedthatcontinuedintakeofborondidnotfurtherenhanceserumtestosterone,and
supplementationofmaleshadnoimpactontestosterone,atall.Anotherstudyonbodybuildersindicatedthatboronsupplementationhadnoimpactonserum
testosterone,leanbodymass,andstrength.34
Magnesium
Magnesiumisthesecondmostpredominant(afterpotassium)intermuscularelectrolyte,andithasanumberofimportantfunctions
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relatedtoproteinsynthesisandmuscularcontractions.Itappearsthatmagnesiumsupplementationismoreusefulinuntrainedindividualswhoareinitiatingatraining
programthaninathleteswhoarealreadywelltrained.Inonestudy,itwasfoundthatbothuntrainedmalesandfemalewhowereinasevenweekweighttraining
sessionhadimportantincreasesinmuscularpowerasaresultofmagnesiumsupplementation.35
FatsandFatDerivatives
Fatintakemaybeimportant(criticalforsomeathletes)asameansofobtainingsufficientenergytomaintainahighbodymass.Anumberoffatderivativesare
marketed,however,becauseoftheirsupposedpositiveimpactonenergymetabolism,orbecausetheyarechemicallysimilartohormonesthatenhancemuscular
development.Forinstance,someplantsterols(calledphytosterols)aresimilartothehormonetestosterone.36However,thereislimitedevidencethatanyofthesefat
derivativefunctionsworktoenhancemusclemassorathleticperformance.Themajorfatderivativeproductsmarketedtoathletesincludemediumchaintriglycerides
(MCToil),omega3fattyacids(03FAs),gammaoryzanol,andsmilax.Seetable5.4forasummaryoftheirfunctions.
Table5.4FatDerivativesThatAreAdvertisedasEnhancingMuscleDevelopmentandStrength
Substance
Whatitis
Mediumchain
triglycerides
(MCToil)
MCToilrepresentsshortcarbon
chainfatsthatareeasilyabsorbed
andmetabolized.Theyhavebeen
usedinclinicalenvironmentsfor
manyyearsasameansofproviding
sufficientenergytopatients
receivingtubefeedings.
ThereisnoevidencethatMCToil
enhancesmusclemassdevelopmentor
improvesweightgain(orloss)in
strengthtrainedathletes.
Omega3fatty
acids(03FAs)
O3FAsarefoundintheoilofcold
waterfishandareknowntolower
bloodviscosityandredcell
stickiness.Theyarealsoknownto
reducetissueinflammation.
Thesefattyacidsmaybemetabolized
intoprostaglandinE1,whichstimulates
theproductionofhumangrowth
hormone.Thereisnosubstantive
evidencethatthisoccursinstrength
trainedathletestoadegreethatan
improvementcanbemeasured.
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Howitworks
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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Substance
Whatitis
Howitworks
Gammaoryzanol
Thisisaplantsterolderivedfrom
ricebranoil.
Thissubstanceandtherelated
substanceferulicacidareadvertisedas
beingcapableofincreasingtestosterone
andhumangrowthhormonelevels.
Whilethereissomeevidencethatgamma
oryzanolinfluencesthemetabolismof
fats,thereisnoevidencethatitproduces
andergogeniceffectinhumans.Thereis
someanimalevidencethattakingthese
substancesactuallyreducestestosterone
production.
Smilax
Thisisaplantsterolcommonly
extractedfromsarsaparillaroot.This
hasbeenusedinfolkmedicinefor
manyyears.
Thissubstanceisadvertisedasbeing
capableofstimulatingtestosterone
production,increasingmusclemass,and
increasingmuscularstrength.Thereare
nodatatosupporttheseclaims.
AdaptedfromWilliams1993.
Summary
Powerandstrengtharecriticalcomponentsforathletesdoingquick,shortduration,highintensityactivities.Whilealsoimportantforathletesinvolvedinlonger
durationactivities(the"kick"attheendofamarathonoftendeterminesthewinner),theyarenottheissueofcentralimportance.Thedevelopmentandmaintenanceof
alargeandstrongmusclemassareimportantindevelopingpower,andpropernutritionalstrategiescanaidtheathleteinobtainingthemusclemasstheyseek.Akey
nutritionalelementinbuildingandmaintainingmusclemassistheacquisitionofsufficientenergytosupportthemass.Althoughconsuminglargeamountsofproteincan
dothis,consumptionofadditionalcarbohydrateislessexpensiveandmoreeffective.Infact,powerathletesareevenmoredependentoncarbohydratesthan
enduranceathletesbecausethemusclefiberstheyusedon'thavethecapacitytoburnfatseffectively.Powerathletesoftenmakethemistakeofthinkingthatproteinis
thekeytotheirsuccess.Notonlyisthiserroneousthinking,butit'spotentially
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dangerousastherearealsoproblemsassociatedwithexcessiveproteinconsumption.Forinstance,excessproteinintakeisinevitablyassociatedwithanincreasein
dehydrationbecauseoftheincreasedrequirementtoexcretemoremetabolic(nitrogenous)waste.
Supplementationofvitamins,minerals,proteinproducts,andfatanalogueshasnotbeenfoundtobesuccessfulinimprovingpower,musclemass,orathletic
performanceinpowerathletes.Whiletheriskoftakingtheseproductsislikelytobelow,thereareinsufficientdatatoknowforcertainiftheseproductsare,indeed,
safewhentakenintheamountsanddurationprescribedbythemanufacturersoftheseproducts.Amoresensibleapproachistoconsumeabalancedandvarieddiet
thatishighincarbohydrates(60to70percentofcalories),moderateinprotein(12to15percentofcalories),andlowinfat(18to25percentofcalories).Thisintake
hasthebenefitofprovidingthemineralsandvitaminsneededforsupportingathleticperformance,andwillprovidethebestsourceofenergyforyourmusclestowork
efficiently.Thereisnoquestionaboutthesafetyofconsumingavarieddietthatishighincarbohydrates.
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6
EatingforAerobicPower
FeelingBetterMeansYou'llDoBetter
ThesinglemostcommoneatingerrorIseeintheenduranceathletesIworkwithisthat
theydotheirmorningrunbeforetheyhaveanythingtoeat.Thentheycomebackfeeling
queasyandfillthetank.Ifanyonehasacarthatletsyoufillupafterthetrip,pleaselet
meknow!
WhenJack,aduathlon(bikeandrun)champion,camethroughmylab(Laboratoryfor
EliteAthletePerformanceatGeorgiaStateUniversity)andsharedhisdailytraining
regimenwiththestaff,wehardlyflinched.Hewasdoingexactlywhathehadbeentaught
todo,andwhateveryonehetrainedwithwasalsodoing.Yougetup,getyourgearon,
andgoforyourmorningworkout.whensomethinglikethisissocommon,it'sinevitable
thatwe'llgetstrangelookswhenwesaythatthisstrategykeepsthemfrombenefitingfrom
theirmorningtraining.Ofcourse,theathletehasmanyreasonsfordoingthis,nottheleast
ofwhichisthathedoesn'tfeelgoodexercisingwithfoodinhisstomach.Thisisabsolutely
true,sincenoonefeelsgoodexercisingwithfoodbouncingaroundinhisorherstomach,
butthisdoen'tchangethefactthatyouneedenergytodowork.SowhenJacksaidthis,
wewerepreparedwiththemath:"YouuseXamountofenergyperhourwhenyousleep.
YourliverstoresXamountofenergy,whichisusedtomaintainbloodsugarduringthe
nightsoyourlungsandheartwillkeepworking.Theamountofenergyleftintheliverwhen
yougetupis,basedonyourrateofutilizationandliverstoragecapacity,zero.Thebody
createsglucosetomaintainbloodsugarwhentheliverisempty.Thesugaritcreatesis
mademainlyfromprotein(i.e.,muscles).Whenyouexercisewithnosugarintheliveryou
breakdowntheverymusclesyou'retryingtoimprovewiththeexercise.Therefore,you
don'tbenefitfromtheexercise,andtheimprovementinenduranceyou'reseekingwon't
come."
Thereactiontothisinformationisalsouniversallyconsistent:"Ohmy!WhatdoIdo?"
Whenwetalkedwithjackaboutthebeststrategyforhim,wewantedtoknowwhatjuice
helikestodrinkonethatgiveshimnostomachupset.That'sthestartingpoint.Weask
thathetrydrinkinghalfaglassofjuicebeforetherun.Thisisfairlyquicklyabsorbedandis
usefulinmaintainingbloodsugar.Afterhetriesthatforawhile,wesuggestthatheaddhalf
apeiceofdrytoast(nobutter,nomarmalade)withthehalfglassofjuice.Ultimately,we
wanthimtoworkuptooneglassofjuiceandonepieceoftoastbeforethemorning
workout.
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WhenJackcamebacksixmonthslater,hesaidhecouldn'tbelievehowmuchbetterhe
wasfeelinganddoingandhowmuchmore"energy"hehad.heattributedthisimprovement
tohavingthesmall"breakfast"beforhismorningworkout.Imightaddthatheatetherest
ofthisratherenormousbreakfastafterhereturnedfromtheworkout.Theinterestingthing
abouthisresponsetohisnewregimenwasthathedidn'trealizehecouldfeelbetter,since
hehadnosensationoffeeling"bad"whenwefirsttalked.Ofcourse,whenyoudo
somethingenough,youthinkthewayyoufeelis''normal"andexpected.Feelingbetter
afterfollowingasoundstarategyisjustanaddedbonus,becauseitmakesyouwantto
continuewhatyou'redoing:Andwhenyoufeelbetter,you'lldobetteraswell.
Enduranceathletesareinvolvedineventswherethereiscontinuousmovementforlongerthan20minutes.Someendurancesportscombineperiodsofslow,
continuousmovementwithperiodsoffast,quickburstsofmovement(soccer,tennis,etc.),andotherendurancesportsrequirecontinuousmovementoverlong
distancesortimeperiods(marathon,crosscountryskiing,triathlon,etc.).Inbothtypesofactivity,thereisapremiumonsupplyingsufficientenergyandfluidtoassure
thattheathletedoesnotbecomeexhaustedfromtheactivityorbecomeoverheatedfromthecontinuousenergyburn.Afailuretosupplysufficientenergyoftheright
typewillleadtoearlyfatigueandpoorathleticperformance.Thegoalfortheenduranceathleteis,therefore,toestablishaworkablestrategyforsupplyingsufficient
energyandfluidsbeforeandduringpracticeandcompetitiontosustainmuscularworkforalongdurationandatthehighestpossibleintensity.
Themajorityofenduranceactivitytakesplaceatanintensitythatallowsfatstocontributeahighproportionofthefuelformuscularwork.Sincethereisanalmost
inexhaustiblesupplyoffatineventheleanestathlete,supplyingfatsbeforeandduringphysicalactivityisnotaconcernandwouldnotbeagoal.However,
carbohydrateisinvolvedinthecompletecombustionoffats,andsincethestoragecapacityforcarbohydratesisrelativelylowandeasilydepleted,thegoalfor
enduranceathletesistofindawaytosupplyenoughcarbohydratestolastforthedurationoftheactivity.Therefore,whilepowerathletesmustconsumesufficient
energytomaintainorenlargethemusclemass,enduranceathletesmustconsumesufficientenergy(ascarbohydrate)tomaintainmuscularworkoverlongtimeperiods.
Aerobicmetabolismistheenergysystemofgreatestimportanceforenduranceathletes.Inthisenergypathway,oxygenisusedto
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helptransferphosphorusintonewATPmolecules.Unlikeanaerobicmetabolism,thisenergypathwaycanuseprotein,fat,andcarbohydrateforfuelbyconverting
piecesoftheseenergysubstratesintoacompoundcalledacetylCoA(acetylcoenzymeA).Glucoseisconvertedtopyruvicacid(ananaerobic,energyreleasing
process),andthispyruvicacidcaneitherbeconvertedintoacetylCoAwiththehelpofoxygen,oritcanbeconvertedtoanenergystorageproductcalledlacticacid.
Ofcourse,iftoomuchlacticacidbuildsup,themusclewillfatigueandactivitywillstop(theproblemwithdoingexclusivelyanaerobicwork).However,thelacticacid
caneasilybereconvertedtopyruvicacidtobeusedasafuelaerobically.
Aerobicmetabolismoccursinthemitochondriaofcells,wherethevastmajorityofallATPisproducedfromtheenteringacetylCoA.Fatscanbeconvertedtoacetyl
CoAthroughaprocesscalledthebetaoxidativemetabolicpathway.Thispathwayisveryoxygendependent,whichmeansthatfatscanonlybeburnedaerobically.
Theabilityofanathletetoachieveasteadystateofoxygenuptakeintothecellsisafunctionofhowwellanathleteisaerobicallyconditioned.Anathletethat
frequentlytrainsaerobicallyislikelytoreachasteadystatefasterthanonewhodoesnottrainaerobically.Forawellconditionedperson,itcantakefiveminutes
beforeenoughoxygenisinthesystemtosupportaerobicmetabolismatasteadystate.Thefirstfiveminutesofactivityaresupportedbyacombinationofanaerobic
andaerobicmetabolism.Achievementofafaststeadystateisthereforeimportantbecausethatdiminishestheamountoftimeanathleteisobtainingenergyvia
anaerobicpathways.Thisplacesaheavyburdenonthemostlimitedfuelcarbohydrates.Intheory,onceanathletereachesalevelofoxygenuptakethatmatches
oxygenrequirementforthegivenlevelofexertion,theexercisecouldgoonforaslongasthebody'scarbohydratelevelandfluidsdidnotreachacriticalstate.For
instance,alongdistancerunnerwhoisinasteadystatecouldcontinuerunningprovidedtherunnerreplacedthecarbohydrateandfluidsthatareusedintheactivity.
Therefore,enduranceisenhancedwithaperiodicintakeofcarbohydrateandfluidduringtheactivity.
Athleteswithdifferentlevelsofconditioningarelikelytoachievesteadystateatdifferentlevelsofexerciseintensity.Ifyou'rewellconditioned,youmightbeableto
maintainasteadystateatahighenoughlevelofexerciseintensitytoeasilywinarace.Inotherwords,youcangoreallyfastbutstillprovideenoughoxygentoyour
cellstosatisfyyouraerobicneeds.Atthe1996CentennialOlympicGamesinAtlanta,Georgia,thewinnerofthemarathonranover26milesat
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aspeedthataveragedjustovera5minutepermilepaceanunbelievablyfastpace!However,ifyou'renotwellconditionedaerobically,youmayonlybeableto
runata10minutespermilepaceandmaintainasteadystate.Eachpersonhashisorherownpacethatallowsmaintenanceofasteadystate.Exceedingthatpace
causesagreaterproportionofthemuscularworktorelyonanaerobicmetabolism,withanassociatedincreaseintherelianceoncarbohydratefuel.Sincethereisa
limitedstorageofcarbohydratefuel,thefueltankrunsdrymorequickly,andthepersonbecomesexhaustedfaster.
EnergyDemands
Theenergydemandsofenduranceathletesareenormous.Ithasbeenestimatedthatcrosscountryskiersuseapproximately4,000caloriesduringa50kilometerrace
anduseevenmoreenergy(upto8,000caloriesperday)wheninintensivetraining.1Ithasbeenrecommendedthat,asageneralrule,athletesshouldconsumeatleast
45caloriesperkilogramofbodyweightperdayiftrainingforatleast1.5hoursperday.2Asurveyoftriathletesdeterminedthattheyconsumedapproximately60
caloriesperkilogramperdaywhentraining19hoursperweek,butonly37to40caloriesperkilogramwhentraining11hoursperweek.3Ithasbeenestimatedthata
25yearoldfemalemarathonerweighing125poundsandrunning10milesatasixminutepermilepaceinthemorningandeightmilesofintervaltraininginthe
afternoonwouldrequire3,000caloriesfortheactivity,plus1,331caloriestocovertheneedsof"restingenergyexpenditure"4(seetable6.1)7a.Restingenergy
expenditurerepresentsthebaselineamountofenergyapersonuseswhileatrest.Aconsistentfailuretosupplythis4,331calorieswouldleadtoweightlossinpeople
whoarealreadyextremelylean.5
Fluids
Asathletesexercise,thereisaninevitablelossofbodywaterthroughsweat.Thiscoolingsystem,plusthenormalurinarywaterloss,mayamounttoover10liters
(about11quarts)ofdailywaterlosswhenexercisinginawarmenvironment.6Inahotandhumidenvironment,waterlossesmayexceedthreelitersperhourbutmay
belessthan0.5litersperhourincoolanddryenvironments.7Despitethehighratesofsweatlossesexperiencedbyathletes,mostathletesreplaceonly50percentof
thewaterthatislost,abehaviorthatinevitablyleadsto
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Table6.1RestingEnergyExpenditure*CalculationinAthletes
Formula
Age
1018
Males
(17.5 bodyweightinkilograms**)+651
1830
(15.3 bodyweightinkilograms**)+679
3060
(11.6 bodyweightinkilograms**)+879
Females
1018
(12.2 bodyweightinkilograms**)+746
1830
(14.7 bodyweightinkilograms**)+496
3060
(8.7 bodyweightinkilograms**)+829
*Restingenergyexpenditure(REE)representstheenergyneededtomaintaintheleanmass,aswellas
theenergyneededtocarryonnormalbodyfunctions,whenthebodyisatrest.WhenREEisadded
tothecostofenergyforanactivityandtheamountofenergythatittakestodigestandmetabolize
food(calledthethermiceffectoffood),youcanpredictthetotalenergyrequirement.
**Tocalculateweightinkilograms,takeweightinpoundsanddivideby2.2.(e.g.,a100pound
personweighs45.5kilograms).
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8
progressivedehydrationandadeclineinperformance. Researchhasclearlydemonstratedthatevenaslightdehydration(2percentofbodyweight)causesa
measurabledecreaseinathleticperformance.9,10Therefore,whenathletestakestepstosatisfyfluidrequirements,theyarehelpingtoguaranteeoptimalathletic
performance(seechapter2,"StayingHydrated").
Carbohydrate
Athletesrequirecarbohydrateduringbothhighintensityandlowerintensityactivities.Whencarbohydratestoresaredepleted,theathletequicklybecomesfatiguedand
performancedropsdramatically.However,sincethestoragelevelofcarbohydrateisrelativelylowwhencomparedtofatstores,athletesmustmakeaconsciouseffort
toreplacecarbohydrateateveryopportunity.Havinghighlevelsofstoredcarbohydrate(glycogen)andconsumingcarbohydrateduringactivitiesthatlastonehouror
morearewellestablishedtechniquesforoptimizingathleticendurance.Consumingcarbohydrateduringactivityhelpstomaintainbloodsugar(glucose)andinsulin,
whichencouragessugaruptakebyworkingmuscles.11Thishelpstoincreasethemuscularmetabolismofcarbohydratesandalsohelpstoassurethatcarbohydrates
arenotdepletedduringactivity.Inastudyofcyclistsdoingendurancework,thosewhoconsumedacarbohydratecontainingbeverageduringtheexercisewereable
toexerciseanadditionalhourwhencomparedtocyclistswhoconsumedonlywater.12Ingeneral,athletesareencouragedtoconsumeapproximately9to10grams
(35to40calories)ofcarbohydrateperkilogramofbodyweighteachday(seetable6.2).Thisamountstoabout600grams(2,400calories)ofdailycarbohydrate
intakefora150poundathlete.Thegeneralrecommendationisthatathletesshouldconsumefoodsthatprovideatleast60percentofthetotalconsumedenergy
(calories)ascarbohydrate.13
Thereisevidencethattheconcentrationofcarbohydrateconsumedearlyduringendurancerunningmayinfluencethedegreetowhichtheathletegetsgastrointestinal
(GI)discomfort.Itwasfoundthata5.5percent(13gramsofcarbohydrateper8ouncesoffluid)carbohydratesolutionproducedthesame(relativelylow)levelofGI
distressasplainwater.A6.9percent(16gramsofcarbohydrateper8ouncesoffluid)solution,ontheotherhand,doubledtheincidenceofdistresswhenathletes
wereaskedtoperformthesameexercise.Inaddition,onlythe5.5percentcarbohydratesolutionimpartedasignificantimprovementinperformance.14Therewere
similarresultsinastudy
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Table6.2CarbohydrateIntakeRecommendationsforAthletes
Bodyweight(pounds)
Gramsofcarbohydrate
Caloriesof
carbohydrate
100
400
1,600
125
500
2,000
150
600
2,400
175
700
2,800
200
800
3,200
225
900
3,800
AdaptedfromMurrayandHorswill1998.
ofmarathonrunningperformance.Marathoners,whorunover26miles,wereaskedtoconsumeeitherwater,a5.5percentcarbohydratesolution,ora6.9percent
carbohydratesolutiononthreedifferentoccasions.15Thefastesttimeswererecordedwhentheyconsumedthe5.5percentcarbohydratesolution,whileconsumingthe
6.9percentsolutionresultedintimesthatweresimilartoconsumingplainwater.Therefore,theclassicnutritionalparadigmholdstruehereaswell:"Morethanenough
isnotbetterthanenough."Althoughathleteshaveatremendousneedforcarbohydrate,tryingtoprovidetoomuchtoofastcausesdifficultiesandmaydetractfrom
performance.
Thetypeofcarbohydratemayalsomakeadifferenceinenduranceperformanceandgastrointestinaldistress.Inonestudy,6percentsolutionsofdifferenttypesof
sugars(glucose,fructose,andsucrose)werecomparedduring105minutesofcyclingexercise.(Seetable6.3foranexplanationofdifferentcarbohydrates.)While
consumptionofglucoseandsucroseresultedinpositiveoutcomes,theconsumptionofthefructosesolutionresultedinmoreGIdistress,agreaterdropinblood
volume,agreaterincreaseinstresshormoneresponse,andmeasurablypoorerexerciseperformance.16WhenGatorade,a6percentcarbohydrateandelectrolyte
beverage(containingglucoseandsucroseasthesourceofcarbohydrate),isconsumedduringhighintensityactivity,ithasbeenfoundtoblunttheincreaseinthestress
hormonesangiotestinI,ACTH,andcortisolwhencomparedtowater.17Therefore,itappearsclearthathavingacarbohydratecontainingbeverageduringexerciseisa
verygoodthingtodo.
Resynthesisofglycogenfollowingactivityisalsoimportant,sinceglycogenreservesareseverelydepletedfollowingactivitylasting
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Table6.3DifferentTypesofCarbohydrates
Fructose
Alsocalled"fruitsugar"sinceitisprevalentinfruitandhoney.Itisthe
sweetesttastingofthesugars(i.e.,forthesameamount,fructosetastes
sweeterthanglucoseorsucrose).Fructoseisnoteasilyputintosolution
withwater,soittendstodroptothebottomofthecontainerifnotmixed.
Tryputtinghoneyinwatertoseethiseffect.
Glucose
Thisistheprimaryenergysourceforthebody.Becauseitissoimportant,
wecanconvertallothersugarstoglucose,andwecanmakeglucosefrom
thebreakdownofaminoacids(proteins).Glucoseisalsoreferredtoas
dextrose.
Glucosepolymers
Thisisastarchmadeupofmanyunitsofglucose.Whendigested,many
unitsofglucosebecomequicklyavailable.
Maltodextrins
Thesearepolymersthathaveatleastfiveglucoseunitsattachedtogether.
Maltodextrinshavearelativelylowsweetnesslevelwhencomparedtoother
sugars,sotheyarenotwidelyused,eventhoughtheyhavethecapacityto
providemanyglucoseunitsquickly.
Maltose
Thisisasugarcomposedoftwomoleculesofglucoseandiscommonly
foundingrain(malt)products.Whilemaltoseisaquicksourceofglucose,
itsrelativelylowsweetnesskeepsitfrombeingwidelyused.
Sucrose
Thissugariscomposedofequalpartsofglucoseandfructose.Becauseitis
composedoftwosugars,itmustbebrokenupintoitscomponentpartsto
beusedforenergy.Theglucoseisimmediatelyavailableforenergy,while
thefructosemustbeconvertedtoglucoseinthelivertobeusedasenergy.
Sucroseisalsocalledtablesugarandiscommonlyfoundinsugarbeetsand
sugarcane.Becauseofitseasysolubilityinwateranditssweettaste,
sucroseisacommonsugarinbeverages.
onehourorlonger.Theefficiencyofglycogenresynthesisisdependentonseveralfactors,including18
thetimingofthecarbohydrateintake,
theamountofcarbohydrateconsumed,
thetypeofcarbohydrateconsumed,and
thedegreetowhichmusclehasbeendamagedduringtheexercise(damagedmuscleisslowertoresynthesizeglycogenthanhealthymuscle).
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Foodscontainingcarbohydratesthatenterthebloodquickly(i.e.,highglycemicindexfoods)arebetterabletoresynthesizeliverandmuscleglycogenthanfoodslow
ontheglycemicindexscale(seetable6.4).
Thegeneralrecommendationistoconsumeapproximately200caloriesofcarbohydrateeverytwohoursfollowingexercise,withthefirst200caloriesbeingprovided
assoonafterexerciseaspossible.19
Table6.4GlycemicIndexofFoods
Foods
Glycemicindex
Glucose
100
Maltose(grainsugar)
95
Carrots
92
Honey
87
Cornflakescereal
80
Wholewheatbread
72
Whiterice
72
Potatoes
70
Shreddedwheat
67
Bananas
62
Sucrose(tablesugar)
59
Sweetcorn
59
Potatochips
51
Peas
51
Oatmeal
49
Orangejuice
46
Bakedbeans
40
Apples
39
Yogurt
36
Icecream
36
Wholemilk
34
Fructose(fruitsugar)
20
Peanuts
13
Note:Foodswithhigherglycemicvaluesproduceafasterriseinbloodsugar(glucose)thanfoodswith
lowervalues.Nothingproducesafasterriseinbloodglucosethanpureglucose,withaglycemicindex
of100.Itisgenerallyconsideredbettertohaveaslowandsteadyriseinbloodglucoseratherthana
suddenriseinbloodglucose.Therefore,foodswithaglycemicindexbelow75arepreferableforusual
consumption.
AdaptedfromFosterPowellandMiller1995.
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BuildingEnergyandFluidReservestoSupportEnduranceActivities
Theimportanceofbuildingandmaintainingenergyreservestosupportenduranceactivityiswellestablished.Invirtuallyeverystudythathasexaminedathleteswith
highglycogenreservesversusthosewithlowerreserves,thosewithhigherreservesconsistentlyhavebetterenduranceandperformbetterathletically.Itisveryclear
thatenduranceathleteswhobegincompetitionwithmorestoredcarbohydratehavemoreavailableattheendofthecompetition,andthisdifferencealonemaybe
enoughtodeterminethewinner.Inaddition,athleteswhoarebetterhydratedduringcompetitionperformbetterthanthosewhoarelesswellhydrated.
Havingoptimalcarbohydrateandfluidintakedoesn'thappenautomatically.Itissomethingthatmustoccurwithforesightandplanning.Tomaketherightplans,
athletesshouldconsidertheopportunitiestheyhaveavailableinthefollowingfourdifferentblocksoftime:
Beforecompetition/practice.Thisistheperiodimmediatelypreceding(threetosixhoursbefore)competitionand/orpractice.
Duringcompetition/practice.Thecompetitionand/orpracticeitself.
Aftercompetition/practice.Theperiodimmediatelyfollowing(uptotwohoursafter)competitionand/orpractice.
Generaldailyconsiderations.Theremainingportionofthedaynotconsideredabove.
BeforeCompetition/Practice
Whencarbohydratesareconsumedpriortoexercise,thereisimprovedperformance.20Thegeneralrecommendationisforathletestoconsumebetween800to1,200
caloriesduringthehoursthatprecedecompetitionand/orpractice.21
Foodsconsumedpriortocompetitionshouldbefoodsthathavebeenconsumedwithoutdifficultypriortotraining.Tryingtoimprovecarbohydratestatusbeforea
competitionbytryingoutnewfoods,gels,orsportsdrinksisanalmostguaranteedformulaforcompetitivedisaster.Rehearsewhatyouintendtodoforcompetition
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duringpracticetomakecertainyourbodyrespondswelltoit.Competitionisnotatimeforexperimentation.
Consumptionoffluidspriortocompetitionisalsoimportant,andsinceglycogenstoragerequiresadditionalfluids(threegramsoffluidforeachgramofglycogen
stored),carbohydrateconsumptionshouldalwaystakeplacewithsubstantialfluidintake.Sinceitiscommonforathletestodrinkonlywhenthirsty,aconsciouseffort
shouldbemadetoconsumefluidsevenwhennotthirsty.Ifyouknowyouhavedifficultytakinginenoughfluidsbecauseyoudon'tthinkaboutitorbecauseofalack
offluidavailable,trybeginningeachdaywithatwoliterwaterbottlethatyoucarrywithyou(backpacksworknicely)everyday.Gettingandstayingwellhydrated
maybethesinglemostimportantthingyoucandotoassuregoodathleticperformance.Sinceitisalmostimpossibletoadequatelyreplaceallfluidslostduringtraining
and/orcompetition,itisusefulforathletestoentertheexerciseinawellhydratedstate.
Itisimpossibletobecomewellhydratedduringexerciseifyouentertheexercisepoorlyhydratedtobeginwith.Assumingthatamplefluidshavebeenconsumed
duringthedayleadinguptotheprecompetition/practiceperiod,athletesshouldconsumeanadditional16ouncesoffluidapproximatelytwohoursbeforetheexercise
begins.Afterthis,fluidsshouldbeconsumedevery15to30minutestomaintainthehydrationstateleadingintotheexercise.Itisalsorecommendedthat8to16
ouncesoffluidbeconsumedduringthe30minutespriortoexercise.Youwillknowifyou'veadequatelyhydratedyourselfbycheckingonthecolorofyoururine.
Darkurinesuggeststhatyouarenotwellhydrated,whileclearurinesuggeststhatyouare.Usingsportsbeveragespriortoexerciseisusefulbecausetheyprovidethe
twothingsathletesneedmost:carbohydratesandfluids.TheAmericanCollegeofSportsMedicinepositiononfluidsstatesthat22
thefluidconsumedshouldbeflavoredandsweetenedtoencouragefluidintake
tohelpmaintaintrainingintensity,thefluidshouldcontaincarbohydrateand
tostimulaterapidandcompleterehydration,thebeverageshouldcontainsodiumchloride(salt).
Sportsbeveragesthatmeetthesecriteriaareparticularlyusefulinhelpingtodeliverbothcarbohydratesandfluidstoathletes.
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DuringCompetition/Practice
Inevents,suchas10kilometerracesandmarathons,wherefluidsareavailableatregularintervals,theathleteshouldtakefulladvantageofeachfluidstationand
consumefluids.Sincewaterisconstantlybeinglost,frequentandregularconsumptionoffluidshelpstomaintainthebody'swaterlevel.Sincemostathletesconsume
lesswaterthantheyneed,techniquesforassuringhydrationduringactivityhavebeenstudied.Thefollowingrecommendationshavebeensuggested:23
Makecertainthatfluidisalwaysnearby,sinceaccessibilityhelpstoassurebetterfluidintake.
Allathletesshouldhavetheirownbottlefromwhichtodrink,andthisbottleshouldbewiththemwhenevertheyexerciseorareatacompetition.
Coachesshoulddesignpracticesthatenableathletestodrinkfrequently.
Thecoachingstaffshouldbeawareofthoseathleteswithhighsweatratestomakecertaintheyconsumemorefluidsthanthosewithlowersweatrates.
Helpathleteslearntodrinkfrequentlybyconsideringthistobepartofthetrainingregimen.
Tounderstandhowmuchfluidanathleteneedstoconsumeduringpracticeandcompetition,alogshouldbemaintainedwiththeamountoffluidconsumedandthe
beginningandendingweightoftheathletes.Ifanathleteconsumes32ouncesduringpracticeandweighs2poundslessattheendofpracticethanatthebeginning,this
athleteshouldlearntoconsumeanadditional32ouncesoffluidduringthepractice(1pound=16ouncesoffluid).
Consumptionoffluidsthatcontaincarbohydratesisimportantduringexercise,andproperlydesignedsportsbeveragescanaidinprovidingbothfluidsand
carbohydratesquickly.Theidealsportsbeverageshouldhavethefollowingcharacteristics:
Coolbeveragesaretoleratedbest.
Acarbohydratesolutionofbetween5and6percentdeliversboththecarbohydrateandthefluidquickly.Ahighercarbohydrateconcentrationslowsdeliverytothe
musclesbydelayinggastricemptyingandmayincreasetheriskofgutupset.
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Asmallamountofsodiumhelpsdrivethedesiretodrink,andinsodoinghelpstoassurethattheathletestaysbetterhydrated.Sodiummayalsoaidingettingthe
waterandcarbohydrateabsorbedmorequickly,aswellashelptomaintainbloodvolume.Maintenanceofbloodvolumeisanimportantpredictorofathletic
performance.Thereissomeevidencethathyponatremia(lowbloodsodium),whichresultsfromlargelossesofsodiuminsweatthatgoesunreplaced,occursin
enduranceandultraenduranceevents.24Thisisararebutseriousconditionthatmayresultinseizures,comas,ordeath.
Thebeverageshouldtastegoodtotheathlete.Thetastesensationmaybealteredduringexercise,sothereisnoguaranteethatafluidyouenjoydrinkingatdinner
willtastegoodtoyouwhileexercising.Makesureanathletetriesdifferentflavorsduringexercisetodeterminewhatisbestliked.
Thecarbohydrateshouldbefromacombinationofglucoseandsucrose.Beveragescontainingpredominantlyfructoseincreasetheriskofcreatinggutupset.
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25
Noncarbonatedsportsdrinksarepreferredovercarbonateddrinksduringenduranceexercise.
Consumptionofcarbohydratesinsolidandliquidformsbothresultsinthesameperformanceoutcomes,soathletesinsomesportsmaychoosetoconsume
carbohydratefoodsratherthancarbohydratebeverages.26Cyclistswhogolongdistances,forinstance,oftenconsumebananasandcarbohydrategelstosupporttheir
carbohydraterequirement.Itappearsasiftheconsumptionof45to75gramsofcarbohydrateperhour(180to300caloriesfromcarbohydrateperhour)helpsto
improveathleticperformance.27Thisamountofcarbohydratecanbefoundinapproximatelyonequartofsportsbeveragewitha6percentcarbohydrate
concentration.
AfterCompetition/Practice
Whileyoumaythinkyou'vedoneeverythingyouneedtodoonceyourexerciseisoverexceptshoweritisclearthatdrinkingmorefluidsandconsumingmore
carbohydratesaftertheexerciseorcompetitionisimportant.Doingthiswillhelpyoureplenishyourglycogenstoresandgetyoureadyforthenextdayofexercise.
Thebestglycogenreplenishmentoccursifyouconsumehighglycemicindexcarbohydrates(seetable6.4)immediatelyfollowingexercise,andcontinueconsuming
carbohydrates(viasnacks)untilthenextmeal.28
GeneralDailyConsiderations
Thebeforeexercise,duringexercise,andafterexerciseperiodsaremeanttoprovidecarbohydratesandfluidstosupporttheactivity,butwhatyoudotherestofthe
timehelpstoassurethatthebefore,during,andafterexercisestrategiesactuallywork.Obviously,theconsumptionofcarbohydratesandfluidsduringtheseperiods
doesn'tprovideallthenutrientsandmineralsanathleteneedstosupporthealthandactivity.Forthisreason,itisimperativethatwhatyoueattherestofthetime
providesabalanceofnutrientsthatcankeepyouhealthy.Itisverytruethathealthyathletesarebetterathletes.Agoodbasicstrategytofollowforyourregularmeal
timesistodistributefoodsasindicatedontheFoodGuidePyramid.Thisguideencouragestheconsumptionofawidevarietyoffoodsthatarehighincomplex
carbohydrates,moderateinprotein,andlowinfatsandsugars.Thistypeoffooddistributionisperfectforathletesandwillhelptoassurethatallnecessarynutrients
areconsumed.
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Thereisnothinganathletecandojustbeforecompetitiontocorrectanutrientdeficiencyandhelpperformance.Ifyourintakeofironisconsistentlylow,andyou
developirondeficiencyanemia,itcouldtakesixmonthsonagooddietandironsupplementstobringyourironleveluptoapointwhereperformancewon'tbe
negativelyimpacted.Ifyou'vegotanutrientdeficiency,doingeverythingrightbefore,during,andafterexercisestillwon'thaveyouperforminguptoyourconditioned
ability.Soeatwellandeatwiselywhenyou'vegotthechanceand,ofcourse,drinkplentyoffluids.
OtherNutritionalRecommendations
Thereareseveralrulesofnutritionthatapplyhere.Amongthemistheideaoftheneedtoconsumeawidevarietyoffoodstoassurethatthebodyisexposedtoallof
theessentialnutrients.Onthebacksideofthisrule,thereisanotherbenefit.Byconsumingawidevarietyoffoods,athletescanavoidbeingexposedtoanypotentially
toxicsubstancesthataremoreprevalentinsomefoods.Therefore,eatingawidevarietyoffoodsisagoodnutritionalruletoliveby.Anotherruleistheideathatitis
possibletoeattoomuchofsomething,evenifyouthinkit'sgoodforyou.Learningtobalanceyourdietthroughvarietywillhelpensureyourbodyofbothproper
maintenanceandadequatenutrientintake.
Protein
Enduranceathletesactuallyrequireslightlymoreproteinthanpowerathletes,eventhoughit'susuallythepowerathleteswhotakemoreproteinandaminoacid
supplements.WhilemostenduranceathletesappeartoconsumeatleasttheRecommendedDietaryAllowanceforprotein(0.8gramsofproteinperkilogramofbody
weight,asestablishedbytheFoodandNutritionBoardoftheNationalResearchCouncil),theestimatedrequirementforenduranceathletesisaboutdoublethislevel
(1.5gramsperkilogram).29Withtheexceptionofvegetarians,mostenduranceathletesappeartoconsumethislevelofproteinfromfoodalone.30
Consumptionofexcessproteinhasalwaysbeenaconcernforathletes,sincemanyoftheproductsmarketedforimprovementofathleticperformancearesomeform
ofproteinsupplementoraminoacidpowderpreparation.Therehavebeenseveralstudiessuggestingthatconsistentlyhighproteinintakes(above1.6gramsper
kilogram)
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maycontributetokidneydiseaseorexacerbateanexistingkidneyproblem.Inaddition,sincehighproteindietsarealmostinevitablyalsohighfatandhighcholesterol
diets,thereisconcernthatthosewithageneticpredispositiontoheartdiseasewouldbenegativelyimpacted.Ofcourse,ifexcessproteinisderivedfromsupplements,
itmaybelowinfatbutthesecarrytheirownsetofdifficulties.Forinstance,itisdifficulttobesurethatthesupplementisofhighquality.Inaddition,anyamountof
proteinthatexceedstherequirementislikelytoincreasewaterlossandincreasetheriskofdehydration,regardlessofwhetheritcomesfromfoodorsupplements.
Thereislittlereasonforanyathlete,nomatterthesport,toconsumealevelofproteinthatexceeds1.5to2.0gramsperkilogramofbodyweight.Ingeneral,this
amountstobetween12and15percentoftotalcaloriesconsumed.Forathletesonhighproteinintakes,proteinconsumptionisoftenmorethanthreegramsper
kilogramofbodyweight,or30percentoftotalcaloriesconsumed.Byanymeasure,thisisexcessive.Sincehighproteinintakescommonlyresultineithertheexcess
proteinbeingstoredasfator,ifthereisageneralenergyintakeinadequacy,beingburnedforfuel,thenitrogenouswasteproductsmustberemoved.Thisexcessurea
excretioncausesagreaterurinaryvolumetobeproduced,increasingthechancefordehydration.Sincestayingwellhydratedisofcentralimportancetoathletic
performance,havingadietthatinducesdehydrationmustbeconsideredcounterproductive.Itislikelythatthisextrawaterlossisatleastpartiallyresponsibleforthe
weightlossesseeninpeoplewhoconsumehighprotein,lowcarbohydratediets.Whiletheweightlossmayappeardesirable,thenegativeimpactthishason
enduranceshouldcauseyoutothinkcarefullyaboutwhetherthistypeofintakeisforyou.(Itshouldn'tbe!)
Fat
Whilethehighprotein,highfat,lowcarbohydratediet(40percentcarbohydrate,30percentprotein,and30percentfat)hasreareditsuglyheadonceagain(itseems
toreturnwithanewnameevery10to20years),itisnobetternowthanitwaswhenitwasfirstintroduced.Thereisnothinginthescienceorexperiencetosuggest
thatthistypeofintakeisusefulforanyathlete.Forenduranceathletes,alltheliteraturemakesitamplyclearthatthehigherthecarbohydrateintake,thebetterthe
performance.Therefore,forenduranceathletes,thistypeofintakemustbeconsideredadisasterforathleticperformance.Whenthesedietsreartheirheads,I
sometimes
Page175
wonderifthey'vebeensecretlyintroducedbysomecountryorgroupthatwantstowinacompetitiveedgeincompetition.
Vitamins
Vitaminsupplementsforotherwisewellnourishedathletesdonotimproveathleticperformance.However,athleteswhoknowtheydon'teatagoodbalanceddiet
maybenefitfromtakingalowlevel(50to100percentoftheRDA)multivitamin,multimineralsupplement.Bvitaminsarecriticallyimportantforenduranceactivities,
butathletesconsuminghighcarbohydratediets(60to70percentcarbohydrateoraminimumof30caloriesperkilogramofbodyweight)arevirtuallyassuredof
obtainingsufficientBvitaminsfromthefoodstheyconsume.TheBvitaminsworktogether,sotakingasingleBvitamindoeslittleornogood.Inonestudy,niacin
(vitaminB3)wasaddedtoacarbohydratecontainingsportsbeveragetodetermineifitwouldenhanceexerciseenduranceduringlongrangecycling.Thefindings
indicatethat,becauseniacininhibitedthereleaseandutilizationoffreefattyacids,themusclesbecamemorereliantonglycogen,resultinginearlierfatigue.31
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Thereisalsosomelimitedevidencethattakingantioxidantvitamins(vitaminsC,E,andBetacarotene)mayreducethetimemusclesremainsorefollowinganintensive
workoutorcompetition.However,regularconsumptionofhighcarbohydratefoods,suchasfreshfruitsandvegetables,helpstoassurethatplentyofantioxidant
vitaminsarepresentedtothetissues.
Minerals
Whilethemineralneedsofathletesarecoveredmorecompletelyinchapter1,''BalancingEssentialNutrients,"itwarrantsmentioningherethattheoxygencarrying
capacityofenduranceathletesisimportant.Ifanathlete'sironstatusiscompromised,oxygencarryingcapacitywilldropandsowillperformance.Zincisalsoan
importantmineralinnumerousenzymesinvolvedinoxidativeenergymetabolism.Thebestdietarysourceforironandzincismeat(beef,poultry,pork,lamb,etc.).For
enduranceathleteswhodonotconsumemeat,thereisanaturalconcernthatboththeirironandzincstatusmaybeaproblem.Tobesafe,thesenonmeateating
athletesshouldhaveyearlybloodteststoassurethatironstatusandzincstatusarewithinacceptablebounds.Ifnot,supplementsoftheseminerals,asrecommended
byaphysician,maybewarranted.
Anothermineralofconcerniscalcium,becausestrongboneshelpreducetheincidenceofmusculoskeletalproblems,suchasstressfractures,inathletes.Because
enduranceathletesdothesameanatomicalmotionhundredsandthousandsoftimes,weak,poorlymineralizedbonesmaybeatincreasedriskofdevelopingstress
fracturesatpointswherethebonescontinuallyreceivestress.Sinceestrogenhelpsbonesbecomemineralizedinwomen,femaleathleteswhodon'thavemenstrual
periodsareatriskfordevelopingweakbones.Forthesewomen,itisevenmoreimportantthattheytakeplentyofcalciumandlotsofsunshine(vitaminD)tohelp
compensatetheproblemofinadequateestrogen.
Summary
Ingeneral,athleteswithlongtrainingschedulesshouldfocusontheconsumptionofdietsthatarehighincarbohydrateandshoulddevelopadrinkinghabitthat
frequentlydeliversfluidstothebody.Whilefatsconstituteamajorproportionofburnedenergyforendurance(aerobic)activities,thestoragecapacityforfatis
relativelyhighforeventhemostleanathletes.Thestoragecapacityforcarbohy
Page177
drates,however,islimited.Sincefatsrequiresomecarbohydratetobecompletelyburned,thelimitedstoragecapacityforcarbohydratecanlimitthebody'sabilityto
burnfatduringexercise.Toovercomethislimitation,athletesshouldbeconstantlyvigilanttokeepbodystoresofcarbohydrateatmaximallevelsbeforeactivitybegins
andshouldreplacecarbohydrateduringactivitythroughwhatevermeansareavailable.Afailuretosupplysufficientcarbohydratebeforeandduringenduranceactivity
willsignificantlyreduceathleticperformance.Seetable6.5fortherecommendednutrientintakeforathletestraining90minutesormoreeachday.
Table6.5RecommendedNutrientIntakesforEnduranceAthletes
Totalenergy
intake
Calculatedas1.6to2.4timestherestingenergyexpenditure(seetable6.1forformulas
usedtocalculaterestingenergyexpenditure).Highervaluesareusedforathleteswho
doenduranceworkathigherintensities.
Fluid
16Ouncesoffluid2hourspriortoexercise.
Additional8to16ouncesoffluidduringthe30minutespriortoexercise.
Donotdelaydrinking,evenifnotthirsty.
Drinkfluidsevery10to15minutestoreplacewaterlossviasweatandtoprevent
dehydration.
Iftheactivitypreventsregular,frequentfluidintake,drinkasmuchascanbe
toleratedduringnaturalbreaksintheactivity.
Drinkenoughfollowingtheactivitytoreturnbodyweighttonormalpriortonext
day'sactivity.
Carbohydrate
Greaterthan60percentoftotalcaloricintakeshouldcomefromcarbohydrates.
Thisshouldamountto500to600gramsofcarbohydrateperday(equivalentto2,000
to2,400caloriesofcarbohydrateperday).
Carbohydrateintakeshouldbeatleast4to5gramsofcarbohydrateperpoundof
bodyweightperday.(A100poundathletewouldconsume500gramsof
carbohydrateor2,000caloriesofcarbohydrateeachday.A200poundathletewould
consumedoublethisamount.)
Fat
Fatintakeshouldremainaslowaspossible,neverexceeding30percentoftotal
caloriesfromfat.
Mostathletesshouldhaveafatintakeofbetween20to25percentoftotalcalories.
Higherlevelsoffatintakeareonlyusefulifenduranceathletesareincapableof
consumingsufficientenergyfromcarbohydratestosustaindesirableweight.
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
(continued)
Page178
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Table6.5(continued)
Protein
Enduranceathletesrequireapproximately1.6gramsofproteinperkilogramofbody
weightperday.(Thislevelgenerallytranslatesinto10to15percentoftotalcaloriesas
protein.)
Thebestsourcesofproteinincludemeats(beef,chicken,fish,pork)anddairy
products(eggs,milk,cheese).However,proteinisalsopresentingrains,cereals,and
legumes.
Minerals
Iron,zinc,andcalciumareofconcernforallathletes.Ironandcalciummaybeof
particularconcernforfemaleathletes.
Vegetarianathletesareatincreasedriskofinadequateiron,zinc,andcalcium
intakes.
Forfemaleandvegetarianathletes,iron,zincandcalciumsupplementsmaybe
warranted.
Heavysweatingcausesincreasedlossesofsodium,chloride,and(perhaps)
potassium.
Consumptionofawidevarietyoffoods,includingmeatsanddairyproducts,helpsto
assureandadequateintakeofiron,zinc,calcium,sodium,chloride,andpottassium.
Vitamins
FortifiedgrainsandcerealsareanexcellentmeansofobtainingsufficientBvitamins,
whicharenecessaryforthemetabolismofenergy.
Thesupplementalintakeofantioxidantsshouldnotexceedthelevelrecommendedby
theU.S.OlympicCommittee(33,340IUofbetacarotene1,000mgofvitaminC400IU
ofvitaminE).
AdaptedfromMurrayandHorswill1998.
Page179
7
TimingofMealsandSnacks
TimingIsEverything
TherewasatalentedgymnastataNationalTeamtrainingcampwhocoulddotheskills
wellenoughtomakeitontotheNationalTeamthreeyearsinarow,butshejustcouldn't
breakintothetopleveltocompeteatthekeycompetitions.Shewaseagertotalkwithme
whensheheardIwasthenewnutritionistfortheteam,andshefoundherwaytoseeme
duringthefirstpossiblerotaion.Iwasn'treadyforwhatshesaidassheintroducedherself
tome:"I'mtiredofbeingcalledbubblebutt,butIcan'tdoanythingaboutitandbelieve
me,I'vetriedeverything!"Itwastruethatshewasgeneticallypredisposedtocarryinga
bitmorefataroundthehipsthanotherplaces,butitwasalsocleartomethat99.9percent
ofallwomenontheplanetwouldliketolookasfitandasathleticasshedid.However,in
theworldofgymnastics,sheclearlywascarryingmorefatthanmost.
Wetalkedatlengthaboutwhatshehaddoneinthepasttolowerherbodyfat,andshe
toldmeaboutpastdiscussionsshehadhadwithexercisephysiologistsandnutritionists
eachoneputtingheronadifferentexerciseregimenandevaluatingherdietaryadequacy
overandoveragain.Itwasatthispointthatshesaidsomethingveryinterestingtome.She
explainedthatatherlastvisttothenutritionist,shewastoldthathertotaldailycaloric
intakewasalmostaperfectmatchforherdailycaloricexpenditure.Thatwasevenmore
frustratingforher,sincesheimaginedthathavingaperfectdietshouldleadtoaperfect
physique,Iwondered,washerdietreallyperfect?
Istartedaskinghersomequestionsaboutherdailyscheduleandwhensheatehermeals,
anditbecamealmostimmediatelyclearthatthecalorieswereright,buttheyweren'tright
attherighttime.Shewas"backloading"herfoodintakebecauseherdailyschedulewasso
busy.Thisissomethingthatmanyathletesdobecausetheyallhaveincrediblybusy
schedules.Insteadofspreadingouttheircaloriesthroughouttheday,theyeatalittlebit
duringthedayandeatahugeamountintheevening(i.e.,backload)totakeintheenergy
theyneed.(Backloadingfoodintakeisabitlikegettingintoyourcarinthemorningand
noticingthatthegastankiscompletelyempty,thensayingtothecar,"Well,takemetomy
mettingnow,andI'llfillyouuponcewegetthere."Itjustdoesn'tworkthatway.)We
talkedaboutwhetheritwouldbepossibletospreadoutthefoodanddrinkthroughoutthe
daytoavoidhungerandthrist,andtomakecertaintherewasenoughoftherightfuel(i.e.,
(textboxcontinuedonnextpage)
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(textboxcontinuedfrompreviouspage)
carbohydrate)inthesystemtotrainproductively.Weworkedoutastrategyformovinga
bagelfromheretothere,andconsumingmoresportsbeverageduringpracticebuthaving
lessatnight,andsheagreedtogiveitatry.(Afterall,shehadtriedeverythingelse!)
Whensomeonecallsyouonthephone,youcanusuallytelliftheyhaveasmileontheir
facewhilethey'retalking.Well,shecalledmeaboutamonthafterthetrainingcampwitha
bigsmileonherfaceandsaidshe'dneverfeltstrongerandherjeanshadneverfitbetter.I
washappyforherandsaidwecouldtalkagainatanupcomingcompetitionintwoweeks.
Whenwemetagain,itwasasifIwaslookingatadifferentperson.Shewassmiling,felling
good,andwasn'tcarryingaroundthe"bubblebutt"labelonherforehead.Itookher
weightandwassurprisedthatshewasaboutfivepoundsheavier,andIcouldn'thavebeen
morehappy.Forthefirsttimeinalongwhile,hermuscleswererespondingtoherhard
trainingbecausetherewasenoughfuelaroundatthetimethefuelwasneeded.So,she
lookedsmaller,weightedmore,hadlessfat,andwasperformingbetter.Shewaseating
thesamefoodsinthesameamounts,buteatingthemwhensheneededthemthemost.
Timingiseverything.
ItisinterestingthatthequestionmostfrequentlyaskedwhenIspeaktoathleteshastodowithwhattoeatbeforecompetition.Althoughthisisimportant,itisof
relativelysmallimportancewhencomparedtohowtheathleteeatsmostofthetime.Youcan'tproperlyprepareforacompetitionbyeatingsomepancakesseveral
hoursbeforeyouplaceyourfeetinthestartingblocks.Ittakesconsistentandlongtermeffortinconditioningandgoodnutrition.Thereisnowaythatanathletewith
irondeficiencycanmagicallycuretheconditionbyconsumingsomeredmeatthedaybeforetheevent.Itmaytakesixmonthsonaproperdiettogettoastateof
normalironstatus.Therefore,thefirstandmostimportantstepinpreparingforcompetitionistoconsistentlyeatenoughenergyandnutrientstosupportyour
needs.Afailuretodothiswillinevitablyleadtoapoorcompetitionoutcome,nomatterwhatyoudojustbeforethecompetition.
Inadditiontoconsumingenoughenergyandnutrients,it'sequallyimportanttoeatthefoodsatthetimesthebodycanbenefitthemostfromthem.Thetimingof
mealsisalsoimportantformakingcertainthatthemuscleshaveenoughenergyandnutrientstogrowandgetstrongerduringtrainingsessions,ratherthangetburned
forenergybecausetheathletehasn'teatenenough.Putsimply,it'simportanttogetenoughandgetitontime.Thisisn'teasytodo,becauseathleteshaveterribly
hecticschedules,andittakesstrategicthinkingandgood
Page181
schedulingtomakecertainfoodisconsumedwhenit'sneeded.Whilecarefulmealplanningmaynotseemasimportantashavingawelldevelopedtrainingplan,they
shouldbethoughtofasbeingequallyimportant.Theyshouldalsobethoughtoftogethertomakecertainthetrainingplancanbeproperlysupportedwiththefoods
thatareconsumed.
Ifthegeneralfoodintakeissupportiveofthetrainingplan,whatshouldanathletedodifferentlyforthedaysleadinguptoacompetition?Thesequenceofeventsfor
thesevendayspriortocompetitionhasthreemajorgoals:
1.Theathleteshouldgraduallybecomerested.Thismaybeaproblemformanyathletesandcoaches,sinceathletes(eitherwithorwithouttheencouragementof
thecoach)oftenincreasethetrainingscheduleduringtheweekleadinguptoacompetition.Thisovertrainingisabigproblemandmayincreasetherisksofgetting
sickorgettinginjured.Itcertainlydoesn'thelptheathletedotheirbestattheupcomingcompetition.
2.Theathleteshouldgraduallybuildupmuscleglycogen(energy)stores.Themainpurposeofgraduallyreducingtheintensityanddurationoftrainingsessions
beforethecompetitionistobesurethattheathletecanbeginthecompetitionwithfullmuscleglycogenstores.Thestoragecapacityforglycogenisrelativelysmall,and
athletesareheavilyreliantonstoredglycogenformuscularwork(it'sthelimitingfuelformuscularwork,regardlessofthetypeofexercisetheathleteisdoing).
Therefore,it'simportanttoeatplentyofcarbohydratesandreduceworksoglycogenstoresarefullgoingintothecompetition.
3.Theathleteshouldbecomewellhydrated.Whenathletesworkharditisdifficult(ifnotimpossible)tomaintainanoptimalhydrationstate.Ittakestimetoreturn
lostbodywater,andathletesshouldgivethemselvesthetimetodosobyreducingthetrainingintensityanddurationanddrinkingplentyoffluids.Anadditional
benefittobecomingwellhydratedisthatglycogenstorageisenhanced.Thegradualtaperingoftrainingduringthesevendayspriortocompetitionmakesiteasierfor
theathletetostartthecompetitioninawellhydratedandoptimallyenergizedstate.
Thereare,ofcourse,manysportswhereathletesdon'thavetheluxuryoftaperingactivityonasevendaycycle.Basketballplayersplayseveralgameseachweek
duringtheseason,baseballplayersplaynearlyeveryday,andhockeyplayersoftenhaveagametwice
Page182
aweek.Whiletheseandotherathletesdon'thaveschedulesthatpermitsevendayactivitytapering,theprinciplesbehindtaperedactivity,glycogenstorage,and
optimalhydrationshouldberememberedand,whenpossible,adheredto.Forathleteswithdailyschedulesthateliminatethepossibilityoftapering,consumptionof
highcarbohydratedietsandmaintenanceofoptimalhydrationbecomeevenmoreimportantcomponentsofathleticperformance.Athleteswiththeseschedulesshould
haveaneatinganddrinkingplanthatisassolidasthetrainingandcompetitionplan.Makeaneatinganddrinkingschedule,andstickwithit.
Alltoooftenathletesprepareforabigcompetitionbyincreasingtheirtrainingregimenasthecompetitiondrawsnearer.Thisisabigmistake.Coachesworkingin
highskillsports,suchasfigureskatingandgymnastics,commonlyasktheirathletestodomultiplerunthroughsoftheroutinesthedaybeforecompetition,justtobe
suretheathletecandothem.Well,ifyoucan'tbesuretheathletecandotheroutinebythen,thenyou'rejustreducingthechancetheathletewilldoitrightduring
competition,becausetheyenterthecompetitionexhaustedandinsecure.Themessagethissendstotheathlete(i.e.,"Idon'tbelieveyou'reready,andwe'regoingto
keeppracticinguntilyougetitright")isalsocounterproductive.Thereisnothingmoreconfidencebuildingforathletesthanenteringthecompetitionwellrestedand
knowingthecoachissecureintheirabilitytodoagoodjob.ThisistruewhethertheathleteisaprofessionaloraTballplayerinlittleleaguebaseball.
SevenDayTaper
Thefollowingtablesprovideanexampleofhowtheseprinciplescanbeputtowork.Theyillustratewhatandhowathletesmighteatiftheytypicallytraintwicedaily.
You'llnoticethatthefoodisspreadoutoversixsmallermealsratherthantwoorthreelargerones.You'llalsonoticethatthecaloriclevelofthemealsdoesnot
emphasizedinnerattheendoftheday.Whiledinnerisimportant,thetrainingtakesplacebeforedinner,sotherehastobeampleenergyprovidedwhentheathlete
needsitthemost.Breakfastcomesbeforethemorningworkoutbecause,bythetimetheathletewakesup,bloodsugarismarginalandtheliverisvirtuallydepletedof
energy,somaintainingbloodsugarisvirtuallyimpossible.Havingsomefoodtoeatpriortothemorningworkouthelpstoassurethatthemuscleswill
Page183
benefitfromthetrainingandhelpstokeeptheathletefeelingbetter.Nobodyfeelsgoodwithlowbloodsugar.
Thesetablesalsosuggestthatfoodsshouldbeconsumedlongenoughbeforethetrainingsessionsothattheathletefeelsnodiscomfortfromtrainingwhilethereisfood
inthestomach.Inaddition,you'llnoticethattherearealwayssomecarbohydratesprovidedimmediatelyafteraworkout.Thishelpstoassureaneffective
replenishmentoftheglycogenthatwasusedupduringthetraining.Waitingtoeattoolongafterthetrainingcandiminishtheefficiencywithwhichmuscleglycogenis
replaced.
SevenDaysbeforeCompetition
Thisisthedayforacomplete,total,andexhaustiveworkout.Alltheskillsarepracticedcompletelyandrepetitively,andtheathletespendsagooddealoftime
practicinghisorherweakestarea.Ifabasketballplayerhastroublemakingfoulshotsduringthegame,thenagooddealoftimeshouldbespentshootingfromthefoul
lineafteralltheotherpracticeregimenshavebeenfollowed.Heorsheshouldgetafeelforwhatit'slikewhentheyfeelabittired,justlikeinagame.Inotherwords,
sevendaysbeforethecompetitionisnotatimeforbeingtimidabouttheworkout.Giveyourbodyasufficientlygoodworkoutsothatyouknowyou'vereallygone
throughit.(Seetable7.1forasamplecompetitionminus7days.)
Table7.1SampleExerciseandEatingScheduleforCompetitionMinus7Days
Timeof
day
Activity
7:00
A.M.to
8:00
A.M.
Lightbreakfast(beforegetting
dressedforworkout)
2sliceswhitebreadtoast
1cupfruitjuice
DressforA.M.workout
1cupsportsbeverage[Average300
calories]
8:00
A.M.to
9:30
A.M.
Stretch(30minutes)
1cupsportsbeverageduringstretch
(sippedover30minutes)
1hourvigorousrun,bike,or
equipmentbasedactivity
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Food
16ouncessportsactivity(sippedat
therateof4ouncesevery15minutes)
[About150calories]
[continued]
Page184
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Table7.1continued
Timeof
day
Activity
9:30
A.M.to
10:00
A.M.
Postexercisebreakfast(before
gettingwashedanddressed)
1boiledegg
1freshorange
1bowl(1cup)ofwholegraincerealwith
6ouncesof1%milk
12ouncesfruitjuice[About900calories]
10:00
A.M.to
12:30
P.M.
Showeranddress
Sipon12ouncesoffluids(anykind
exceptthosecontainingcaffeineor
alcohol)
4slicesoftoastwith2tablespoonsof
jam
Relaxedactivities(read,walk,
lightworkaroundthehouse,desk
work,etc.)
[About75caloriesifasports
beverage]
12:30
P.M.to
1:00
P.M.
Lunch
Largebowl(2.5cups)ofpastawith
marinarasauce
3slicesofFrenchbread
12ouncesoffruitjuice[About1,200
calories]
1:00
P.M.to
2:45
P.M.
Postlunchrelaxation(read,desk
work,slowwalking,driving,etc.)
Sipon12ouncesofwater[0calories]
2:45
P.M.to
3:30
P.M.
Preparationforafternoonworkout
(getdressedforexercise,etc.)
Sipon12ouncesofsportsbeverage
[About75calories]
3:30
P.M.to
7:00
P.M.
Lateafternoonworkout
Practiceskills
Workonconditioning
Sipon16ouncesofsportsbeverageper
hour(4ounceseach15minutes)
Workonendurance
Workupasweat!
Takeyournudeweightpriortoexercise
andafterexercisetoseeifyouhave
consumedanappropriateamountoffluid.
Foreachpoundofweightloss,youshould
haveconsumedanadditional16ouncesof
beverage.
[About350calories]
7:00
P.M.to
7:30
P.M.
Postexercisenutritional
replenishment
1banana
12ouncesofsportsbeverage
2slicesofbread[About315Calories]
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Food
Page185
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Timeofday
Activity
Food
7:30P.M.to8:00
P.M.
Showeranddress
Don'tdrinktheshowerwaterunless
you'rereallythirsty!
8:00P.M.to9:00
P.M.
Dinner
Largebakedpotato
Broccoli(1spear)
Smallleansteak(4ounces)
Orangejuice(1cup)
Ricepudding(1cup)[About1,050
calories]
9:00P.M.to10:00
P.M.
Relaxationactivities
1cupofwaterorsportsbeverage
(sipped)[About75caloriesifasports
beverage]
10:00P.M.to7:00
A.M.
Sleep,glorioussleep!
Noeatingordrinkingpermitted!
Intaketotals:
4,500calories
79%ofcaloriesfromcarbohydrate
11%ofcaloriesfromprotein
10%ofcaloriesfromfat
Note:Thefoodintakeinthisexamplewouldmeettheneedsofa190pound(86.4kilogram)athlete
withaveryintensiveexerciseschedule.Inthisexample,theenergyrequirementfor
competitionminus7daysisestimatedas50caloriesperkilogramofbodyweight.Importantly,itis
highinfluids,highincarbohydrates,lowinfat,andmoderateinprotein.Thistypeofintake
supportsglycogen(energy)storageinthemusclesandliver.Athletesweighinglessthanthis
wouldconsumeproportionatelylessfood,whilemaintainingthesamefrequencyofintake.
Duringthisworkout,alltheprotocolsdiscussedearlierinthisbookshouldbefollowed.It'simportanttodrinkplentyofcarbohydratecontainingfluidsduringthe
workout(seechapter2).It'salsoimportanttofollowtheworkoutwithplentyofcarbohydrates.Consumingatleast400caloriesfromcarbohydrateimmediately
followingthetrainingregimenisdesirable,followedbyatleast800caloriesduringthenextseveralhours.Thisisyourfirstattemptatgettingyourmusclestoreplace
theglycogenthathasbeenlostduringtheworkout.
SixDaysbeforeCompetition
Thisrepresentsthefirstdayoftaperedexercisebutwithmaintenanceofahighcarbohydrateintakewithplentyoffluids.Sinceactivityisreduced,totalenergyintake
shouldalsobereducedtomatchneeds.
Page186
Activitycanbereducedintotaltimespentintraining,orbyreducingtheintensityoftheactivitiesintraining.Forinstance,aweightliftercoulddofewerrepetitionsor
coulddothesamerepetitionswithlessweight.Regardlessofthetechniquefollowed,competitionminus6daysshouldprovideatrainingschedulethatisnotas
exhaustiveascompetitionminus7days(seetable7.2).
Table7.2SampleExerciseandEatingScheduleforCompetitionMinus6Days
Timeofday
Activity
Food
7:00A.M.to
8:00A.M.
Lightbreakfast(beforegetting
dressedforworkout)
1slicewhitebreadtoast
1cupfruitjuice
DressforA.M.workout
1cupsportsbeverage[Average230
calories]
8:00A.M.to
9:30A.M.
Stretch(30minutes)
1cupsportsbeverageduringstretch
(Sippedover30minutes)
1hourvigorousrun,bike,or
equipmentbasedactivity
9:30A.M.to
10:00A.M.
12ouncessportsbeverageduring1
houractivity(sippedattherateof4
ouncesevery15minutes)[About125
calories]
Postexercisebreakfast(beforegetting
washedanddressed)
1boiledegg
1freshorange
bowl(1cup)ofwholegraincerealwith6
ouncesof1%milk
8ouncesfruitjuice[About690calories]
10:00A.M.to Showeranddress
12:30P.M.
Relaxedactivities(read,walk,
lightworkaroundthehouse,desk
work,etc.)
2slicesoftoastwith2tablespoonsof
jam
Sipon12ouncesoffluids(anykindexcept
thosecontainingcaffeineoralcohol)
[About75caloriesifasports
beverage]
12:30P.M.to Lunch
1:00P.M.
Largebowl(2.5cups)ofpastawith
marinarasauce
2slicesofFrenchbread
8ouncesoffruitjuice[About1,000
calories]
1:00P.M.to
2:45P.M.
Postlunchrelaxation(read,deskwork,
slowwalking,driving,etc.)
Sipon12ouncesofwater[0calories]
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Page187
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Timeof
day
Activity
Food
2:45
P.M.to
3:30
P.M.
Preparationforafternoonworkout(get
dressedforexercise,etc.)
Sipon12ouncesofsportsbeverage
[About75calories]
Stretch(atleast30minutes)
3:30
P.M.to
7:00
P.M.
Lateafternoonworkout
Practiceskills
Sipon16ouncesofsportsbeverageperhour
(4ounceseach15minutes)
Lowerthe
conditioning/endurancetraining
intensityfromthedaybefore.
Takeyournudeweightpriortoexercise
andafterexercisetoseeifyouhave
consumedanappropriateamountoffluid.
Foreachpoundofweightloss,you
shouldhaveconsumedanadditional16
ouncesofbeverage.
[About350calories]
Shouldbeaninvigorating,butnot
exhaustive,trainingregimen
7:00
P.M.to
7:30
P.M.
Postexercisenutritional
replenishment
1banana
8ouncesofsportsbeverage
2slicesofbread[About290calories]
7:30
P.M.to
8:00
P.M.
Showeranddress
Don'tdrinktheshowerwaterunlessyou're
reallythirsty!
8:00
P.M.to
9:00
P.M.
Dinner
Largebakedpotato
Broccoli(1stalk)
Smallleansteak(4ounces)
Orangejuice(1cup)
Ricepudding(1cup)[About1,050calories]
9:00
P.M.to
10:00
P.M.
Relaxationactivities
1cupofwater(sipped)
10:00
P.M.to
7:00
A.M.
Sleep,glorioussleep!
Noeatingordrinkingpermitted!
Intaketotals:
3,900calories
78.5%ofcaloriesfromcarbohydrate
11.3%ofcaloriesfromprotein
10.2%ofcaloriesfromfat
Note:Thefoodintakeinthisexamplewouldmeettheneedsofa190pound(86.4kilogram)athletewith
anintensiveexerciseschedule.Theenergyrequirementforcompetitionminus6daysisestimatedas
45caloriesperkilogramofbodyweight.Importantly,itishighinfluids,highincarbohydrates,lowin
fat,andmoderateinprotein.Thistypeofintakesupportsglycogen(energy)storageinthemusclesand
liver.Athletesweighinglessthanthiswouldconsumeproportionatelylessfood,whilemaintainingthe
samefrequencyofintake.
Page188
FiveDaysbeforeCompetition
Thisrepresentstheseconddayofreducedexerciseintensityanddurationbutwithaconsistentmaintenanceofahighcarbohydrateandfluidintake.Sinceactivityis
reduced,totalenergyintakeshouldalsobereducedtomatchneeds.Thisday,competitionminus5days,ischaracterizedbyactivitythatisdiscerniblylessthanthe
athleteisaccustomedtodoing.(Seetable7.3forasampleofaneatingandtrainingschedule.)
Table7.3SampleExerciseandEatingScheduleforCompetitionMinus5Days
Timeofday
Activity
Food
7:00A.M.to
8:00A.M.
Lightbreakfast(beforegetting
dressedforworkout)
DressforA.M.workout
1slicewhitebreadtoast
1cupsportsbeverage
NOFRUITJUICE
[Average115calories]
8.00A.M.to
9:30A.M.
Stretch(30minutes)
1cupsportsbeverageduringstretch
(sippedover30minutes)
1hourmoderateintensityrun,
bike,orequipmentbasedactivity
12ouncessportsbeverageduring1
houractivity(4ouncessippedevery15
minutes)
[About125calories]
9:30A.M.to
10:00A.M.
Postexercisebreakfast(beforegetting 1boiledegg
washedanddressed)
1freshorange
1bowl(1cup)ofwholegraincerealwith6
ouncesof1%milk
4ounces(1/2cup)fruitjuice[About600
calories]
2slicesoftoastwith1teaspoonofjam
10:00A.M.to Showeranddress
12:30P.M.
Sipon12ouncesofwater
Relaxedactivities(read,walk,
lightworkaroundthehouse,desk
work,etc.)
12:30P.M.to Lunch
1:00P.M.
Largebowl(2.5cups)ofpastawithmarinara
sauce
2slicesofFrenchbread
4ouncesoffruitjuice[About925calories]
1:00P.M.to
2:45P.M.
Postlunchrelaxation(read,desk
work,slowwalking,driving,etc.)
Sipon12ouncesofwater
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Page189
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Timeof
day
Activity
Food
2:45
P.M.to
3:30
P.M.
Preparationforafternoonworkout(get Sipon12ouncesofwater
dressedforexercise,etc.)
Stretch(atleast30minutes)
3:30
P.M.to
6:30
P.M.
Lateafternoonworkout
Practiceskills
Sipon16ouncesofsportsbeverageper
hour(4ounceseach15minutes)
Bothtimeandintensityoftraining
arereduced.
Takeyournudeweightpriorto
exerciseandafterexercisetoseeifyou
haveconsumedanappropriateamount
offluid.Foreachpoundofweightloss,
youshouldhaveconsumedan
additional16ouncesofbeverage.
About350calories]
6:30
P.M.to
7:30
P.M.
Postexercisenutritional
replenishment
1banana
12ouncesofsportsbeverage
1sliceofbread[About250calories]
7:30
P.M.to
8:00
P.M.
Showeranddress
Don'tdrinktheshowerwaterunless
you'rereallythirsty!
8:00
P.M.to
9:00
P.M.
Dinner
Mediumbakedato
Broccoli(1stalk)
Smallleansteak(4ounces)
1glasswater
Ricepudding(1cup)[About850calories]
9:00
P.M.to
10:00
P.M.
Relaxationactivities
1cupofwater(sipped)
10:00
P.M.to
7:00
A.M.
Sleep,glorioussleep!
Noeatingordrinkingpermitted!
Intaketotals:
3,200calories
75.61%ofcaloriesfromcarbohydrate
12.54%ofcaloriesfromprotein
11.85%ofcaloriesfromfat
Note:Thefoodintakeinthisexamplewouldmeettheneedsofa190pound(86.4kilogram)athlete
withamoderateexerciseschedule.Theenergyrequirementforcompetitionminus5daysis
estimatedas40caloriesperkilogramofbodyweight.Importantly,itishighinfluids,highin
carbohydrates,lowinfat,andmoderateinprotein.Thistypeofintakesupportsglycogen(energy)
storageinthemusclesandliver.Athletesweighinglessthanthiswouldconsumeproportionately
lessfood,whilemaintainingthesamefrequencyofintake.
Page190
FourDaysbeforeCompetition
Thisisagoodtimeformakingyourfinalstrategicplansforthecompetition.Yourtrainingregimenshouldfocusonkeyelementsofthespecialskillsyouhave,butwith
anemphasisonpracticingskillsinawaythatkeepsyoufrombecomingexhausted.Aswiththepreviousdays,youshouldmaintainahighcarbohydrateandfluidintake
tosupportyourneeds.
Thisisalsoagoodtimetohavealittleextraprotein,upto2grams/kilogram,tomakecertainallyourtissuerepairneedsarecovered,andtohavesomeextraprotein
tosupportthemanufactureofcreatine.Forthe190poundathleteinthisexample,2gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweightamountsto173gramsofprotein.
Theearlierexamplesprovided1.26gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight,anamountthatiswellwithinthegeneralrequirementsforathletes(1.0to2.0grams
perday).Therefore,providingalittleextraproteinmerelyprovidessomeassurancethatproteinintakeisnotalimitingfactorinperformance.
ThreeDaysbeforeCompetition
Threedaysbeforecompetitionissimilartofourdaysbeforecompetition,withacontinuedemphasisonlowtomoderateintensityexercise,ahighcarbohydrate
intake,alowfatintake,andaslightlygreateremphasis(upto2.0gramsperkilogram)onprotein.Otheractivitiesduringthedayshouldalsobereduced,withmore
timemadeavailableforbothphysicalandpsychologicalrelaxation.Theathleteshouldabsolutelyavoidbecomingoverheatedorexhaustedfromanyactivity.Usetable
7.4asasampleexerciseandeatingscheduleforcompetitionminus4andcompetitionminus3days.
Table7.4SampleExerciseandEatingScheduleforCompetitionMinus4DaysandMinus3Days
Timeofday
Activity
Food
7:00A.M.to
8:00A.M.
Lightbreakfast(beforegetting
dressedforworkout)
DressforA.M.workout
1slicewhitebreadtoast
1cupsportsbeverage[Average115
calories]
8:00A.M.to
9:30A.M.
Stretch(30minutes)
1cupsportsbeverageduringstretch
(sippedover30minutes)
1hourlowtomoderate
intensityrun,bike,orequipment
basedactivity
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
12ouncessportsbeverageduring1
houractivity(4ouncessippedevery
15minutes)
[About125calories]
Page191
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Timeof
day
Activity
9:30
A.M.to
10:00
A.M.
Postexercisebreakfast(beforegetting
washedanddressed
2boiledeggs
1freshorange
1bowl(1cup)ofwholegraincereal
with6ouncesof1%milk
[About530calories]
10:00
A.M.to
12:30
P.M.
Showeranddress
Sipon12ouncesofwater
12:30
P.M.to
1:00
P.M.
Lunch
Mediumbowl(1.5cups)ofpastawith
marinarasauce
2slicesofFrenchbread
1banana(inplaceof4ouncesoffruit
juice)
[About800calories]
1:00
P.M.to
2:45
P.M.
Postlunchrelaxation(read,deskwork,
slowwalking,driving,etc.)
Sipon12ouncesofwater
2:45
P.M.to
3:30
P.M.
Preparationforafternoonworkout(get Sipon12ouncesofwater
dressedforexercise,etc.)
Stretch(atleast30minutes)
3:30
P.M.to
5:30
P.M.
Lateafternoonworkout
Practiceskills
Sipon16ouncesofsportsbeverageper
hour(4ounceseach15minutes)
Bothtimeandintensityoftraining
arereduced.
Takeyournudeweightpriorto
exerciseandafterexercisetoseeif
youhaveconsumedanappropriate
amountoffluid.Foreachpoundof
weightloss,youshouldhave
consumedanadditional16ouncesof
beverage.
[About350calories]
5:30
P.M.to
7:30
P.M.
Postexercisenutritional
replenishment
1banana
12ouncesofsportsbeverage
Omitbread[About175calories]
2slicesoftoastwith1teaspoonof
jam
Relaxedactivities(read,walk,
lightworkaroundthehouse,desk
work,etc.)
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Food
(continued)
Page192
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Table7.4(continued)
Timeofday
Activity
Food
7:30P.M.to8:00
P.M.
Showeranddress
Don'tdrinktheshowerwaterunless
you'rereallythirsty!
8:00P.M.to9:00
P.M.
Dinner
Mediumbakedpotato
Broccoli(1stalk)
Mediumleansteak(4ounces)
1glasswater
Ricepudding(1cup)[About800
calories]
9:00P.M.to10:00
P.M.
Relaxationactivities
1cupofwater(sipped)
10:00P.M.to7:00
A.M.
Sleep,glorioussleep!
Noeatingordrinkingpermitted!
Intaketotals:
3,000calories
65.0%ofcaloriesfromcarbohydrate
20.0%ofcaloriesfromprotein
15.0%ofcaloriesfromfat
Note:Thefoodintakeinthisexamplewouldmeettheneedsofa190pound(86.4kilogram)athlete
withalighttomoderateexerciseschedule.Theenergyrequirementforcompetitionminus4days
andminus3daysisestimatedas35caloriesperkilogramofbodyweight.Importantly,itishigh
influids,highincarbohydrates,lowinfat,andmoderatelyhighinprotein.Thistypeofintake
supportsglycogen(energy)storageinthemusclesandliver.Athletesweighinglessthanthis
wouldconsumeproportionatelylessfood,whilemaintainingthesamefrequencyofintake.
TwoDaysbeforeCompetition
Thisisanexcellenttimetogetmorerest,andagoodwaytodothatistoeliminatethemorningtrainingschedule.Theafternoontrainingshouldbereducedtonomore
than1.5hours,withamoderatetolowintensity.Thefocusshouldbeonreviewingskillsandreinforcingthementalstrategyitwilltaketocompeteeffectively.Of
course,carbohydrateandfluidintakeshouldremainhigh.Seetable7.5forasampleexerciseandeatingscheduleforcompetitionminus2days.
OneDaybeforeCompetition
Thisdayshouldbecharacterizedbyplentyofrest(bothphysicalandmental)andrelaxation.Athletesandcoachesshouldberestrainedfromrunningthroughmultiple
fullroutines,afullspeedrun,orafull''gameintensity"practice.Walkingpartsofthecourse,getting
Page193
Table7.5SampleExerciseandEatingScheduleforCompetitionMinus2Days
Timeof
day
Activity
<SleepLate!NoMorningExercise>
9:30
A.M.to
10:00
A.M.
Postexercisebreakfast(beforegetting
washedanddressed)
2boiledeggs
1freshorangeorbanana
1bowl(1cup)ofwholegraincerealwith
6ouncesof1%milk
1slicewhitebreadtoast
1cupsportsbeverage[About650
calories]
10:00
A.M.to
12:30
P.M.
Showeranddress
Sipon12ouncesofwater
Relaxedactivities(read,walk,lightwork
aroundthehouse,deskwork,etc.)
12:30
P.M.to
1:00
P.M.
Lunch
Mediumbowl(1.5cups)ofpastawith
marinarasauce
2slicesofFrenchbread
1banana[About800calories]
1:00
P.M.to
2:45
P.M.
Postlunchrelaxation(read,deskwork,
slowwalking,driving,etc.)
Sipon12ouncesofwater
2:45
P.M.to
3:30
P.M.
Preparationforafternoonworkout(get
dressedforexercise,etc.)
Sipon12ouncesofwater
Stretch(atleast30minutes)
3:30
P.M.to
5:00
P.M.
Lateafternoonworkout
Practiceskills
Sipon16ouncesofsportsbeverageper
hour(4ounceseach15minutes)
Bothtimeandintensityoftraining
arereduced.
Takeyournudeweightpriorto
exerciseandafterexercisetoseeifyou
haveconsumedanappropriateamount
offluid.Foreachpoundofweightloss,
youshouldhaveconsumedan
additional16ouncesofbeverage.
[About350calories]
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Food
2slicesoftoastwith1teaspoonof
jam
(continued)
Page194
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Table7.5(continued)
Timeofday
Activity
Food
5:00P.M.to7:30
P.M.
Postexercisenutritional
replenishment
1banana
12ouncesofsportsbeverage[About
175calories]
7:30P.M.to8:00
P.M.
Showeranddress
Don'tdrinktheshowerwaterunless
you'rereallythirsty!
8:00P.M.to9:00
P.M.
Dinner
Mediumbakedpotato
Broccoli(1stalk)
Mediumleansteak(4ounces)
1glasswater
Ricepudding(1cup)[About800
calories]
9:00P.M.to10:00
P.M.
Relaxationactivities
1cupofwater(sipped)
10:00P.M.to7:00
A.M.
Sleep,glorioussleep!
Noeatingordrinkingpermitted!
Intaketotals:
2,800calories
65.0%ofcaloriesfromcarbohydrate
20.0%ofcaloriesfromprotein
15.0%ofcaloriesfromfat
Note:Thefoodintakeinthisexamplewouldmeettheneedsofa190pound(86.4kilogram)athlete
withalighttomoderateexerciseschedule.Theenergyrequirementforcompetitionminus2daysis
estimatedas35caloriesperkilogramofbodyweight.Noticethattheactivityandfoodamountsin
boldhavechangedfromthepreviousday'sschedule.Importantly,itishighinfluids,highin
carbohydrates,lowinfat,andmoderatelyhighinprotein(approximately1.8gramsofproteinper
kilogramofbodyweighttoassuretissuemaintenanceandrepairneedsaremet).Thistypeofintake
supportsglycogen(energy)storageinthemusclesandliver.Athletesweighinglessthanthiswould
consumeproportionatelylessfood,whilemaintainingthesamefrequencyofintake.
familiarwiththecompetitionvenue,orwatchingfilmsofyouropponentsareOKactivities,butonlyifyouknowtheywon'tmakeyouanxiousandunabletorelax.
SportpsychologistsIhaveworkedwithhaveindicatedthatit'sprobablybettertowatchfilmsofyourownsuccessfulcompetitionsratherthantowatchfilmsofwhat
youropponent(s)aregoingtodo.Byonedaybeforecompetition,youshouldhavealreadybeenbriefedlongagoaboutwhoyou'recompetingagainstandwhat
strategytofollow.
Thisisalmostyourlastchancetomakecertainyourglycogenstoresareatpeakvalues,andyoushouldmaintainasteadyfluidintaketoassureoptimalhydrationgoing
intothenextday'sactivities
Page195
(seetable7.6).Thecarbohydratesyouconsumeshouldbethosehighinstarchandrelativelylowinfiber.Pasta,bread,rice,fruits(withoutseedsorskins)are
excellentchoices.Vegetablesandlegumestendtohavelotsoffiberandmayproducegas(causingyoutobecomeuncomfortableandbloated).Vegetablesinthe
cabbagefamily(cabbage,brusselssprouts,kohlrabi,etc.)areparticularlynotoriousfortheirgascreatingcapabilities.
Table7.6SampleExerciseandEatingScheduleforCompetitionMinus1Day
Timeofday
Activity
<SleepLate!NoMorningExercise>
9:30A.M.to
10:00A.M.
Breakfast
Food
2boiledeggs
[Note:Avoideatinghighfiber
2slicesoftoastwith1teaspoonofjam
cerealsiftheycauseyouto
1freshorangeorbanana
bloatorgiveyougas.Ifthis
occurs,puffedriceorcornflakes
1bowl(1cup)ofcerealwith6ounces
maybegoodalternatives.]
of1%milk
1slicewhitebreadtoast
1cupsportsbeverage[About650
calories]
10:00A.M.to Showeranddress
12:30P.M.
Sipon12ouncesofwater
Relaxedactivities(read,walk,
lightworkaroundthehouse,desk
work,etc.)
12:30P.M.to Lunch
1:00P.M.
Mediumbowl(1.5cups)ofSpanishrice
2slicesofFrenchbread
1banana[About800calories]
1:00P.M.to
2:45P.M.
Postlunchrelaxation(read,deskwork,
slowwalking,driving,etc.)
Sipon12ouncesofwater
2:45P.M.to
3:30P.M.
Preparationforafternoonworkout(get Sipon12ouncesofwater
dressedforexercise,etc.)
Stretch(atleast30minutes)
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
(continued)
Page196
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Table7.6(continued)
Timeof
day
3:30
P.M.to
5:00
P.M.
Activity
Food
Lateafternoonworkoutshouldbevery Sipon16ouncesofsportsbeverageper
mild.Walkingaroundyourneighborhood hour(4ounceseach15minutes)
orbecomingfamiliarwiththecompetition
Takeyournudeweightpriortoexercise
venuearegoodactivities.
Bothtimeandintensityoftraining
arelow.
andafterexercisetoseeifyouhave
consumedanappropriateamountoffluid.
Foreachpoundofweightloss,you
shouldhaveconsumedanadditional16
ouncesofbeverage.
[About350calories]
5:00
P.M.to
7.30
P.M.
Postactivitynutritionalreplenishment
1banana
12ouncesofsportsbeverage[About175
calories]
7:30
P.M.to
8:00
P.M.
Showeranddress
Havefluidsavailableinabottletosiponto
avoidthirst.
8:00
P.M.to
9:00
P.M.
Dinner
Mediumbakedpotato(donoteattheskin)
Cookedcarrots(cup)
[Note:Avoideatinghighfiber
vegetablesthatcouldcause
bloatingandgas.Cabbage,
broccoli,cauliflower,andraw
spinachareparticularlyknown
forbeinggascausing.]
Mediumchickenbreastwithoutskin
(baked)
1glasswater
Ricepudding(1cup)[About800
calories]
9:00
P.M.to
10:00
P.M.
Relaxationactivities
1cup
10:00
P.M.to
7:00
A.M.
Sleep,glorioussleep!
Noeatingordrinkingpermitted!
Intaketotals:
2,800calories
65.0%ofcaloriesfromcarbohydrate
20.0%ofcaloriesfromprotein
15.0%ofcaloriesfromfat
Note:Thefoodintakeinthisexamplewouldmeettheneedsofa190pound(86.4kilogram)athletewith
alightactivityschedule.Theenergyrequirementforcompetitionminus1dayisestimatedas35
caloriesperkilogramofbodyweight.Importantly,itishighinfluids,highincarbohydrates,lowinfat,
andmoderatelyhighinprotein(approximately1.8gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweightto
assuretissuemaintenanceandrepairneedsaremet).Thistypeofintakesupportsglycogen(energy)
storageinthemusclesandliver.Athletesweighinglessthanthiswouldconsumeproportionatelyless
food,whilemaintainingthesamefrequencyofintake.
Page197
CompetitionDay
Thisisthedayyou'vebeenwaitingfor,sodon'tdoanythingthatwilldestroyallyourhardwork.Itisparticularlyimportantthatyoudon'tdoanythingyou'renot
accustomedtodoingoreatanythingyou'venevertasted.Youshouldhaveachecklistalreadypreparedofwhatyou'llneedandwhereitis.Competitiondayisnot
whenyouwanttogorunningaroundthehousescreaming,"WheredidIputmyrunningshoes!"Leavenothingtochanceandhaveabackupplanifyouthinkyouneed
one.
Eatinganddrinkingappropriatelyoncompetitiondayareimportant,somakecertainyouhavetherightfoodsanddrinksimmediatelyavailable(don'tleaveitto
chance).Takechargeofknowingwhatyouneedandtakechargeofgettingit.ImaginedrinkingsportsbeverageXduringpracticeallyear,thengettingupthemorning
ofthecompetitiontofindoutthatyourspousecouldn'tfindsportsbeverageXatthestore,soheboughtsportsbeverageYinstead.Avoidbeingputinanysituation
thatwillcauseyoustressoncompetitionday.
EarlyMorningCompetition
Ifthecompetitionisearlyinthemorning,youshouldgetuptwotothreehoursbeforethecompetition.Ifyouknowyouhavedifficultygettingupearlyinthemorning,
youshouldpracticedoingitforseveraldaysbeforethecompetition.Youshouldgiveyourselfenoughtimetoeatsomecarbohydrates,drinksomefluids,andgetto
thecompetition.Finisheatingatleast1.5hoursbeforethestartofyourcompetition(assumingyouareeatingmainlystarchycarbohydrates).Differentathletesprocess
foodsdifferently,soknowwhatyourbesttimedifferentialisbetweeneatingandthecompetition.Ifyouknowyoufeelbestwhenyoufinisheatingtwohourspriorto
competition,youshouldfollowthistimedifferential.Ifyou'repartofateamandeatasateam,makewhateverminoradjustmentsyouneedtomakesothatyou're
certainyou'veoptimizedyourscheduletosuitwhatworksforyou.Onceyou'refinishedeating,keepsippingonsportsbeveragestheentiretimeleadinguptothe
competition.Don'tputyourselfinapositionwhereyou'rerushed.Whenthathappens,thefoodinevitablygetstheshortendofwhatyoushoulddo,andthenyou
sufferforthatmistake(eitherthroughpoorenduranceorGIdistress)duringtheentirecompetition.
Page198
LateMorningorEarlyAfternoonCompetition
Thisisatimewhenpeoplearefeelingtiredandhungrybecausethefoodtheyateforbreakfasthasstoppedprovidingenergybythistime.Therefore,it'simportantto
remembertohavesomethingtoeatevery2.5to3.5hours.Ifyou'renotaccustomedtothiseatingpattern,youshoulddowhateveryoucantolearntoeatthisway.
Foran11:00A.M.competition,youmightwakeupandhavebreakfastat6:30A.M.,andeatagainat9:00A.M.Afteryour9:00A.M.meal,youshouldinitiateyour
constantfluidsippingprotocoluntilcompetitiontime.Foranearlyafternooncompetition(at1:00P.M.),youcanhaveyourlastmealat10:30A.M.,andbeginyour
fluidsippingprotocoluntilthe
Page199
competitionbegins.Goingintocompetitionhungryisasureformulaforfailure.
MidafternoonorEarlyEveningCompetition
Thisisatoughtimetocompete,especiallyifit'sanoutdoorsportandit'shot.Thisisalsoabadtimebecauseathletestypicallygooffschedulewithamidafternoon
competition.Thebestthingtodoistospendthemorningeatinganddrinkingasusual(Breakfast,midmorningsnack,lunch),andthenbeginthecountdowntothe
competitionbyhavingsomestarchycarbohydrates(abanana,sometoastorcrackers,etc.)andsomefluidsabout1.5to2.0hoursbeforethecompetitionstarts.The
fluidsippingprotocolshouldthenbeinitiateduntilcompetitiontime.Theexcitementofthecompetitioncanmakeathletesforgetthey'rehungry,whentheyreallyare.
Therefore,it'sagoodideatohaveawellrehearsedeating,snackinganddrinkingschedule,andsticktoit.
LateEveningCompetition
Thisisadifficulttimetocompete,becauseyourbodywantstosleep,butthecompetitioniskeepingitawake.Therefore,sleepinglateandeatingsomethingevery2.5
to3.0hourswillhelptokeepyourenergylevelupuntilit'stimetocompete.Keepcheckingyourhydrationstatebyseeingifyoururineisbasicallyclear.Remember,a
successfullateeveningcompetitionissweetandwillhelpyougetagoodandrestfulnight'ssleep!
Summary
Themainideabehindgettingreadyforcompetitionistosetyourbodyupsothatithasafulltankofbothcarbohydrate(asglycogen)andfluid.Themusclesand
psycheshouldbothbewellrested,andtheathleteshouldbegettingclearmessagesofconfidencefromthecoach.Gettingsufficientrestpriortocompetitioncan'tbe
overemphasized.Whenathletesareinvolvedinsportswherecompetitionsoccurfrequently,gettingsufficientrestbetweencompetitionsiscritical.Acolleagueofmine
oncerespondedtoaquestionfromasportsreporteraboutwhetheritwasbadforanathletetohavesexbeforecompetitionbysaying,"Havingsexisnotaproblem,
it'sthegoingoutlateatnightlookingforitthat'stheproblem."There'salot
Page200
oftruthinthis,becauseanythingthatkeepsyoufromgettingagoodnight'ssleepandbeingwellrestedwillcausedifficultiesincompetition.Thekeystogood
preparationforcompetitionincludethefollowing:
1.Getplentyofrest.
2.Begintaperingdownphysicalactivitysixtosevendayspriortocompetition.
3.Eatenoughcarbohydratestomaximizeglycogenstores.
4.Drinksufficientfluidstomaximizefluidstores.
5.Eatfrequently,approximatelyonceeverythreehours,tomaintainbloodglucoseandmuscleglycogenlevels,andtofeelgood.
6.Consumeenoughenergybeforeactivitytoassurethere'senoughfuelinthesystemtosupporttheactivityandtoavoidburningmuscleasafuel.
7.Practicetheeatinganddrinkingscheduleofyourcompetitiondayinadvance,soyouknowwhatmakesyoufeelgood.
8.Don'tdoanythingoncompetitiondaythatyouhaven'tpracticeddoingbeforehand.
9.Bereadywitheverythingyou'llneed(sportsbeverages,snacks,etc.)longbeforethecompetitiondayarrives.
Page201
8
EatingontheRoad
ShouldIBringSomeCansofTunaFish?
It'snotoftenthatanathletereallytakestohearttheinformationtheyreceivefromtheir
coach,theirparents,ortheirnutritionsit.However,someeliteathletesaresomotivatedto
succeedthattheybecomeabitcomplusiveabouttakingadvicefromthosetheytrust.This
wasthecasewithNicole,agymnasttraininginthesamegymassomeofthebestgymnasts
inthecountry.Shehadvainlytriedforanumberofyearstomakethenationalteamand,
finally,fromsheerwillandhardworkshemadeit!Notonlythat,butshewasgettingready
togoonherfirstinternationaltripwiththreeofherteammatestorepresenthercountry.It's
hardtoimagineanythingmoreexciting,andshewasgoingtomakethebestofit.
Oneevening,atabout11:00P.M.,mywifeDeborahansweredthephoneandtolemeit
wasayounggymnastwantingtospeakwithme.Icommonlygetcallsathomefromtheltes
Iworkwithbutneversolateatnight.Ifigureditmustbesomeemergency,sotherewas
morethanatouchofnervousnessinmycoicewhenIsaidhello.ItwasNicle,theevening
beforeherflighttoBulgariaforthecompetition.I,ofcourse,askedwhattheproblemwas.
Tomysurprise,Nicolesaid,"There'snoproblem.Ijustneedsomeadvice."Shewanted
toknowalittlebitaboutBulgaria.Wasthewatersafetodrink?Isthefoodsafetoeat?Is
thefoodsimilartowhatshe'saccustomedtoeating?Dopeoplegetsickwhentheytravel
there?Canshebrushherteethwiththetapwater?Whatarethebathroomslikek?Can
shegetCheerioswithskimmilkforbreakfast?(Afterall,that'sallshereallylikesfor
breakfast...)Thequestionswerecomingfastandfuriously,andIcouldn'tgetaresponse
inedgewise.Shewashavingthe"travelingforcompetitionjitters,"andwhatshereally
wantedwassomeonetotellherthat,withalittlecare,everythingwouldbeallright.
Asitturnsout,I'veheardfromanumberofpeoplethatthetreatmentofourathletesin
Bulgariahasalwaysbeenexcellent,andthefoodiscleananddelicious.Isharedthat
informationwithNicole,butalsoaskedherwhatshewouldmissthemostifshecouldn't
getittheretoeat.ShesaidCheeriosandwaterpackedtunafish(somethingshereally
likedtohaveforlunch).Believeitornot,theseareitemsthatyoucangetvirtually
anywhereinEurope.Butthisconversationwasaboutfeelingsecure.Isaid,"You
absoultelyshouldbringsomeCheerios,afewcansofwaterpackedtunafish,aboxof
crackers,andfivebottlesofwaterwithyou,
Page202
justtobesafe.''Nicolecouldn'thavebeenmorethankfulforthisadvice,andshewas
extremelyhappyshecalled.Itwas,shesaid,goodtoknowwhattobringalong.
Aboutamonthlater,IsawNicoleatanationalteamtrainingcamp,andsherushedupto
metotellmeabouthowgreatthetriptoBulgariawas.Shefeltshedidgreatandhadno
problemswithfoodatal.ItoldherIcouldn'thavebeenmorepleasedandwasgladshe
broughtsomefoodwithher.Shesaidshedidn'ttouchanyofitthewholetrip,becausethe
foodtherewasgreat!Shenoweatsfreshfruit,somecheese,andsomebreadfor
breakfast,justliketheBulgarinasdo."Afterall,it'ssomuchbetterthanplainoldcereal,"
shesaid.Iwashappythatshehadagoodinternationalexperience(afterall,that'soneof
thebenefitsofbeingagreatathlete),butremindedherthatcompetitionwasnotatimeto
experimentwithnewfoods.So,Isaidwithasmile,bringthatcanoftunafishwithyou
wheveryougoonaninternationaltrip!
Nicole'sbeenonseveralinternatiionaltripsnow,andeverytimeIseehershetellsmeshe
stillhasn'topenedthatcanoftunafish,butshelikesknowingit'swithher.That'stheidea.
Afterall,it'sgoodtofeelyou'reinfamiliarterritory,evenifyou'renot.
Seriousathleteswillinevitablyfindthemselvescompetingawayfromhome,ofteninfarawaylandswherethefoodsareunfamiliar.Whethertheathletetravelstothe
southernpartofthestate,tothenextstate,ortoaforeignstate,planningaheadisakeytomakingcertaintheathletewillperformuptohisorhertrainedcapabilities.
Sadly,fewathletestakeseriousmeasurestominimizethenegativephysicalandpsychologicalimpactoftravelinglongdistances.Havingaplanthatwillassurethe
availabilityoftherightkindsoffoodsattherighttimeiscriticalwhenyoucompeteathome,anditisnolesscriticalwhenyoucompeteawayfromhome.Perhapsthe
biggestmistakeanathletecanmakewhentravelingtoacompetitionistoassumethatwhattheyneedtoeatwillbetherewaitingforthem.Makenosuchassumption.
Ifyoudon'ttakecareofyourtrainingandeatingplan,nooneelsewilleither.
Inadditiontotheissueoffood,thereistheissueofadaptation.Ittakestimetoadapttoanewlocation,andyoushouldgiveyourselfenoughtimeforyourbodyto
makethechangesitneedsbygettingtoyourdestinationearlyenough.Acclimatizationisparticularlyimportantiftheathleteistravelingtoalocationthatishotterthan
wherethetrainingnormallyoccurs.Physiologicaladjustmentstoheattake7to14days,andwithoutadequateheatadaptationperformancewillclearlybeaffected.1
Whetherit'sfoodortime,planningaheadisthekeytosuccess.
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GeneralGuidelinesforEatingontheRoad
Mostoftheguidelinesthatfollowrequireadvanceplanning.Whenyougetreadyforatrip,it'sassumedthatyou'llchecktomakesureyouhaveyouruniformand
athleticshoespacked(althoughI'veheardstories!).It'sjustasimportantthatyou'vegivensomethoughttowhere,when,andhowyou'lleattosatisfyyourneeds.The
worstthingthatcanhappentoyouwhiletravelingistobecomehungryorthirstyandnothaveanythingtoeatordrink.Plantoseethatthisdoesn'thappen.Trythe
followinggeneraltipsforeatingontheroad:2
Bringyourownsnacks.Freshfruits,fruitjuices,crackers,lowfatriceandpastasalads,andlowfatenergybarsarenutritiousandeasytocarry(seetable8.1).
Watchoutforhiddenfats.Creamysoups,breadtypeflakypastries,mayonnaisebasedsaladdressings,andsaucesinsandwichesaddunnecessaryfattothe
food.Thereare,however,goodalternatives.Consumingclear,brothbasedsoupsinsteadofcreamysoupsmay
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provideallthenutrientsbutwithconsiderablylessfat.Usinglemonjuicebasedsaladdressingratherthanmayonnaisetypedressinglowersthefatandmakesit
possibletoeatmoresalad.
Consumegrilled,baked,boiled,andbroiledfoodsratherthanfriedorsautedfoods.Youmustaskforitthewayyouwantit.Makenoassumptionsabout
howitwillbepreparedbythewaythefoodisdescribedonthemenu.Whenpossible,requestlowerfatdairyproductsandlowerfatsaladdressings.
Order"alacarte"togetexactlywhatyouwant.Fulldinnersoftendon'tfitwiththewayaseriousathleteshouldbeeating.Forinstance,thegrilledfishmaybe
exactlywhatyouwant,butthefulldinnermaycomewithmashedpotatoesthataresoakedingravy,broccolithatiscoveredwithcheesesauce,andapieceofapple
piewithicecream.Theseriousathletewouldbebetterwithbroiledfish,aplainbakedpotato,broccoliwithlemonjuice,andfreshfruitfordessert.
Ifyoutravelbyair,tellthetravelagentyou'dliketoeatvegetarian.There'sagreaterchanceyou'llhavefoodsthatarehigherincarbohydratesandlowerinfat.
However,youhavetogivetheairlinesfairwarningofyourspecialdietaryrequirements,somakecertaintheairlinesarenotifiedatleast24hoursinadvanceofthe
flight.
Ifyoutravelbyair,bringsomethingtodrinkontheplanewithyou.Airtravelisoneofthemostdehydratingexperiencesapersoncanhave.Becauseofthis,
passengersoftencontractsorethroatsandotherupperrespiratoryillnesses.Asapreventativemeasure,keepsippingonfluidsduringtheflighttokeepyourmouthand
throatmoist.Astheremaybeasignificantdelaybetweenthetimeyoutakeoffandwhenyoureceiveyourfirstdrink.Drinkbottledwaterorsportsbeverages.
Table8.1SnackstoTakeWithYoufor"EatingontheRoad"
Milkproducts
Cheesewedges,stringcheese,yogurt
Meatsandproteinfoods
Beefsticks,peanutbuttersandwiches,hardcookedeggs,nuts
Fruitsandvegetables
Driedapricots,apples,bananachips,raisins,fruitfilledcookies
Grains
Lowfatgranola,breadsticks,bagels,crackers,branmuffins,soft
pretzels
Fluids
Sportsdrinks,fruitjuices,bottledwater
1993,TheAmericanDieteticAssociation."SportsNutrition:aGuidefortheProfessional
WorkingWithActivePeople."Usedwithpermission.
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Ifyou'rechangingtimezones,getonthelocalscheduleassoonaspossible.Havedinnerwhenthelocalpopulationiseatingratherthanatthetimeyoueatat
home.You'llstillhavedifficultygettingyoureatingpatternontrackbecausetravelandchangingtimezonesaretiringanddisorienting.Tomakecertainyou're
completelyreadytocompete,trytoarriveatthecompetitionsiteearly.
MinimizingJetLag
Leavingenoughtimetoadjusttolongdistancetravelisimportant.Eventhemostseasonedtravelerssufferfromjetlag,andmostofthemdon'thavetorun,jump,hit,
orkickfaster,higher,orharderthantheyeverhadbefore.Jetlagcanmakeyoufeelill,willloweryourappetite,andcankeepyoufromgettingagoodnight'ssleep.3
Jetlagcancomeintwoforms:(1)travelinvolvingsmallbutconsecutivetrips,causingmultipleshiftsinusualeatingpatternsand(2)travelinvolvingonelargetripthat
crossesmultipletimezones,causingamajorchangeineatingandsleepingbehaviors.Youshouldneverputoffeatingwhenyoubecomehungry,sohavesomesnacks
withyouthatcantakeawayhungeruntilyoufindaplaceandatimetoeataregularmeal.Thefollowingrecommendationsmayhelptoalleviatetheeffectsofjetlag:4
1.Forsmall,consecutivetimezonechanges(calledphaseshifts):
Eatmealsatregulartimesafterarrivingatthenewdestination.Thiswillhelpyougetonthelocalschedulequicklyandaidyouradjustmenttothenewtime
zone.
Drinkplentyofliquids.Planecabinsarenotoriouslydry,anddehydrationisthecauseofmanycomplaints,includingheadachesandmildconstipation.
Alternatelightmealswithheavymealsbeforetheflights.Thestressoftravelmayincreaseproteinrequirementsslightly,soeatahighproteinbreakfastanda
lowprotein,highcarbohydratedinnerfollowingthephaseshift.
Avoidcaffeineuntiltheendoftheflight.Caffeineisadiureticthatcanincreasewaterlossinanenvironmentthatisalreadydehydrating.Consumefluidsthatwill
helpyoumaintainhydrationstate(water,sportsbeverages,fruitjuices,etc.).
Avoidalcoholduringandaftertheflight.Besidesthenegativemetabolicalterationsthatalcoholcauses,itisalsoadiuretic
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thatcanincreasewaterloss.ThereisNOreasonwhyseriousathletesshoulddrinkalcoholicbeveragesatanytime.
Engageinsocialactivityorexerciseaftertheflight.Thiswillhelpyougetonthelocalschedulemorequicklyandwillaidinreducingthestressassociatedwith
travel.
2.Foralargephaseshift:
Arriveatyourdestinationatleastonedayearlyforeachtimezonecrossed.Forflightscrossingmorethansixtimezones,giveyourselfoneweektogetback
onaregularscheduleandtofeelinggood.Costandschedulinglimitationsmaykeepathletesfromarrivingasearlyasneededsogetonthelocalscheduleasquicklyas
possible,butwithasmuchrestaspossible,isimportant.
Exerciseandgetinvolvedinsocialactivitiesonyourarrivalinthenewlocation.Ithelpstogettoknowyournewenvironmentrightaway.Theexerciseand
socialactivitieswillhelpreducethestressoftravelandwillhelpyougetonthelocalschedulemoreeasily.
Maintainregularsleepingandeatingtimesonarrivaltoyournewdestination.Thesooneryoucaneatandsleeponthescheduleofyournewdestination,the
morequicklyyourbodywillfeelasifitcanperformwell.Eatingandsleepingregularlyandonschedulearekeystodoingwellwhenyoutravel.
Continuetoeatanddrinkfrequentlybefore,during,andaftertravel.Creatingasnackingscheduleatyournewlocationmaybedifficult,sinceyoumaynot
knowwheretobuygood,highcarbohydratesnacksthatyoucanhavewithyou.However,maintainingafrequenteatinganddrinkingschedule(eatingsomething
abouteverythreehours)isanimportantstrategyforhelpingyouadjusttoyournewenvironment.Bringsomesnackswithyoutogetstarted,andthenfindagood
sourceofsnacksonceyouarrive.However,alwaysavoidalcohol.
Havemoreproteinthanusual.Thestressassociatedwithtravelmayslightlyincreaseyourproteinrequirement,somakeaconsciousefforttoconsumealittle
moreproteineachday.Forinstance,consumingahigherproteinbreakfast(addaboiledeggtoyournormalintake)couldbeusefulinassuringthatyourprotein
requirementismet.However,thefocusofyourintakeshouldcontinuetobecarbohydrates.
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TravelLocation
Ifyou'retravelingmostplacesintheUnitedStatesandWesternEurope,there'sahighlikelihoodyou'llbeabletofindfoodsyou'refamiliarwith.Americanstyle
breakfastcereals,forinstance,canbefoundinvirtuallyeverygrocerystore,andthereisbreadeverywhereyougo.Thepreparationofmanyofthefoodsyou'llfindis
different,however.Ifyou'reaccustomedtohavingacupofcoffeeinthemorning,youmaybesurprisedatthevarietyofwaysdifferentculturestreatthecoffeebean.
Allofthisistosaythatyoushoulddowhateveryoucantokeepyourhabitsintact,becauseyou'reneversureofwhattheoutcomewillbeifyousuddenlychangewhat
you'vebeendoingforyears.Oneofthebestlittlegadgetsyoucanhavewithyouisanincupelectricwaterheater.Youshouldmakesureyou'vegottherightpower
adapterswithyousoyoucanaccesstheelectricplugsinthe
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countryyou'retravelingto.Theselittleheatersallowyoutoenjoyfamiliarfreezedriedsoups,andyoucanhaveyourcoffeethewayyoulikeitaswell.Thisisoneof
thebestlittleinventionsevermadeforatravelingathlete.
Somecountrieshavereputationsforunsafewaterorfoodsupplies.Ifyouhaveanydoubtatall,callyournearestAmericanConsularoffice,orcallyourtravelagency.
Theyshouldbeabletoprovideyouwiththeinformationyouneed.Ifyou'vegotthetime,youshouldgotoyourlocalbookstoreandpickupagoodtravelbookfor
thelocationyou'reheadingto.Ifit'sagoodone,itwilldescribethefoodsthatwillbeavailableandwilltellyouaboutthewatersupply.
Whentravelingabroad,youshouldhavethefollowingitemswithyouevenifyoufeelthefoodandwatersupplyaresafeandfamiliar(youcanadjustthequantities
dependingonyourlengthofstay):
Powercordadaptersandconverterstofitthepowersupplyofthecountryyou'retravelingto
Anincupelectricheater
Awaterfilterpump
Aboxofsaltinecrackers
Powderedsportsbeveragepacketstomake20quartsofbeverage
2quartsofbottledwater
Amediumsizeboxofraisins(orotherfavoreddriedfruit)
5individuallypackagedlowfatgranolabars
2nonfatpowderedmilkpackets
1smallboxofyourfavoritecereal
DealingwiththeWaterSupply
Itdoesn'tmatterwhereyou'regoing,you'llneedwaterforonereasonoranother.Differentwatersuppliescancausegastrointestinal(GI)difficulties,evenifthewater
supplyisperfectlysafe.Differentlevelsofbromideorfluorideinthewatermay,forinstance,givesomeoneseveregutpain.Ofcourse,drinkingbottledwateror
bottledsportsdrinksisagoodsolutioniftheseareavailable.However,ifbottleddrinksarenoteasilyavailable(I'vebeeninpopulatedplacesintheUnitedStates
whereit'svirtuallyimpossibletofindabottleofGatorade),youneedawaytodealwiththesituation.Obviously,youcan'ttravelwithcasesofbottleddrinks.
However,youshouldtravelwithpowderedpackagesofsportsbeveragesand
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awaterfiltertopurifythewater.Thebestwaterfilters(thattakeoutparasitesandbacteria)canbefoundatyourlocalcampinggoodsstore.Theydon'ttakeupmuch
space,workextremelyefficiently,andassurethatyouwon'tbescratchedfromaracebecauseofawaterbornemicrobe.Thesewaterfiltersarealsoatthetopofthe
listofexcellentinventionsforthetravelingathlete.Theywork,andtheycangiveyouthepeaceofmindyouneedsoyoucandealwithothermorepressingmatters.
EatingLocations
Travelinevitablykeepsyoufromeatingwhenandwhereyou'dliketoeat,soplanaheadforwhatyoumightselectbeforeyouwalkin.Seeingthedizzyingarrayof
foodsandmenuitemscaneasilyinfluenceyourorderifyou'renotalreadycommittedtoyourselection.
Airportsarefilledwithfastfoodrestaurantsthattypicallyofferhighfatandhighsugarfoods.Thesearenoteasyplacestomaketherightselection.Ingeneral,youwill
wanttostickwithfoodsthataren'tfried.However,ifyoudon'thaveachoice,minimizethefriedfoodandmaximizethecarbohydrate.Forinstance,ifyou'rereally
hungry,youmightwanttoorderadoublepartyhamburger.However,itwouldbebettertoordertworegularhamburgersbecauseyougettwicethebread
(carbohydrate).
Inrestaurants,trytofindpasta,bakedpotato,bread,vegetables,andsalad.Youmighthavetoaskforasubstitution(forinstance,abakedpotatoinsteadofFrench
friedpotatoes)butdon'tbeafraidtoask.Restaurantsinairportsorportsmaybelesslikelytowanttomakeyouhappybysatisfyingyourspecialneedsbecausethey
knowthey'llprobablyneverseeyou(oryourbusiness)again.Nevertheless,youshouldalwaysaskforexactlywhatyouwant.Evenwhenorderingbakedpotatoes,
youshouldaskthattheygiveyoueverythingonthesideratherthanonthepotato.Youdon'tneedthat,andyoushouldn'tbeafraidtotellthem.Seetable8.2forkey
wordstolookforwhenlookingoveramenu.
Summary
Thekeytosuccessfultravelisadvanceplanning.Noassumptionsshouldbemadeabouttheavailabilityoffoodsordrinksthatwillsatisfyyourneeds.Bringsome
limiteditemswithyouwhentravel
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ingtobecertainyouhavesomekeyfoodsanddrinksthatwillkeepyouhappyandnourished.Don'ttrynewfoodsuntilaftertheathleticevent,andthenonlyonthe
recommendationofyourlocalhosts.Experimentingonyourowncanbedangerous.Findoutasmuchasyoucanaboutwhereyou'retravelingtobygoingtoalocal
bookstore,orlearnaboutitthroughtheInternet.YourtravelagentandnearbyAmericanConsularofficearealsoexcellentsourcesofinformation.Giveyourselfplenty
oftimetogetacclimatedtothelocationyou'retravelingto.Ittakesaboutonedayforeachtimezoneyoucross,soatripfromNewYorktoParisshouldhaveyou
arrivingatleastsixdaysbeforetheevent.Ifthat'snotpossible,dowhateveryoucantoreducestressbygettingplentyofrest,relaxingwithfriends,andeatingonthe
localschedule.
Table8.2SelectingItemsThroughaCarefulReviewoftheMenu
GenerallyAvoid
Fried,crispy,breaded,scampistyle,creamed,buttery,augratin,gravy
GenerallySeek
Marinara,steamed,boiled,broiled,tomatosauce,initsownjuice,
poached,charbroiled
Maxican:Avoid
Deepfatfriedshells,friedflourtortillas,refriedbeans,cornchips,sour
cream,guacamole
Mexican:Seek
Lowfatrefriedbeans,chickenorleanbeefandbeanburritos,baked
softcorntortillas,salsa,rice,bakedflourtortillas
Italian:Avoid
Creamsauces,highfatdressings,richdesserts
Italian:Seek
Pastawithmarinarasauce,cheesepizzaorwithvegetables,saladwith
dressingontheside,lowfatItalianice,lowfatfrozenyogurt
Chinese:Avoid
Deepfriedeggrolls,deepfriedwontons,sweetandsourpork,tempura
Chinese:Seek
Stirfryandsteameddishes,chickenandvegetableswithrice,clearboth
soups
Burgerplaces:Avoid
Highfatdressingsinsaladbars,mayonnaise,Frenchfries,milkshakes
Burgerplaces:Seek
Saladbarswithlowfatdressings,bakedpotatoes,grilleditems
Caf:Avoid
Prebuttereditems,limitcoffeeintake
Caf:Seek
Pancakes,toast,bagels,waffles,fruit,fruitjuices,wholegraincereals,
breads,muffins,
Adapted,bypermission,fromE.R.BurkeandJ.R.Berning,1996,Trainingnutrition:Thedietand
nutritionguideforpeakperformanceCarmel,IN:I.L.Copper,pp.131140.
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PARTIII
PERFORMANCENUTRITIONPLANS
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9
PowerSports
HockeyNightinAtlanta
Severalyearsago,Atlantahadaprofessionalhockeyteam,afarmteamforTampaBay,
calledTheAtlantaKnights.I'mnotsureifit'spossibletohavemorefunworkingwitha
groupofathletesthanIhadworkingwiththisgroup.Besideshavingthefirstprofessional
femaleplayer,Ms.ManonRheaume(herpresenceaddedawholenewdimensionto
hockey!),theyalsohadanexperiencedcoachwhohaddoneandseeneverthinginhockey,
fromtheprostotheOlympicGames.Whenthecoachaskedmetoworkwiththeteamto
makecertaintheyweredoingtherightthingsnutritionaly,heinvitedmetojointheteamin
practiceandtogotothegamestogetasenseofwhatwasgoingon.Ialsohadalltheteam
membersinthelabtoassessbonedensity,bodycomposition,andnutrientintake.Ilearned
frommydatacollectionandobservationswasthattheseathletesworkedharddayafter
day.Whentheyweren'tplaying,theywereeitherpracticingortravelingsomewheretoplay.
Whentheywereontheice,itwasnoholdsbarredalloutskatingthatwasalmostas
exhaustingtowatchasitwastodo.Ialsolearnedthatwhenpracticewasoverorwhena
gamewasfinished,theydidn'thaveanyfoodinthelockerroom,soitwasoftenmorethan
twohoursafterthisstrenuousactivitybeforetheygotsomethingtoeat.Itwasthispointthat
Idecidedwouldbemyfirstpointofattack.
Ispokewiththecoachaboutgettingsomefoodintothelockerroomfortheplayerstoeat
rightafterpracticeoragame.Mymainpointwasthatthehighintensityactivityofhockey
wasdepletingtheirmuscleenergystores(glycogen)andthatakeytoassuringits
replacementforthenextdayofactivitywastohave200to400caloriesofcarbohydrate
immediatelyfollowingpractice.Thecoachagreedthatitwasagoodidea,sohegavemea
smallbudget,andIputoneofmygraduatestudentstoworkongettingsomegoodtasting
carbohydratesinthelockerroom.Tomakeiteasier,theGatoradeCompanydonatedsome
Gatorpro(highcarbohydratemealreplacement)andGatorload(highcarbohydrate
supplement)fortheteam.Iexplainedtheimportanceofhavingsomethingtoeatimmediately
afterpracticeorthegame.Isaidtheyshouldtrytoeatsomefoodbeforetheyshowered
anddressed.AfterIspoke,thecoachsaiditwasagoodstrategytofollow,andthatwas
that.Fortherestoftheyear,theteamateanddrankimmediatelyafterpracticeandgames,
andtheyalsomanagedtowintheleaguetrophyattheendoftheyear.
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(textboxcontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Acoupleofyearsaftertheteammovedtoanothercity,Iranintooneoftheplayersata
restaurant.Hetoldmehehadbeenrecruitedtoplayforoneofthemajorleagueteamsand,
attheendofhisfirstweekthere,noticedhewasbeginningtofeelrundown.He
rememberedwhatIdidwiththeKnightsandrequestedthathisnewteamalsohavefoodin
thelockerroomforrightafterpracticeandgames.Hetoldmethewholeteamisnoweating
pastaandFrenchbreadinthelockerroom.There'sjustnostoppingagoodidea!
Differentactivitiesplacedifferentmetabolicrequirementsonmusclesystems,andthesedifferencesalterthenutritionalrequirementsamongathletesinvolvedinvarious
typesofsports.Thischapterfocusesonsportsthatrequireahighlevelofpowerandspeedovershortdistancesandtime.Intheathleticworld,theseathletesarethe
trueanaerobesamongus.They'renotinterestedintheirabilitytomoveefficientlyoverlongdistances,butwanttobetherefirstinshortdistances.Whenabaseball
playerstealsabase,thereisnothingaboutthatfourtofivesecondexperiencethatrequiresaerobicefficiency.Itisentirelydependentonanaerobicmetabolism,which
isdependentonphosphocreatineandglycogenasfuels.Bodybuildersneedexplosivepowertotrainbutalmostneverplacecontinuousstressonthemusclesforlonger
than1.5minutes,theanaerobicmaximum.
Therehasbeenaclearevolutioninthewayathleteshaveeatentosupporttopathleticperformance.Aroundtheyear200A.D.,DiogenesLaertiuswrotethatGreek
athletesofthetimehadatrainingdietthatconsistedofdriedfigs,moistcheeses,andwheatproducts.1AmericanOlympiansattheBerlinGamesof1936hadadaily
intakethatincludedbeefsteak,lotsofbutter,threeeggs,custard,1.5litersofmilk,andasmuchastheycouldconsumeofwhitebread,dinnerrolls,freshvegetables,
andsalads.WitheachsuccessiveOlympicGames,athleteshaveconsumedandavoidedfoodsbasedontheknowledgeofthetime.Sincethe1960s,however,there
hasbeenapurposefulscientificefforttolearnwhatathletesneedandwhytheyneedit.Thisscientificendeavorhasledtoamuchimprovedunderstandingofhow
musclesworkforpowerandhowtheyworkforspeed.Thescienceofsportsnutritionhasalsohelpedusunderstandthedifferentnutritionaldemandsassociatedwith
differenttypesofactivities.Afailuretoconsiderthenutritionalimplicationsoftheactivitywillmostcertainlyleadtoproblemsintrainingandperformanceoutcomes
thatarebelowthecapabilitiesoftheathlete.
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Baseball
Baseballisawonderfulsportthatrequiresanalmostequalcombinationofteamworkandindividualeffort.It'salsoahighlymentalgame,requiringthattheathletestay
constantlyalerttomakesplitsecondjudgmentsfortherightplay.It'ssafetosaythatphysicallytiredbaseballplayersarealsolikelytobementallytired(glucoseisthe
fuelforboththebrainandmuscles)andpronetobadjudgmentandpoorphysicalperformance.DavidHalberstam,inhisbookTheSummerof'49(NewYork:
WilliamMorrow,1989),describesthepennantracebetweentheRedSoxandYankees.Athemeinthisbookishowplayerswouldgetwornoutduringthelong
baseballseason,withtheoutcomeofthepennantracedetermined,toadegree,bythenumberofplayerswhoremainedrelativelyfreshbytheendoftheseason.
Thereareclearlymanyfactorsthatcontributetoplayersgettingwornoutduringalongseason,includingfrequenttravel,hardfoughtgames,andconstantlychanging
timezones.2Buttherearealsonutritionalfactors,includingwhatfoodandfluidsareconsumedoverthelongsummerandfallseason.Whensteakandbeerare
constantlyonthemenu,aswascommonformanybaseballplayersinthepast,youcouldhavepredictedthatphysicalandmentalfatiguewouldeventuallytakeitstoll.
AlcoholinterfereswithBvitaminmetabolism(andthereforeenergymetabolism),andalsoincreasesthechancefordehydration.Wehavealsolearnedthat,while
occasionalredmeatisausefulmeansofsupplyinggood
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qualityprotein,iron,andzinc,itshouldnotbethefocusofanathlete'sdiet.Whatthesebaseballplayersreallyneededwasplentyofbread,cereal,fruits,and
vegetablestoconstantlyreplacetheglycogenusedupinthequickandpowerfulactionsofthegame.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforBaseball
It'softenplayedinahotandhumidenvironment.Optimallyhydratedmusclesarecomposedofmorethan70percentwater,anditshouldbetheathlete'sgoalto
maintainthisoptimalhydrationstate.Afailuretodosowillleadtoaprogressivereductionintotalbodywaterwithaconcomitantreductioninathleticperformance.
Thereisalsogoodevidencetosuggestthatpoorhydrationmakestheathletemorepronetoinjury,byreducingmentalfunction(poorhydrationisassociatedwith
highercoretemperaturesthatcanreducecoordination)andbymakingmuscleslessresilient(thusincreasingtheriskofmuscletearsandpulls).
Baseballplayers(particularlypitchers)areknowntoexperienceareductioninpeaktorquearmstrengthbetweenpreandpostseasonmeasurements.3Itislikelythata
gooddealofthispowerreductionisduetooveruseinjurytothepitchingarm.Thereisevidencethatreducedthrowingpowercouldalsobeduetoreducedstrengthin
thelegs,whichareimportantinthethrowingmotion.4Weaklegs,therefore,couldexacerbateinjurytothearmbecauseofanalteredthrowingmotion.Itisalsolikely
thatthedegreetowhichtheprogressivereductioninpoweroccurscouldbereducedwitharegularprogramofoptimalhydrationandenergyintake.
Astudyofbaseballplayersstronglysuggeststhatconditioningplaysanimportantroleintheabilityoftheathletetomaintainanoptimalhydrationstate.Thisstudy
foundthat,atfixedexerciseintensities,themorefitbaseballplayerswereabletomaintainbodytemperaturewithalowersweatratethanplayerswhowerelessfit.5In
anotherstudy,itwasfoundthatbloodflowtothepitchingarm(inpitchers)increasedupto40pitches,butsteadilydeclinedafterthat.Bythe100thpitch,bloodflow
tothepitchingarmwas30percentbelowbaseline.6Itispossiblethatthedecreaseinbloodflowtothepitchingarmmatchesadecreaseinthegeneralhydrationstate
ofthepitchers.Sinceitiswellestablishedthatbloodvolumeisakeyfactorinthemaintenanceofathleticperformance,theperformanceofpitchersmaybestrongly
influencedbytheirabilitytostayhydrated.
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Giventhepossibilityforfrequentexposuretohotandhumidenvironments,baseballplayersshouldconsiderthefollowingstrategyformaintainingtheirhydrationstate:
1.Drinkplentyoffluidspriortoeachgame(aminimumof16ouncesonehourpriortothegame,followedbyaconstantsippingoffluids).
2.Duringthepreseason,takeweightbeforeandaftereachgameandpracticetolearnhowmuchweighthasbeenlost.Thendeterminehowmuchfluidshouldbe
consumedduringatypicalgame(1pintoffluid=1poundofbodyweight).Yourgoalshouldbetodrinkenoughfluidstomaintainbodyweight(pound)duringthe
game.Differentpeoplehavedifferentsweatratessoyourdrinkingscheduleislikelytobedifferentfromthoseofeveryoneofyourteammates.
3.Useeachopportunity(betweeninnings)toconsumefluids.Sincebaseballinvolvesmultipleboutsofhighintensitymovements,thedrainonstoredglycogenishigh.
Therefore,fluidsconsumedshouldbecarbohydratecontaining.Fluidscontaininga6to7percentcarbohydratesolutionarebestbothforreplacingcarbohydrateand
forencouragingafastabsorptionofwater.
4.Immediatelyafterthegame,eatanddrinkenoughcarbohydratetoreconstituteyourglycogenstoresandbodywater.
5.Avoidorlimittheconsumptionofalcoholandcaffeinatedbeverages.Bothalcoholandcaffeinehaveadiureticeffect(causeyoutourinate),placingyouina
negativewaterbalance.
Itrequirespowerandspeed.Thegreaterthepowerandspeed,thehighertherelianceonphosphocreatineandcarbohydrate(primarilyglycogen)formuscularfuel.
Phosphocreatineissynthesizedfromthreeaminoacids(fromprotein),soanadequateintakeofproteinisnecessarytoassurethatsufficientphosphocreatinecanbe
manufactured.However,sinceweareanenergyfirstsystem,theproteinconsumptionmustbeinthecontextofanadequatetotalintakeofenergy(calories).Since
baseballplayersreachtheirpeakataroundage28,theyhavetheadvantageofbeingfullygrown.7Therefore,theprovisionofenergytosupportgrowthisnot
necessary,makingiteasierfordevelopedplayerstoobtaintheneededenergy.Inadequate
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energyintakecausestheconsumedproteintobeburnedasafuelratherthanusedasabuildingblockforothersubstancessuchascreatine.Creatineisapreformed
componentofmeat.(Preformedcreatinesimplymeansthatitisalreadymadewedon'thavetosynthesizeitfromthreeaminoacidssoitisreadilyavailabletothe
muscles.)Therefore,theoccasionalintakeofmeatisbeneficial.Whilevegetariansmaynotgetthebenefitofthispreformedcreatinefrommeat,withenoughprotein
intakevegetariansarefullycapableofmakingtheirowncreatine.Inthecontextofanadequateenergyintake,baseballplayersshouldconsumeadietthatderives60
to65percentofitsenergyfromcarbohydrates20to25percentofitsenergyfromfat,and15percentofitsenergyfromprotein.
Manygamesareplayedduringtheseason(severalgames/week).Multiplegamesandpracticeseachweekcaneasilyleadtoovertrainingwiththeassociated
problemsoffatigue,weakness,andincreasedriskofillness.Thekeytolimitingtheimpactofovertrainingistheconsumptionofahighcarbohydratediettomaintain
muscleglycogenlevels.Ithasbeenshownthatdailypracticesorcompetitionswillleadtoaprogressivereductioninmuscleglycogenstorage,witharelatedreduction
inenduranceandperformance.Sincebaseballplayersarehighlydependentonmuscleglycogenasafuel,thisreductionwouldleadtoadiscernableloweringof
performancewithtime.Studieshavealsoshownthatfatigueassociatedwithdailytrainingcanbedramaticallyreducedinathleteswhomaintainahighcarbohydrate
(morethan60percentofcalories)intake.
Gamestypicallylastfortwotothreehours.Normalbloodglucosefluxisapproximatelythreehours.Thatis,fromthetimeyoufinisheatingameal,bloodglucose
staysinthenormalrangeforaboutthreehours.Afterthis,bloodglucosefallsbelowthenormalrange(80120milligramsperdeciliter),andpeoplebegintofeel
hungry.Intheexercisingperson,bloodglucoseislikelytogobelowthenormalrangeearlierthanthreehours.Sincebloodglucoseisanimportantfactorinmaintaining
normalmentalfunctionandisalsoimportantindeliveringfueltomusclesthathaveexhaustedstoredcarbohydrate,athletesshouldtakestepstomaintainbloodglucose
fortheentirecompetition.Therefore,baseballplayersshouldconsumeacarbohydratecontainingsolutionateveryopportunity(betweeninnings).
There'sanopportunitytorestduringthegame.Baseballplayershaveawonderfulopportunitytomaintainbothfluidandcarbohydrate
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statusbecauseoftheinningstructureofthegame.Whenateamisonoffense,everyplayershouldusethistimetoconsumeacarbohydratesolution.
Pitchersworkharderwhenthey'repitchingthanotherplayersontheteam(whichiswhytheypitcheverythreetofivegames).Pitchersarebetterableto
maintainmuscularpower(bothinthelegsandarms)bymaximizingglycogenstorageandhydrationstatebeforeandduringeachgame.Theprincipleofglycogen
loading(ageneraltaperingofactivitycoupledwithahighcarbohydrateandfluidintakerefertochapter7formoredetailedinformation)canbefollowedwith
startingpitcherssincetheytypicallyhaveseveraldaysbetweenstarts.
Catchersworkhardandcarrymoreequipmentweight,sotheyarelikelytoneedmorebreaksthanotherplayers.Theweightandinsulatingeffectofthe
equipmentwornbycatchersaddtotheirenergyandfluidrequirements.Sincecatchersareconstantlyinmotion,workingwiththepitcher,andsincetheytendtoplay
onamorefrequentrotationthanstartingpitchers,it'ssafetosaythat,poundforpound,catchershavethehighestenergyandfluidrequirementsofanyofthebaseball
positions.
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Bodybuilding
Bodybuildersstriveforaphysiquethatishighinmusclemassandextremelylowinbodyfat.Thelowbodyfatisanecessaryadjuncttoperformance,whichrequiresa
highlevelofmusculardefinitiontoachieveahighscore.Ahighbodyfatlevelwouldservetomasktheunderlyingmuscleformation.Toachievethishighlevelof
musclemass,bodybuildersmustplaceahighlevelofrepetitivestress(typicallyviafreeweightsandmuscleresistanceequipment)oneachmusclegroup.Thisisnever
doneaerobically(i.e.,lowlevelmuscularforceoverlongtimeperiods).Instead,bodybuildersrelyonhighintensityrepetitionsthatrarelylastlongerthan30seconds
permusclegroup,andneverlastlongerthan1.5minutes.Inpreparationforcompetition,bodybuilderscouplethishardmuscletrainingwiththeconsumptionofextra
energytoenlargethemusclemass.Typically,thedietispredominantlycomposedofhighproteinfoodsandsupplements.
Oncethemusclemassisenlarged,bodybuildersgointoasecondtrainingphasethatinvolvesareductioninenergyandasmallaerobic
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8
componentinthetraining. Thissecondphaseisaimedatreducingbodyfatlevels(particularlysubcutaneousfat)toallowforagreatervisualmuscledefinition.During
theweekpriortocompetition,bodybuilderstypicallydecreasetotalenergyintakeandincreasecarbohydrateintaketoglycogenloadthemuscles.Thereisalsoagreat
dealoffluidandsodiummanipulationtoaidinmuscledefinition.Duringthisweek,bothfluidsandsodiumaretypicallyrestricted.Thereisevidencethatfluidrestriction
isdangerous,particularlyinyoungerbodybuilders,wherebothlowbloodpotassiumandphosphorushavebeenseen.9Inaddition,thereisevidencethattheenergy
(calorie)restrictioncommonduringtheperiodimmediatelybeforethecompetitioncausesalossofleanbody(muscle)mass,suggestingthattheenergyrestrictionis
toosevere.10
Perhapsthereisnosportthatissopronetonutritionalmisinformationthanbodybuilding.Inastudyevaluatingadvertisementsinbodybuildingmagazines,itwasfound
thattherewasnoscientificevidencefor42percentoftheproductsforwhichbeneficialnutritionalclaimsweremade.Only21percentoftheadvertisedproductshad
appropriatedocumentationtosupporttheirclaims,and32percentoftheproductsthathadsomescientificdocumentationweremarketedinamisleadingmanner.11In
astudyofmaleandfemalebodybuilders,itwasfoundthatmultidrugabusewasprevalent(upto40percentofthesubjects),andthatamajorityofbodybuilders
reportedfollowingregimensthatledtoseveredehydration.12Inthissamestudy,itwasfoundthatwomenhadcalciumintakesthatwereextremelylow,andthatthe
generalnutritionalanddietarypracticesplacedthem,asagroup,inahighriskcategoryforpoorhealth.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforBodybuilding
Bodybuildersstriveforahighlevelofmusclemass.Ahigherlevelofmusclemassnutritionallytranslatesintoahigherneedforenergy.Whilethetotalamountof
proteinneededtomaintainthislargermassishigher,theproportionofproteinprovidedbyfoodsactuallyremainsthesame.Ideally,bodybuildersshouldconsume
approximately1.5gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight,butthisshouldbeconsumedinthecontextofanadequatetotalenergyconsumptionwheremostof
theenergyisderivedfromcarbohydrates.Mostofthestudiesofbodybuildersstronglysuggestthatproteinconsumptionissignificantlyhigherthanthebody'sabilityto
useitanabolically(i.e.,touseittobuildtissue).Therefore,theexcess
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proteinissimplyburnedasafuelor,inthecaseofexcesstotalenergyconsumption,storedasfat.Thishasbeenconfirmedbythefindinginonestudy,whichfound
thatbodybuildershadsignificantlyhigherproteinintakesthanleancontrolsubjects,andthattheyalsoreliedmoreheavilyonproteinasafueltomeettheenergy
requirementsofthemuscles.13Itisverylikelythatbodybuildersbelieveexcessproteinassistsinbuildingbodymassbecausetheyconsumefoodsthatdonot,by
themselves,providesufficientenergytoenlargetheleanmass.Theextraproteinconsumed,therefore,servestofilltheenergygap,andmeetingenergyneedscan
clearlybedonemoreeffectivelywithcarbohydratethanwithprotein.Thenutritionalkeytobuildingmusclemassistoconsumeenoughenergytosupportthelarger
mass.Forinstance,ifyounowweigh180poundsandyouwishtoweigh190pounds,youshouldeatasifyoualreadyweigh190pounds.
Bodybuildersstriveforanextremelylowleveloffatmass.Bodyfatpercentageis,toagreatdegree,determinedbyaperson'sgeneticmakeup.However,itis
alsoclearthatitcanbeinfluencedbydietaryandexercisehabits.Fromadietarystandpoint,itisclearlyimportanttoconsumealowleveloffat,sinceittakesverylittle
energytoconvertdietaryfattostoredfat.Carbohydrate,ontheotherhand,isnotasefficientlyconvertedtostoredfat.Sincecarbohydratesaremoreefficiently
burnedasafuelforhighintensitymuscularworkandarenotasefficientlyconvertedtofatforstorage,fatintakeshouldbekeptlow(15to25percentoftotal
calories).Thisisslightlybelowthegeneralpopulationrecommendationthatnomorethan30percentoftotalcaloriesbeprovidedfromfat.Italsoappearsthateating
smallandfrequentmealshelpstopreventthemanufactureoffatfromtheenergyinfoods.Ifyouconsume1,500caloriesinasinglemeal,thenormalprocessingofso
muchenergyatonetimewillinevitablyleadtoapercentageofthisintakebeingstoredasfat.However,ifthis1,500caloriemealisconsumedintwomealsthatare
threehoursapart(750caloriespermeal),thebodyisbetteratusingthisenergywithoutstoringitasfat.Therefore,eatingalowfatdietandeatingsmallbutfrequent
mealsarebothimportantstrategiesforobtainingalowbodyfatpercentage.
Bodybuilderscommonlygothroughrepetitivepatternsofweightgainandweightlossinanattempttobuildmuscleandthenreducebodyfatlevels.Theaverage
reportedweightlossexperiencedduringthecompetitiveseasonis6.8kilograms(15pounds),andtheaverage
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reportedweightgainis6.2kilograms(14pounds).Thiscyclicdietingleavesbodybuilderswithafoodpreoccupationthatleadstobingeeatingaftercompetitions,as
wellaspsychologicalstress.14Amuchmorelogicalapproachtobuildingmusclesafelyistoconsumeanextra300to500calories(beyondcurrentneeds)from
carbohydratetosupportalargermusclemass,andthendoactivitiesthatsufficientlystressthemusclessotheywillenlarge.
Bodybuildersappeartobeexcessivelydependentonnutritionalandquasinutritionalproductsandergogenicaidstoachievethedesiredbody
composition.Selfexperimentationwithergogenicaidsandnutritionalproductsiscommoninmanysports.(Seechapter4,''TrainingWithSupplements.")However,
bodybuildersappeartobeespeciallytargetedtomarketingeffortsfortheseproducts.Itiseasytobecomeconvincedthattheseproductsactuallyworkbecausethe
placeboeffectisveryrealinnutrition.Thatis,ifyoubelievesomethingwillhelpyou,thenitwillprobablyleadtoabenefitevenifthereisnophysiologicalorbiological
basisfortheimprovement.Thebestscenario,however,isforathletestoconsumeproductsandfoodsthathaveaphysiologicalandbiologicalreasonforimprovement,
andtheathletealsobelievestheywork.Thiswillgivetwicethebenefittotheathlete.
Bodybuilderscommonlyrelyonexcessivewaterlosstoachievethedesiredappearance.Dehydrationisdangerous(therearenumerousdeathsyearlyfrom
dehydration,bothamongathletesandnonathletes)anddiminishesathleticperformance.Withbodybuilders,eventhoughitisimportanttohaveacutappearance,
achievingthisthroughdehydrationisanunacceptablestrategysinceitcanleadtoorganfailureanddeath.Bodybuildersshouldachievetheirdesiredappearance
throughhardworkandthedevelopmentofarelativelylowlevelofbodyfat(seesectionabove).
Nutrientintake(i.e.,vitaminsandminerals)appearstobeinadequateinthispopulation.Thefocusonnutritionalproducts(proteinpowdersandshakes,
aminoacidsupplements,creatinemonohydratesupplements,etc.)ratherthanfoodservestoplacebodybuildersatnutritionalrisk.Consumptionofalowfat,high
carbohydrate,moderateproteinintakethatprovidesadequateenergy(calories)fromawidevarietyoffoodswillhelptoassureagoodnutrientintake.Vitaminand
mineralsupplementsareusefulonlywhenthereisaknowndeficiencyorriskofdeficiencyforaspecificnutrient.
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Football(U.S.)
Footballistheepitomeoftheanaerobicsport,withthelengthofplaysalmostneverexceeding15secondsandarestperiodbetweeneachplay.However,whenthe
ballisinplay,thefootballplayersaregiving100percentmuscularefforttomovetheball.Inaddition,footballplayerscarrytheextraburdenofheavyequipment,
whichaddstotheenergyrequirement.Clearly,thefuelsmostusedinthistypeofactivityarephosphocreatineandmuscleglycogen,sothetraditional"steakand
potatoes"pregamemealmaynotbetheidealmealtoassureanoptimalstorageofmuscleglycogen,sincethereisarelativeoveremphasisofprotein(steak)anda
relativeunderemphasisofcarbohydrate(potato).Inarecentstudyofcollegefootballplayers,itwasfoundthatsupplementingwithcreatinemonohydratehada
performanceenhancingeffect(improvedliftingvolumeandsprintperformance).15However,findingsfromthisandotherstudiesshouldbereviewedcarefullybefore
embarkingonapathofergogenicaidsupplementation.Forinstance,thetotalenergyintakeadequacyofthesubjectsinthisstudywasnotevaluated,soitisunclearif
thederivedbenefitisbecauseoftheincreasedcreatineintakeorfromanimprovementinthetotalenergyintakeofthesubjects.Inanotherstudyevaluatingnutrient
supplementationonathleticperformance,footballplayerswhoconsumedchromiumpicolinatesupplements
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16
fornineweeksexperiencednoimprovementineitherbodycompositionorstrengthrelativetoagroupoffootballplayerswhodidnotsupplement.
Thestopandgonatureoffootball,whichvacillatesbetweenboutsofmaximaleffortandrestduringagame,isalsoassociatedwithahighlevelofbodywaterloss.
Thislossofbodyfluidimpactsnegativelyoncoolingability,athleticperformance,andtheabilitytoconcentrate.17Inastudyoftheconsumptionofcarbohydrate
containingbeveragesamongfootballplayers,itwasfoundthatthesebeverageswerebetterabletomaintainplasmavolumethanwateralone.18Sincemaintenanceof
plasmavolumeisstronglyassociatedwithathleticperformance,footballplayersshouldconsiderconsumingawelldesignedsportsbeveragetomaintainendurance
andperformance.Adequatefluidconsumptionbefore,during,andaftergamesandpracticesshouldbeanimportantpartofthetrainingregimen.
Footballplayersateverylevelhaverecentlybeengettingbiggerandstrongereachyear,andhavearelativelypositivebodyimagewhencomparedtoothermale
athletes.19InasurveyofHighSchoolAllAmericanFootballTeamsfrom1963to1971andfrom1972to1989,itwasfoundthattherehavebeensignificant
increasesintheratioofweighttoheight(bodymassindex)inthe1970sand1980sthatdidnotexistearlier.20Inotherwords,footballplayersaregettingheavier
(relativetotheirheights)ataratemuchhigherthanexistedpriorto1963.
Increasedweightbyitselfmaynotbeagoodthingforfootballplayers.Inonestudy,itwasfoundthatfootballlinemenwithhigherbodyfatpercentagesandhigher
bodymassindexeshadhigherratesoflowerextremityinjuries.21Inanotherstudy,footballplayerswithahigherbodyfatlevelhada2.5timeshigherrelativeriskof
injurythanthosewithlowerbodyfatlevels.22Inaddition,itwasfoundthattherewasanunexpectedlyhighrateofobesityamongadolescentfootballplayers.Since
bodyimageisinverselyrelatedtobodyfatpercentageinmaleathletes(i.e.,higherbodyfatsareassociatedwithpoorbodyimage),itisimportanttohelpathletes
understandhowtoincreaseweightproperlyifhigherweightisdesirable.23Takentogether,thesefindingsstronglysuggestthatincreasinglean(muscle)massratherthan
simplyincreasingweightshouldbeapriorityforfootballplayers.
Weightlossisoftenanissueforlightweightfootballplayers.Theseplayers,whomustmaintainweightbelowagiventhreshold
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tobeeligibletoplay,oftendisplayeatingpatternsthatareunhealthy.Inonestudy,itwasfoundthat20percentfelttheirweightcontrolpracticesfrequentlyinterfered
withtheirthinkingandotheractivities,and42percenthadapatternofdysfunctionaleating.Almost10percentofthosesurveyedwerepracticingbingepurge(bulimic)
eatingbehaviors.24
Manyhavequestionedwhethertherecentincreasesinfootballplayersizeareduetoimprovedpreselectioninthesport(i.e.,attractingbiggerplayerstobeginwith),
improvednutrition,oranincreasedrelianceonanabolicsteroidhormones.Itispossible,ofcourse,foralloranycombinationofthesefactorstocontributetothe
recentincreasesseeninthebodymassindex.Footballplayersappeartobeeatingbetterthantheirnonfootballplayingcounterparts.Inastudyofjuniorhighschool
andhighschoolfootballplayers,itwasfoundthat,ingeneral,nutrientandenergyintakeswerebetterthanthoseseenintheU.S.populationofsameageboys.25
Energyintakes,whichareoftenbelowrecommendedlevelsinothersports,appeartobenearatleast94percentoftherequirementintheassessedfootballplayers.
Zincwasfoundtobeoneofthenutrientstobelowinthisstudy.Inanotherstudyoffootballplayers,lowzinclevelswerefoundtohaveanegativeimpactonmaximal
workloads.Sincezincintakeisstronglyassociatedwiththeconsumptionofredmeat,footballplayersshouldconsideraperiodic,regularconsumptionofmeat.
However,thismeatconsumptionshouldnotinterferewithorreplacetheconsumptionofcarbohydrates,whicharekeytomaintainingperformanceinstopandgo
activities.Vegetariansmaybeatriskforinadequatezincintake,sotheyshouldbeassessedbyaqualifiedmedicalprofessionaltodetermineifzincsupplementsare
warranted.
Aswithathletesinotherprofessionalsports,timezonechangesmakeadifferenceinperformanceoutcomes.Ithasbeenfound,forinstance,thatwhengamesare
playedatnight,WestCoastteamshaveaclearadvantageovereasternandcentraltimezoneteams.26TheWestCoastteamsfeelasifthey'replayingearlierinthe
dayrelativetotheotherteams,sotheydonotsufferfromendofdayfatiguetothedegreethatotherteamsdo.WestCoastteamshavea75percentand68percent
winningpercentagewhenplayingCentralandEastCoastteams,respectively,andstillmaintainahighwinningpercentageevenwhenplayinginawaygames
(approximately68percent).Allofthisstronglysuggeststhatfootballplayerswhotravelacrosstimezonestoplayshoulddowhateverittakestoovercome
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normalcircadianrhythms.Amongthepositiveactionsthatplayerscantakeistoeatsmallamountsoffoodsfrequentlyandtoconsumeplentyoffluidsduringtravel.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforFootball
Footballrequiresahighlevelofstrengthandspeedofshortdurationbuthighfrequency.Footballplayersareinvolvedinactivitiesthatrequirerepeatedbouts
ofhigheffortinterspersedwithperiodsofrest.Thistypeofactivityrequiresahighlevelofcarbohydratetoproperlyfuelthemuscles.Therefore,footballplayers
shouldenterthegamewiththeirmuscleglycogenlevelsfull.However,evenwithmuscleglycogenstorageatitspeak,aplayercannotplayanentiregamewithout
depletingmuscleglycogeninspecificmusclegroups.Therefore,footballplayersshouldtakeeveryopportunitytoconsumeacarbohydratecontainingbeverageduring
breaksinthegame.Allofthepregame,duringgame,andpostgamehydrationtechniquesreviewedearlierinchapter2,"StayingHydrated,"shouldbefollowedto
assureaconstantavailabilityofcarbohydratetothemuscles.
Linemenrequireahighlevelofmass.Whilehighmassaffordslinemenaclearadvantage,theabilitytomovethemassquicklyisequallyimportant.Therefore,
linemenshouldstriveforahighlevelofmusclemassnotjusthigherweight.Toachievethis,consumptionofadietthatmeetstheenergyrequirementsforthehigher
massisneededand,inthiscontext,arelativelylowintakeoffat(lessthan25percentoftotalcalories)andamoderateintakeofprotein(12to15percentoftotal
caloriesorabout1.5gramsofproteinperkilogramofbodyweight).Thistypeofdiet,coupledwithexercisethatplacesstressonthemuscles,helpstoenlargethe
musclemass.Increasingtotalenergyintakethroughtheconsumptionofahighleveloffattyfoodsgreatlyenablesanincreaseinfatstorage(andthereforemass),butfat
doesnotcontributetostrength.Thusfattyfoodsnegativelyalterthestrengthtoweightratioandmakeitmoredifficultforalinemantomovequicklyandpowerfullyoff
theline.
Backfielddefensivepositionsandpassreceiversrequirehighagility,speed,andquickreactiontime.Highspeedandagilityrequirearelativelylowlevelof
bodyfat.Therefore,thesefootballplayersshouldconsumefoodsthatlimitfatstorage(i.e.,ahighcarbohydrate,lowfatintake).Sincemultiple40yardsprintsdown
thefieldtocatch(ordefendagainst)longpasseswillquicklydepletemuscleglycogen
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storage,consumptionofacarbohydratecontainingbeverageatnaturalbreaksduringthegameisdesirable.Duringhotandhumiddays,consumingthisbeveragewill
alsoenhancetheabilitytomaintainadesirablehydrationstate.
Repeatedhighintensityactivitywhilecarryingequipment(pads,helmet,etc.)translatesintohighsweatlosses.Thefluidinsweatmustbereplacedto
maintainoptimalperformance.Todothis,consumptionofsportsbeveragesthatcontaina6to7percentcarbohydratesolutionareusefulinmaintainingthebody's
waterlevelandreplenishingcarbohydratefuel.Whenassessed,athletestypicallyplacethemselvesinastateofvoluntaryunderhydration,sothereiseveryreasonto
setupastrategythatcausesfootballplayerstoconsciouslyconsumefluidssduringeverypossiblebreakinthegame.
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Gymnastics
Thenumberofyounggymnasticscompetitorscontinuestoincrease,soitisespeciallyimportantthatgrowth,weight,bonehealth,eatingbehavior,andother
developmentallyimportantfactorsarecarefullymonitored.Thetraditioningymnasticsistohavesmallgymnasts,andgymnaststhemselvescommonlyviewthissmall
bodyimageasideal.Weightisaprevailingthemeingymnastics,regardlessofthegymnasticsdiscipline.Eveninmen'sgymnastics,itissuggestedthatcontrolling
energyintaketoachievelowerweightisanappropriateanddesiredapproachifagymnastistoachievesuccess.27Butthereisanexpectationforgrowthinchildren,
sothereshouldbeaconcomitantexpectationforincreasingweight.Withoutacceptingthisfact,manyyoungathletes,includinggymnasts,maytrytoachievealow
weightthroughunhealthymeans.Whileitistruethataloweringofexcessbodyfatwillreducebodymassand,perhaps,lowertheriskoftraumaticinjuriestojoints,
tryingtoachievethisthroughinappropriatemeansmayalsoplacethegymnastatrisk.28
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Elitelevelgymnasticshasfourseparatedisciplines,includingmen'sgymnastics,women'sartisticgymnastics,women'srhythmicgymnastics,andwomen'srhythmic
groupgymnastics.Althoughthetotaltimespentingymnasticspracticeishighforelitegymnasts(upto30hoursofpracticeeachweek),theactualtimespentin
conditioningandskillstrainingisconsiderablyless.Gymnastsbeginpracticewithaseriesofstretchesandtheninitiateaseriesofbasicskillsonthefloormataspartof
thewarmuproutine.Followingwarmup,eachgymnasttakesaturnpracticingoneoftheevents.Thetimeperformingaskillinpracticeneverexceedsthatofthe
competitionmaximumandisusuallyasmallfractionofit.Becausepracticeinvolvesrepeatedboutsofhighlyintense,shortdurationactivity,gymnastsrestbetween
eachpracticebouttoregeneratestrength.Withtheexceptionofthegroupcompetitioninrhythmicgymnastics,noneofthecompetitioneventswithineachofthese
disciplineshasadurationlongerthan90seconds.Thisdurationcategorizesgymnasticsasahighintensity,anaerobicsport.
Asanaerobes,gymnastsrelyheavilyonTypeIIB(purefasttwitch)andTypeIIA(intermediatefasttwitch)musclefibers(seechapter5,"EatingforAnaerobic
Power").29Thesefibers,whilecapableofproducingagreatdealofpower,aregenerallyregardedasincapableoffunctioningathighintensityforlongerthan90
seconds.TypeIIfibershavealowoxidativecapacity,whichlimitsfatusageasanenergysubstrateduringgymnasticactivity,andapoorcapillarysupply,which
deprivesthesefibersofnutrient,oxygen,andcarbondioxideexchangeduringintensivework.Becauseofthesefactors,gymnasticsactivityisheavilydependenton
creatinephosphateandcarbohydrate(bothglucoseandglycogen)asfuelsforactivity.
Anumberofstudieshaveevaluatedthenutrientintakeofelitegymnasts.Ingeneral,thesestudiesdemonstrateaninadequacyintheintakeoftotalenergy,iron,and
calcium.30,31,32Heavygymnastictrainingandinadequatenutrientintakeareimplicatedascausativefactorsintheprimaryamenorrheaexperiencedbymanyyoung
gymnasts,andmayalsocontributetothesecondaryamenorrheaexperiencedbyoldergymnasts.Awoman18yearsofageandolder,whohasneverhadaperiod
(delayedmenses),isconsideredtohaveprimaryamenorrhea.Afemalewhohasexperiencedmensesinthepast,butisnotcurrentlyexperiencingperiodsoveraspan
oftime(severalmonthsorevenyears)isconsideredtohavesecondaryamenorrhea.Whileinadequatecalciumintakeisassociatedwithpoorbonedevelopmentand
increasedriskofstressfracture,inade
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33
quateironintakeisassociatedwithanemia,whichisariskfactorinthedevelopmentofamenorrhea.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforGymnastics
Gymnastsarerequiredtododifficulttumblingandacrobaticskillsthatareeasierforsmallerpeopletodo.Artisticgymnastsarecommonlysmall(30th
percentileforheighttoageratio),butextremelymuscular(90thpercentileforarmmusclecircumference).34Itispossiblethatthistendencyforsmallstatureisduetoa
selfselectioninthesport(i.e.,onlythosewhoaresmallremaininthesportcompetitivelybecausetheytendtobemoresuccessful)orbecauseofaninadequate
nutrientintake.Bothofthesefactorsarepossible,eithertogetherorseparately.Gymnastsandgymnasticscoachesknowthatthetopgymnaststendtobesmall,so
manyofthemtrytoachievethissmallsizebyreducingfoodintake.Therearemanyproblemswiththisstrategy,nottheleastofwhichisthepossibilityofdelayed
growthwithpoorskeletaldevelopment.Intherelativelyfewcaseswherethisoccursbecauseofanoverzealouscoachoragymnastwhohasmadeseverecutsinfood
intake,theoutcomemaybegrim,leadingtolifethreateningeatingdisorders.Luckily,however,thevastmajorityofgymnastsdoverywellinthissport,thriveas
adults,andhavehealthyfamilies.
Thekeythingtorememberisthatunhealthyathletesdon'tstaycompetitiveforverylong,soit'sineveryone'sinteresttoeatenoughtosustainhealthandgrowth.
Further,gymnastsshouldthinkmoreaboutoptimizingbodycompositionratherthanmaintainingorreducingweight.Clearly,oneofthedifficultiesthatarisesfrom
severedietingisthatweightgoesdownbutsodoesmusclemass.Infact,musclemassislikelytobereducedmorethanfatmasswithdieting,makingitmoredifficult
forgymnaststoperformdifficultskills.Thisrelativeincreaseinbodyfat(i.e.,agreaterproportionofremainingweightisfat)maycausegymnaststofurtherreduce
foodintaketoapointthatitisdiagnosableasaneatingdisorder.Ifthisoccurs,thegymnastisindangerandrequiresseriousandspeedyinterventionfromaqualified
healthprofessional.
Gymnastsaresensitivetothestrengthtoweightratiobothfromappearanceandperformancestandpoints.Itiscalled"artistic"gymnastics,sothere'sno
gettingaroundthefactthathowapersonlooksinaccomplishingtheskillsmakesadifferenceinthescore.Beingstrongmakesiteasiertoachievetherequiredskill,so
itlooksbetterandmore
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effortlesswhenitiscompleted(i.e.,itlooksmoreartistic).Gymnastsareconstantlybeingremindedtosmilewhileincompetition,andthisjustservestogivethe
appearancethattheskillsareeasilydone.Thekeyistobesufficientlyconditionedandstrongsothattheskillscanbecompletedwithease.IntheUnitedStates,there
isconcernthatgymnastsstartlearningskillstooearly,whentheyshouldbefocusingonconditioning.Afterall,awellconditionedathletewilllearntheskillmore
quicklyandwithlessriskofinjury.However,thereistremendouspressureoncoachestodemonstratethatthegymnastsareprogressingnicely,andthebestwayto
dothatistoputtheminjuniorcompetitions.Ofcourse,agymnastincompetitionneedstoperformsomeskills.Butamorebalancedapproachthatfocuseson
conditioningearlyinthegymnast'scareer,anddelaystheintroductionofspecificgymnasticsskills,mayactuallyimprovetheskilllearningcurvelateronwhenitreally
counts.
Toimproveconditioning,gymnastsmustconsumesufficientenergyandnutrientstomeetthecombineddemandsofgrowth,maintenance,andimprovementin
musculature.Thefocusongymnasticstrainingshouldbeongettingstrongratherthanonstayingsmall(i.e.,workonthestrengthpartofthestrengthtoweightratio
ratherthanontheweightpart),andthiscanonlybeaccomplishedthroughatrainingprogramthatsatisfiesnutritionalneeds.Infact,wellconditionedandstrong
gymnastsrarelyhavetoworryaboutweight,becauseittakescareofitselfquitenicely.
Gymnasts(andmanyotherfemaleathletes)havedelayedmenarche,whichmayplayaroleinbonehealth.Ifagymnastfailstoachievemensesbyage16,
sheshouldseeaphysiciantodeterminethecauseand,ifneeded,aremedy.Therearemanypossiblecausesforadelayorcessationofmenses,including
lowbodyfat,
poorironstatus,
highphysicalstress,
highpsychologicalstress,
highcortisollevel:(Cortisolisahormoneproducedbythebodytocounteractthesorenesscreatedfromactivity.Itiscommonlyhighinathletesandinterferes
withestrogenproduction.)
lowenergyintake.
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Itisconceivablethatgymnastsmayhaveallofthesefactors.Regardlessofthecause(s),adelayinmenstrualonsetmaynegativelyimpactbonehealthandincreasethe
laterriskofearlyosteoporosisdevelopment.Toreducetheriskofdelayedmenstrualonset,gymnastsshouldhaveperiodiccheckstodetermineironstatusandshould
dowhateverpossibletoeatnormally.
Gymnastscommonlyreachtheircompetitivepeakataroundages16to18.Inhardlyanyothersport,exceptperhapsfigureskating,doestheathletereach
peakcompetitiveformatsuchayoungage.It'shardtobethebestatanythingwithoutspendingatremendousamountoftimepracticingatit,andthat'swherethe
nutritionalriskoccurs.Adolescentsinthemiddleoftheirgrowthspurthaveanextremelyhighrequirementforenergyandnutrients.It'sdifficulttoimaginehowanyone
canconsumeasufficientamountofenergytosupportboththeadolescentgrowthspurtandalltheenergyburnedfromthehoursofactivityneededtoreachthepeak
ofperformancecapabilities.However,withplanning,itispossible.Infact,gymnastswhodoitrightbyeatingenoughtosupportthecombinedenergyneedsof
growth,physicalactivity,andtissuemaintenancelookbetter,dobetter,enjoythesportmore,andstayinthesportlonger.
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Hockey
Althoughyoumayhavethoughtofhockeyasamalesport,anyonewhowatchedthe1998WinterOlympicGamesinNaganoknowsthatwomenplayhockey,too,
andplayitverywell.Regardlessofthegenderoftheplayer,hockeyisanoholdsbarred,highspeed,fulleffortsport.Ifyouwatchcloselythewayhockeyplayers
goinandoutofplay,theyskateatfulltiltwhilethey'reontheicebutalmostneverskateformorethan1.5minutescontinuously.Thishighspeedeffortplacesagreat
dealofemphasisonanaerobicmetabolism,whichmeanstheenergyfocusisonphosphocreatineandcarbohydrate(glycogenandglucose).Myownexperienceswith
theAtlantaKnightshockeyteam,andtheexperiencesofotherswhohaveworkedonimprovingthenutritionalpracticesofhockeyplayers,stronglysuggeststhatitis
possibletomakepositivedietarychangesinhockeyplayers.35Thesechangescanhelptheminmakingtherightchangesinhockeyplayerscanhelptheminweight
maintenanceduringtheseasonandduringtheoffseason,andimprovementsinendurancehavebeenseenwithproperfluidandcarbohydratereplacement.
InastudyofelitehockeyplayersfromSweden,itwasdeterminedthatthedistanceskated,thenumberofshiftsskated,theamountoftimeskatedwithinshifts,and
theskatingspeedallimprovedwithcarbohydrateloading.36Theauthorsofthisstudy
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concludedthatindividualdifferencesinperformanceinhockeyplayersaredirectlyrelatedtomuscleglycogenmetabolism.Thesefindingsareconfirmedfromastudy
ofsevenprofessionalhockeyplayers,whichfoundthat60percentofthemuscleglycogeninthequadricepsmuscleisburnedduringasinglegame.37Sincehockey
playersfrequentlyskateinpracticeorhavesuccessivegamedays,itispossibleformuscleglycogentobecomevirtuallydepletedonanimproperintake.Datafrom
thisstudyrevealthatmostplayersconsumeadiethighinproteinandlowincarbohydrate,adietthatisguaranteedtocausefuelsupplyproblemsinworkingmuscles.
Makingashiftawayfromahighfat,highproteinintaketowardonethatishigherincarbohydratesisnoteasy,however,andmayincreasethechanceofconsuming
toolittleenergybecausecarbohydratesarealessdensesourceofcaloriesthanfats.Thiswasseeninonestudywhereplayersfromonehockeyteamwereplacedon
aspecialdietaryregimenthatreducedfatandproteinintakeandincreasedcarbohydrateintake.38Thisteamwascomparedtoanotherteamthatmaintainedtheusual
nutrientintake(i.e.,highfat,highprotein,lowcarbohydrate).Inthisstudy,thehockeyplayerswiththehighercarbohydrateintakehadsomemeasurablechangesin
hormonebalancethatwerebestexplainedbyinadequatetotalenergyintake.Therefore,ifaswitchismadefromahigherfatdiettoonethatislowerinfatandhigher
incarbohydrates,caremustbetakenthatthetotalenergy(i.e.,calories)intakeissufficienttomeettheathlete'sneeds.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforHockey
Frequentgamesplaceahighdemandonmuscleglycogen.Thereisgoodevidenceformuscleglycogendepletioninhockeyplayers,stronglysuggestingthat
thosewhoplaythissportmustconsumedietshighincarbohydrates.However,it'snotjusttheintakeofcarbohydratesthat'simportant,butthestrategiesusedintheir
consumptiontooptimizemuscleglycogenstorage.Ingeneral,adietshouldprovide60to65percentofthetotalenergyintakefromcarbohydrate.Thepregamemeal
shouldconsistalmostentirelyofcarbohydratesthataremainlystarchbased,suchaspasta,potatoes,rice,breads,andcereals.Fruits,vegetables,andhighbran(i.e.,
highcrudefiber)foodsmayincreasegasproductioninthegut,soshouldbeavoidedorconsumedsparinglyinthepregamemeal.(Ofcourse,atothertimes,allof
thesefoodsarenourishingandgoodtoeat.)Everyopportunityshouldbetakenduringgamestoprovidecarbohydrate(carbohy
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dratecontainingbeveragesduringbreaksinplaycarbohydratesupplements(suchascarbohydrategels)andbeveragesbetweenperiods).Postgamecarbohydrate
consumptionduringthefirsthourfollowingthegameiscriticaltocapitalizeonthecirculatingglycogensynthetase(ahormonethathelpstostoremuscleglycogenwhen
carbohydratesaremadeavailable).Pregameandnormalintakecarbohydratesshouldfocusonstarchbased,complexcarbohydrates,andduringgameand
immediatelypostgamecarbohydratesshouldbesugarbasedorsimplecarbohydrates(thatis,carbohydratesthataremorerefinedandhavelessfiber).
Changingfoodintaketoprovidemorecarbohydratesmayresultinaninadequateenergyconsumption.Surveysofhockeyplayersstronglysuggestthat
normalenergyintakestendtobehighinfat,highinprotein,andlowincarbohydrate.Thisisadietthatdoesnotadequatelysupportthetypeofmuscularmetabolism
thattakesplace.However,becauseofthehigherenergyconcentrationinthistypeofintake,itiseasierforhockeyplayerstoobtainthetotalenergytheyneed.The
simplereasonforthisisthatforthesameweightoffood,fatsprovidemorethantwicethecaloriccontentofcarbohydrates(9caloriespergramvs.4caloriesper
gram).Makingaswitchtofoodsthatarelowerinfatandhigherincarbohydratewhilemaintainingthesameeatingfrequencymayservetocreateanegativeenergy
balancethatcouldalsobedetrimentaltoperformance.39Inadequateenergyalmostguaranteesacatabolism(i.e.,breakdown)ofmusclethatisusedasafuel,sothe
hockeyplayerwouldeventuallyloseweightandbecomeweaker.Thesolution(perhapstheonlysolution)istomakecertainthathockeyplayersincreasetheireating
frequencytosixtimesperday(breakfast,midmorningsnack,lunch,midafternoonsnack,dinner,eveningsnack)toassurethatthereisbothanincreasein
carbohydrateandanadequatetotalenergyintake.
Highintensityactivitycausesbodytemperaturetorisequickly,witharesultanthighsweatrate.It'shardtoimagineanythingmoreperformancedamaging
thandehydration.Consideringtheamountofequipment,pads,andhighintensityworkofhockeyplayers,theyareconsideredtobeatriskfordehydration.Therefore
followagoodhydrationplan(seechapter2,''StayingHydrated").Hockeyplayersshouldconsumeplentyoffluidspriortothegameandtakeeveryopportunityto
consumefluidsduringandafterthegame.Giventheneedforcarbohydratesandtheneedforfluids,agoodstrategyistoconsumeacarbohydratecontainingbeverage
wheneverpossible.
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TrackandField
Trackandfieldcompetitionincludesanumberofeventsofshortdurationthatrelyonpowerthroughanaerobicenergy.Sprintsandhurdleeventsincluderacesupto
andincluding400meter.Fieldeventsincludejumpsandthrows.
Haveyoueverseenanoverweightsprinter?Ihaven'teither,andthatshouldbeenoughevidencethatyoudon'thavetodoaerobicactivitytolowerbodyfat.Infact,a
studyperformedbyoneofmystudentsshowedthathighintensityactivitywasaseffectiveaslowintensityactivityinloweringbodyfat.40Sprintinghasbeen
recommendedasanormalcomponentofintervaltraininginmanysports.Regardlessofwhetherit'sdonefortraining,orrepresentsthesportitself(asinthe100meter
dash),sprintinghasspecificenergyrequirementsthatmustbeaccountedforandsatisfiedtoperformatanoptimallevel.Sprints,whichbytheirverynaturerarelylast
longerthan10seconds,primarilyusethefuelsphosphocreatineandcarbohydrate.Sincemuscleswithanadequatestorageofphosphocreatinecansupporthigh
intensityexerciseforupto10seconds,itislikelythatmanyathletesuseprimarilyphosphocreatinefortheentiredurationofthesprint.Onestudy,inwhichcreatine
monohydrate
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wassupplementedtoincreasethemuscularstorageofphosphocreatine,foundthatitpromotedgainsinfatfree(i.e.,muscle)massaswellassprintperformance.41
Thisindirectlysupportsthenotionthatsprintperformanceishighlydependentonphosphocreatine.Carbohydrateintakealsoappearstomakeadifferenceinsprint
performance.Inastudyevaluatingtheimpactofhigh,moderate,andlowcarbohydrateintakes,thehighcarbohydrateintakesproducedbetterinitialsprint
performancethanlowerintakesofcarbohydrate.42
Insomesports,the"sprint"maybethedifferencebetweenwinningorlosingevenwhenthemajorityoftimeisspentdoinglowerintensityexercise.Forinstance,10K
runnersandmarathonersrunalmosttheentiredistanceatahighpace,butatapacethatiswithintheathlete'sconditionedabilitytoprovideoxygentothemuscles.At
theendoftheseraces,however,theathletegoesintoasprintpace(oftendescribedasthe"kick")thatexceedsoxidativecapabilities.Ithasbeenfoundthathigh
carbohydrateintakes,whencomparedtomoderatecarbohydrateintakes,arebetterabletomaintainmuscleglycogeninathletesworkingat75percentpeak
onehourfollowedbyfiveoneminutesprintsonfourconsecutivedays.43
for
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforSprinting
Thereisahighdemandforphosphocreatineandcarbohydratefuelsinsprints.Byitsverydefinition,asprintrequiresthefastestpossiblemovementoverthe
prescribeddistance.Metaboliclimitationscontrolthemaximumdistancehumanscansprint,andsprintsneverlastlongerthan1.5minutes.Onshortsprints,thereisa
highdependenceonphosphocreatineasafuel.Ithasbeenhypothesizedthattheingestionofextracreatine,typicallyasasupplementintheformofcreatine
monohydrate,mayimprovephosphocreatinestorage.(Pleaserefertothechapteronsupplementsformoredetailedinformation.)Thisincreasedstoragecould
theoreticallyincreasethenumberofshortalloutsprintsanathletecoulddoandmightalsoimprovethetimemusclescanrelyonphosphocreatineasafuel.Thereis
somescientificevidencethatsupplementingwithcreatinemonohydratedoes,infact,improvebothsprintfrequencyandsprintdistance.However,thereareinherent
designweaknessesinsomeofthesestudiesthatshouldkeepathletesfromjumpingonthecreatinesupplementbandwagon.Forinstance,thesestudieshavenot
evaluatedtheenergyintakeadequacyoftheathletesstudied,sothe
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improvementsseeninperformancemaybeduetotheenergy(i.e.,calories)suppliedbythecreatine(fourcaloriespergram)thatcouldmoreeasily(andmore
cheaply!)besuppliedbycarbohydrate.Also,theissueofthesafetyoffrequentandlongtermcreatinemonohydrateingestionhas,todate,neverbeenadequately
addressed.
Creatineisanormalconstituentofthedietandishighestinmeats(beef,pork,poultry,fish,etc.).Therefore,inthecontextofahighcarbohydratediet,itseemsuseful
forsprinterstoconsiderconsumingsmallamountsofleanmeatsregularly.Fornonmeateaters,careshouldbetakentoconsumesufficientproteinandcaloriessothe
synthesisofcreatinecanoccurinthebody.Theonlywayforthebodytosynthesizephosphocreatineisfortheathletetoconsumesufficientenergy,soitisalso
importantthatsprintersconsumeenoughtotalenergy.
Puresprintersmaybeinhibitedfromcarbohydratesupercompensation,whileenduranceathletesmayrequirecarbohydratesupercompensationto
supporttheendofrace"kick."Puresprintersmustmoveamassquicklyoverarelativelyshortdistance.Clearly,theamountofmassthatmustbemovedisafactor
inhowquicklyitcanbemoved.Sprinterswithhighstrengthtoweightratioshaveanadvantageoverthosewithlowerstrengthtoweightratios.Oneoftheeffectsof
carbohydrateloading(orsupercompensation)istoforcemorecarbohydrate(glycogen)intothemusclessoitisavailableformuscularwork.Glycogenisstoredwith
water,however,ina1:3ratio:thatis,foreachgramofglycogenstored,thebodystoresthreegramsofwater.Attimes,athleteswhoundergoacarbohydrateloading
regimenmentionthattheyfeelstiffandheavy.Clearly,thisisnotthewayasprintershouldfeelatthebeginningofarace,butitisaperfectlyacceptablefeelingfor
longdistancerunners.Therefore,puresprintersshouldregularlyconsumeahighcarbohydrateintakethatprovidessufficienttotalcalories,butshouldavoidany
carbohydrateloadingregimenthatmightservetoforceextraglycogenandwaterintothemuscles.
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Swimming(100to400Meter)
Perhapsthereisnoothersportwheresomuchtimemustbespentpracticingtogainsuchincrementallysmalllevelsofimprovement.Swimmersspendaconsiderable
amountoftimeinthewatertoperfecttechniquesthatwillbetterovercomedragandtoimprovetheircapacitytosustainbothaerobicandanaerobicenergy
production.Intheshorter(sprint)distanceswhereracesaretypicallylessthantwominutesinlength,themajorityofenergyispredominantlyderivedanaerobically
fromphosphocreatineandglycogen(seetable9.1).Whilethesesprintracesdon'tlastverylong,theamountofenergyneededtosustainahighlevelofpoweroutput
istremendouslyhigh,andthemajorityofit(over55percent)mustcomefromglycogenandphosphocreatine.
Allthistimepracticinghasahighenergyandnutrientcostthatmustbeconsideredwhendevelopingatrainingplan.Inastudyofnationaldevelopmentaltrainingcamp
swimmersitwasfoundthattheaverageenergy(5,221caloriesformales,3,573caloriesforfemales)andnutrientintakeswereadequate,butthattherewasalarge
betweenswimmervariationinintake.44Thisvariation,coupledwithatendencyfortheseswimmerstoconsumeexcessiveamountsoffatandinsufficientamountsof
carbohydrate,suggeststhatalargeproportionofswimmersmayhavedietaryhabitsthatdonotoptimallysupporttrainingandcompe
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Table9.1RelativeContributionofAerobicandAnaerobicEnergySourcesDuringExerciseof
DifferentLengths
Time
Anaerobic%
Aerobic%
030seconds
80
20
3060seconds
60
40
6090seconds
42
58
90120seconds
36
64
120180seconds
30
70
060seconds
70
30
090seconds
61
39
0120seconds
55
45
0180seconds
45
55
ExpressedCumulatively
Note:Astheexercisetimeincreases,powerproductiondecreasesandagreaterproportionofenergyis
derivedaerobically.Aerobicmetabolismislessreliantonglycogenandphosphocreatinebecauseofan
abilitytometabolizefarforenergy.
AdaptedfromLamb1995.
titionneeds.Thedesireforhigherfatfoodsfrommeatsanddairyproductshasbeentestedinmaleswimmers,anditwasfoundthattheytendtolikethesensory
appealoffatcontaininganimalproducts,evenwhenundergoingahighlevelofexercise.45
Highlevelswimmers,whoareoftenyounghighschoolstudentsandcollegeageyoungadults,mustspendagreatdealoftimeinthepooltogainaspeed
improvement,whichcommonlytranslatesintomultipletrainingsessionseachday.Typically,swimmerspracticeintheearlymorningandlateafternoon(beforeand
afterschoolandclasses).Theygenerallyaccepttheideathattheymustgetanhourortwooflapsinbeforeclassesbegintohaveachanceofimproving.Thismeans
thattheymustgetupat5:00A.M.togettothepool,thenheadforthepoolagainrightafterschoolorwork.Theproblem,therefore,istryingtoassurethatswimmers
consumesufficientenergyandconsumetheenergyinaformthatismostsupportiveofthetrainingplan.Forswimmers,thatmeansmakingthetimebetweenand
duringpracticestoeatlotsoffoodsthatarehighincarbohydrates.However,swimmersmustdothisinawaythatassuresthestomachisemptybeforegettingintothe
water.Thismeansthefocus,duringpracticeandswimmeets,shouldbeoncarbohydratecontainingfluids,suchassportsbeverages.Havinglargeamountsofsolid
foods
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shortlybeforegettingintothewatercausesafluidshiftawayfromthemusclesandintotheGItractandmaycausecramping.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforSwimming
Therearehightraininghoursandanintensivetrainingprotocol.Competitiveswimmersworkhardandlongatgettingbetter,andallthatworktranslatesintoa
tremendouslyhighcaloricneed.Sinceswimmersoftenhaveapracticeearlyinthemorning,it'simportanttomakeplansfortakinginsomecarbohydratesimmediately
uponawakeningtoassurethatthere'stimeforthefoodtoleavethestomachbeforepractice.Afailuretoconsumesomecarbohydrate(even100to200caloriesis
betterthannothing)priortopracticewilllimitthebenefitstheathletemightderivefrompractice.Fluids(appleorgrapejuice,orasportsbeverage)aregoodtosipon
duringthetriptothepool.Followingthemorningpractice,swimmersshouldhavesomehighcarbohydratebreakfastfoods(cereal,toast,bagel,etc.)immediately
availabletoeattoreplenishtheenergyconsumedduringpracticeandtobeginstoringmoreenergyfortheafternoonpractice.Also,becausesomuchenergyis
needed,highschoolswimmersshouldseekapprovalfromschooladministratorstoconsumeamidmorningsnackof200to400calories.Swimmerswhopractice
sprintinginthepoolshouldbeawarethatphosphocreatine(amajorfuelforsprints)islikelytobecomedepletedinmusclecells,andthatittakestimetoregenerate
thephosphocreatinetogetthecellsreadyforthenextsprint.Whentotalsprintingtimemeetsorexceedstwominutes,thereshouldbearecoveryperiodofuptofour
minutestoallowcellstimetoreplenishthedepletedphosphocreatine.Afailuretoallowforthisrecoveryperiodwillforcetheswimmertoworkatalowerintensity
andforshorterperiodsonsubsequentsprints.Ifthathappens,theswimmerwillbelearningtosprintinawaythatcouldadverselyimpactoncompetitivetimes.46
Bodyweightreductionmaybenecessarytoimprovebathingsuitappearanceandreducedrag.Thepaperthinmaterialusedforracingsuitsmakesit
impossibleforswimmerstohidetheirphysiques.Sinceeveryonewantstolookgood,swimmersmaybemotivatedtoreducebodyweight.However,manyswimmers
couldeasilyexperienceareductioninperformancewithweightlossifitresultedinalossofmuscleandaresultantlossofpower.Ifweightwerelostinsuchawayso
astoreducedrag,therecouldbeaperformancebenefit,butmostweightlossstrategiesbackfireandhinderperformance.Therefore,
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swimmerswishingtoloseweighttoeitherlookbetterorgofaster(orboth)shouldonlydosounderthedirectsupervisionofaqualifiedhealthprofessional.Also,the
focusshouldbeonfatreductionandmusclemaintenanceratherthanweightreductionperse.
Swimmersrelyheavilyonglycogenandphosphocreatine.Sprintingperformanceisverydependentoncarbohydrate(tomakestoredglycogen)and
phosphocreatine.Withsufficienttotalenergyintakethatfocusesoncarbohydrates(atleast30caloriesofcarbohydrateperkilogramofbodyweight)andincludesan
adequateamountofprotein(about1.5to2.0gramsperkilogramofbodyweight),thereiseveryreasontobelievethatathletescanstoreenoughglycogenandmake
enoughphosphocreatinetofueltheirmusclesproperly.However,thereistremendousmotivationformanyathletestoconsumecreatinemonohydratesupplements(a
precursortophosphocreatine)togainacompetitiveedge.Whilecreatinemonohydratesupplementsmayimprovethenumberofhighintensitysprintsaswimmeris
abletodo,swimmersshouldbeawarethatregularcreatineconsumptionisassociatedwithanincreaseinweight.Sincethisweightincreaseislikelytobefromwater,
itcouldreducetheswimmer'sbuoyancyandincreasedrag.Itislikelythatagreaterbenefitcouldbeachievedbycreatingopportunitiestoeatinordertoassurean
optimaltotalenergyintake.
Swimmersneedtoconsumefluid.It'shardtoimaginethat,withsomuchwateraround,aswimmercouldgetdehydrated!Thefactthatswimmersareworkingina
hypothermicenvironment(waterisusuallycolderthanairtemperature)makesiteasierfortheexcessheatgeneratedfrommuscularworktobedissipated.However,
thereareothergoodreasonsforswimmerstoconsiderwhethertheirhydrationstateisadequate.Poorlyhydratedathletesmaydevelopalowerbloodvolumethat
causesthehearttoworkhardertobringoxygenandnutrientstocells,andthereislessvolumeinwhichtoplacemetabolicbyproducts.Also,manycompetitionstake
placeoutside,whereswimmersspendagreatdealoftimewaitingfortheirevent,andwheretheycaneasilybecomeoverheated.Excesswaterstoragecouldclearly
beaproblemforswimmersbyincreasingweightanddrag,butinsufficientbodywatercanimpactonperformanceandconcentration.Therefore,agoodruleofthumb
istoconstantlysipsmallamountsofwaterorsportsbeverage,andalsotoavoidstrategies(glycogenloading,glycerol,creatine)thatcouldforceexcessiveamountsof
watertobestored(pleaserefertochapter5formoredetailedinformation).
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Wrestling
Wrestlinghasbeenaroundasasportforthousandsofyears.EarlysculptedartifactsandpaintingsfromFrance,Egypt,andancientBabylonshowwrestlersinvolved
inholdsthatareessentiallythesameasthoseusedtoday.IntheearlyOlympicGamesinGreece,thewrestlingcompetitionwastheimportantcompetition.47Thebasic
strategyinallthistimehasnotchanged:wrestlersattempttoforcetheshouldersoftheiropponentontothemattowinthematch.Ifneitherwrestlerisabletoscore
suchafall,thewinnerisdeterminedbyofficialswhouseapointsystem,whichinvolvesprovidingpointsfornearfalls,holdinganopponentclosetohisback,and
controllingtheopponent.
In1997,therewasnewscoverageofthetragicdeathsofthreecollegiatewrestlers.Eachdeathoccurredduringstrenuousweightlossworkoutsandinitiatedabadly
neededdiscussionofthetechniquesusedbywrestlerstoachieve"weight."JeffReese,aUniversityofMichiganjunior,diedofkidneyandheartfailurewhileworking
outinarubbersuitina92degreeroomsothathecouldqualifyforalowerweightclass.BillySaylor(19yearsoldandthreetimeFloridaStatechampion)of
CampbellUniversityandJosephLaRosa(22yearsold)oftheUniversityofWisconsinalsodiedwhiletryingtolosealargeamountofweighttoqualifyforalower
weightclass.Theoutrageresultingfromthesedeathshasfinallyledtoaserious
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discussionabouttherulesthatencouragethemanipulationofnormalweightandthetechniquesused(supplements,dehydration,fasting)toachieveaweightwellbelow
theathlete'snaturalweighttoallowqualificationinalowerweightclass.Animportantoutcomeofthisdiscussionshouldbeanimprovementintheinformationwrestling
coacheshaveaboutweightloss,sportsnutrition,trainingdiets,dehydration,andbodycomposition.Insurveysofwrestlingcoachesthatevaluateknowledgeinthese
areas,ahighproportionofthecoacheshavealessthanadequateknowledgebasetobeguidingyoungathletesintheseareas.48TheAmericanCollegeofSports
Medicinepositiononweightlossinwrestlersstates:49
Despiteagrowingbodyofevidenceadmonishingthebehavior,weightcutting(rapidweightreduction)remainsprevalentamongwrestlers.Weightcuttinghassignificantadverse
consequencesthatmayaffectcompetitiveperformance,physicalhealth,andnormalgrowthanddevelopment.Toenhancetheeducationexperienceandreducethehealthrisksfor
theparticipants,theACSMrecommendsmeasurestoeducatecoachesandwrestlerstowardsoundnutritionandweightcontrolbehaviors,tocurtail"weightcutting,"andto
enactrulesthatlimitweightloss.
Thegeneralgoalofthisweightlossstrategyistoqualifyforaweightclassduringaweighinonthenightbeforeamatch,andtogainasmuchweightaspossible
betweentheweighinandthematchonthenextday.Sadly,thereisevidencethatwrestlingataweightbelowthepredictedminimumwrestlingweightappearstobe
associatedwithgreaterwrestlingsuccess.50Thereisalsogoodevidencethatsuccessfulweightgainduringthisshortperiodisimportantforsuccess.Inonestudy
evaluatingtherelativeweightgainsofwrestlers,theheavierwrestlerwassuccessful57percentofthetime.51
Thereisconcernonmanylevelsabouttheweightlosstechniquescommonlypracticedbywrestlers.Thereissomeevidencethatundernutritionmayleadtoaltered
growthhormoneproductioninwrestlersthat,ifpresentoverseveralseasons,couldleadtogrowthimpairment.52Inanotherstudy,itwasdeterminedthatdietary
restrictionreducedproteinnutritionandmuscularperformance.53Thesedataareconfirmedbyfindingsindicatingthatweightlossbyenergyrestrictionsignificantly
reducedanaerobicperformanceofwrestlers.Thoseonahighcarbohydraterefeedingdiettendedtorecovertheirperformancewhilethosewithlowerintakesof
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54
carbohydratedidnot. Besidestheobviousphysiologicalchangesthatoccurfromrapidweightloss,thereisgoodevidencethatrapidweightlossincollegiate
wrestlerscausesanimpairmentofshorttermmemory,afactthatcouldimpactonscholasticachievementinthesestudentathletes.55
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforWrestling
''Makingweight"isahazardtobothperformanceandhealth.Thereisampleevidencetosuggestthattheweightcyclingassociatedwithmakingweight(i.e.,
weightlosstomakeweightfollowedbyweightrecoveryforperformance)isdangerousandcanleadtoglycogendepletion,alowermusclemass,alowerresting
energyexpenditure,andanincreaseinbodyfat.56Shouldthisoccurwithfrequency,itislikelythatthereductioninrestingenergyexpenditurecouldmakeitmore
difficultfordietaryrestrictiontoachievethedesiredweight,leadingthewrestlertotakemoredraconian(andmoredangerous)measurestoachievethedesiredweight
outcome.Wrestlersandcoachesshouldfollowareasonablemodelforachievingdesiredweight,suchasthatofferedbytheWisconsinInterscholasticAthletic
Association,toavoidhealthandperformancedifficulties.57Thisprogramdevelopsreasonablegoalsforweight,andprovidesnutritioneducationinformationtohelp
wrestlersachievedesiredweightreasonablyandtounderstandtheimplicationsofimproperweightlossmethods.Thebasicmessageoftheseweightachievement
guidelinesisthatacapisplacedonthemaximumamountofweightchangethatcanoccurduringthecourseofaseason,andamonitoringsystemhasbeenaddedto
assurethatsuddenanddramaticweightchangedoesnotoccuratanypointintheseason.
Theanaerobicnatureofwrestlingimpliesahighneedforcarbohydrate.WhilethereisanaerobiccomponenttoOlympicwrestling(matchesmaycontinuefor
fiveminuteswithoutabreak),highschoolwrestlingisprimarilyananaerobicsport(threetwominuteperiods).Thedemandforcarbohydrateinthistypeofactivityis
extremelyhigh,andthereisevidencethatwrestlersperformbetteronhighcarbohydrateintakes.Inadditiontosupplyingadequatecarbohydrate,itisofgreatconcern
thatwrestlerscommonlyresorttodehydrationasameansofachievingdesiredweight.Thereisnothingthatcouldbemoredangerousormoreperformancereducing
thanenteringcompetitioninadehydratedstate.Wrestlersshouldresistgoing
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intoadehydratedstatebecauseofthecleardangers(includingorganfailure,heatstroke,anddeath)associatedwiththisstrategy,andshouldunderstandthatwell
hydratedathletesperformbetterthandehydratedones.
Wrestlersandcoachesshouldbecomebettereducatedonthepotentialhazardsofimpropernutrition.Sportshouldbehealthenhancing.Noamountof
argumentcanconvincemethatitisOKtoplaceayoungathleteinharm'swaytoachieveafalselylowweightgoal,especiallysincetheachievedweighthasnothing
todowiththeweightatwhichthewrestleractuallycompetes.Everyoneinvolvedinthesportshouldendorsethedevelopmentofwidelyacceptedweighttoheight
normsthatcanbeappliedreasonablytowrestlers.Importantly,weightshouldbetakenimmediatelybeforethecompetition,ratherthanatatimethatpermitsdrastic
shiftsineatingbehaviorsthataredangerous.Untiltheruleschange,wrestlersandcoachesshouldallberequiredtounderstandthehazardsassociatedwiththecurrent
"makingweight"procedures.
Summary
Ingeneral,athletesinvolvedinsportsinvolvingpowerandspeedshouldfocusonfoodsthatprovideenoughtotalenergy,primarilyfromcarbohydrates,sothat
sufficientglycogencanbemanufacturedandstoredformuscularwork.Sincephosphocreatineandglycogenaretheprimaryfuelsforhighintensityactivites,there
shouldalsobeenoughprotein(about1.5to2.0gramsperkilogramofbodyweight)toassurethatcreatinecanbesynthesized.Fluidintakeisalsoimportant,since
inadequatefluidintakelimitsglycogenstorageandalsomakesitdifficulttomaintainbodytemperature.Fluidintakealsohelpstomaintainbloodvolume,whichhas
beenfoundtobeacriticallyimportantfactorinperformance.
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10
EnduranceSports
TheTriathleteWhoWantedtoHavethePerfectFood
Severalyearsago,IwasstayingattheDrakehotelinChicagoforanAmericanDietetic
Associationmeeting.Itjustsohappenedthatthemeetingwasscheduledatthesametime
asthefamousChicagoTriathlon.BecausetheDrakehotelwasonthelakefront,itwasthe
centeroftriathlonactivity.Itwasfantastictoseetriathletesthereofallages,all
enthusiasticallypreparingthemselvesfortherace.Thesportsindustrywasinthehotel
ballroomalso,showingoffthelatestinhandlebars,runningsuits,andquicktielaces.
EverywhereIlookedtherewerefolkseatingbananasandPowerbars.Thiswasasports
nutritionist'sfantasyland,onethatwassofascinatingIcouldhardlypullmyselfawaytogo
tomymeetings.
ThemorningbeforethetriathlonIwaswaitinginlinetobeseatedforbreakfastandfound
myselfstandingbehindawonderfullyfitgentlemaninrunningshortsandTshirt.(Ifound
outlaterthattheDrakehotelhadmadeattireexceptionsduringtheperiodoftheraceto
accommodatetheathletes,sohalfofthosewaitingtoeatwereinsuits,andtheotherhalf
werewearingrunninggear.Itmadethoseofusinsuitsfeelabitsilly.)Whentherunnerin
frontofmewasofferedatable,heturnedaroundandaskedifIwouldliketojoinhim.I
didn'thesitateforafractionofasecondandsaid"Yes."
Salwasa71yearoldtriathletefromOregonwhowasbuiltlikearock.You'dbehard
pressedtofindanyonehisagemoretrimandfitthanhewas.Duringourdiscussion,I
askedwhyhedidtriathlons,andhesaidheusedtodomarathonsbutcametofindthem
boring.Helikedthevariety,ebb,andflowofthetriathlon,andhesaiditbettersuitedhis
personality.hedidmentionthatthemarathonalsohadit'sownebbandflow,andthatit
wasreallyseveralracesinone:thebeginning,whereyouestablishyourpaceandposition
themiddle,whereyoutrytoholdyourownandpreservesomeenergyandtheend,
whereyoustrategizeaboutthebestplacetomakeyourmove.Theproblemhehadwith
marathons,withhisincreasingage,wasthathewouldstarttolosehisconcentrationand
thinkaboutwomen,orwherehewasgoingtogotohavedinner.Therejustwasn'tenough
goingonintheracetokeephismindonwherehewasandwhathewassupposedtodo.
Withthetriathlon,however,hedidn'thaveachancetolosehisconcentration.Hesaidhe
wasonlysorryhehadn'tfoundthetriathlonbeforehewas65.Ifhehad,hewouldhave
beenmuchmorecompetitive!
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WhenhefoundoutwhatIdidforalivinghestartedpumpingmeforanswersaboutthe
bestfoodstoeattoprepareforthetriathlon.Itwasclearthathewaswillingtoeatalmost
anythingthathefeltmightgivehimacompetitiveedge,soIwantedtobeclearandcareful
aboutwhatIsaid.Thetriathlonisclearlyanenduranceevent,socarbohydratesarekey.
Butitisalsothreeeventsjoinedinone,withaswimmingportionthat'satleastaquarterof
amile,abicycleracethat'satleast12miles,andarunthat'satleast3.1miles.ThenI
rememberedwhatoneofmycolleagueshadsaidabouteatingforthetriathlon."Thekey,"
hesaid,"isbeans."Beansarehighincarbohydratesbutarealsoagoodsourceofprotein
andothernutrients.Inaddition,theyhavesomebeneficial"sideeffects"forthetriathlon.
Sincetheymakeyouabitbloatedwithgas,beanshelpyoufloatandreducedragforthe
swimmingportion.Forthebikingportion,theyhelpto''propel"youalongtheway,andfor
therunningportionnoonewillruntoocloselybehindyou.Clearly,theperfectfoodforthe
triathlon!WhenIfinisheddescribingtheperfectfood,thinkingthatIhadclearlydonesoin
jest,Salcalledthewaitressoverandaskedforaservingofbeansforbreakfast.Asa71
yearoldathlete,hesaidhe'dtryanything!
Enduranceeventssuchasroadcycling,longdistanceswimming,themarathon,triathlon,and10kilometerrunallrequireahighlevelofenduranceandplacea
relativelylowpremiumonanaerobicpower.Theseareeventsthatforcecompetitorstoperformatthemarginoftheirmaximalaerobiccapabilitiesoverlongdistances.
Astraining,nutrition,andimprovedselectionofathletesinendurancesportsimprove,recordscontinuetofall.Thissuggeststhatdoingtherightthingscanandwill
resultinmovingtheknownenvelopeofspeedinenduranceevents.
ThewinneroftheMarathoneventattheAtlantaOlympicGamesin1996wonwithanaveragerunningpaceofslightlyundera5minutemile.Despitethisincredible
speed,theathletehadtomaintainthispaceatalevelthatallowedasufficientoxygenuptakeandutilizationtosupportprimarily"aerobic"muscularmetabolism.Thatis,
themajorityofallmuscularworktookplacewithfuelbeingburnedinthepresenceofsufficientoxygen.Thisisanefficientwaytoburnmuscularfuel,andallowsthe
athletetoundergomuscularworkforalongtime.
Aerobictrainingdoessomewonderfulthingstotheathlete'sabilitytouseoxygen.Theintermediary(TypeIIA)fibers,whichtendtobehavemorelikefasttwitch
(power)fibersthanslowtwitch(endurance)fibers,developadramaticimprovementinmitochondrialcontentandtheenzymesinvolvedinoxidativemetabolism.
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Thetrainingimpactonoxygenusageiswellknown.Instudieslookingatbloodlactateconcentration,trainedathletesarefarmorecapableoftoleratinghighlevelsof
bloodlactatethanuntrainedsubjectsdoingthesameintensityofwork.
Theconversionofthebehavioroftheintermediaryfibersresultsinanimprovementintheathlete'saerobicendurance.Theincreasedabilitytouseoxygenresultsinan
improvementintheabilitytoburnfatasaprimaryfuel,reducingtherelianceoncarbohydrates.Asyoucanseeintable10.1,athletesinaerobicsportshaveafar
betterabilitytouseoxygenthanathletesinpowersports.
Sinceeventheleanestathleteshaveagreatdealofenergystoredasfat,thisincreasedabilitytoburnfatdramaticallyimprovesendurance.However,since
carbohydrateisneededforthecompletecombustionoffat,carbohydrateisstillthelimitingenergysourceforendurancework,becauseathleteshavearelativelylow
storageofcarbohydrate.Thisisclearlydemonstratedbyfindingsthatathletes
Table10.1OxygenUptakeinOlympicLevelAthletesinSelectedSports
Sport
Crosscountryskiing(male)
84
Crosscountryskiing(female)
65
Runners(male)
80
Runners(female)
58
Speedskaters(male)
77
Speedskaters(female)
54
Cyclists(male)
73
Rowers(male)
62
Weightlifters(male)
55
Sedentary(male)
43
Sedentary(female)
40
AdaptedfromKatch,Katch,andMcArdle1993.
Maximaloxygenuptake(mL/kgperminute)
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consumingahighfatdiethaveamaximalendurancetimeof57minutesonanormalmixeddiettheirendurancerisesto114minutesandonahighcarbohydratediet,
theirmaximalendurancerisesto167minutes.1
ConsiderationsforEnduranceSports
Endurancesportsarethosewherethepredominantformofenergymetabolismisoxidative(ittakesplaceinthepresenceofoxygen).Thisrequiresthattheathlete
havetheabilitytobringinanddeliverenoughoxygentothemusclestosupportthelevelofphysicalworkthatisbeingdone.Endurance(aerobic)workisatan
intensitybelowaperson'smaximalworkcapacity,sinceworkingatamaximalcapacityexceedsaperson'sabilitytobringsufficientoxygenintothesystem.That'swhy
sprinters,whoareworkingatmaximalcapacity,cangoveryfastbutonlyforrelativelyshortdistances.Enduranceathletescan'tgoasfastassprintersbutcangomuch
longerdistancesbecausetheyaremetabolizingenergyusingamuchmorecleanburningandefficientoxidativesystem.Inordertomaintaintheefficiencyoftheir
systems,enduranceathletesneedtokeepinmindcertainconsiderations,includingovertraining,overuseinjury,anddietaryadequacy.
Overtraining
Irecentlyreceivedanemailfromaworldclassrunnerwhowrote:
I'vejustcomeoffthreeweeksofparticularlyintensetraining.Iwent"hard"fourdaysaweek.IhaveplateauedandamnowrestingtoallowmybodytoabsorballthegoodworkI
didbutamstillfeelingalittlebitlethargic.Isleepwellbutdon'tfeelrested.MycoachisconcernedthatImayhavebecomeanemic.Asyouknow,mynutritionalanalysishas
alwayscomeupgood.ShouldIgetsomebloodtests?Takeiron?Takesomethingelse?I'mworried.
Thesesignsaretypicalofsomeonewho"overtrained"andisnowsufferingtheconsequences.Overtraininghassomewellestablishedwarningsigns,including
increasedmusclesoreness,delayofmuscularrecovery,inabilitytoperformattheprevioustrainingload,poorqualitysleep,decreasedvigor,swellingoflymphnodes,
highillness
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frequency,andlossofappetite.Manyofthesesignsarearesultofworkingatalevelharderthanthebody'scapacitytorecoverfromit.Overtrainingrarelyleadstoan
improvementinperformance,and,infact,commonlyreducesperformancebecauseitultimatelyincreasesthelikelihoodthattheathletewillbecomesickorinjured.
Overtrainingisaproblemformanyathletes(10to20percentofthosewhotrainintensively)andappearstobeaconditionthatisrelativelycommoninendurance
athletes.Amongotherfactorsthatmayincreasetheriskofdevelopingovertrainingsyndrome,apoorintakeofcarbohydratesandfluidsisknowntobeaproblem.2
Overtrainingsyndromeisanuntreatedexcessivetrainingoverloadwithinadequaterestthatresultsinchronicdecreasesinperformanceandtheabilitytotrain.Other
problemsmayresultandmayrequiremedicalattention.Factorsassociatedwiththedevelopmentofovertrainingsyndromeinclude
frequentcompetition,particularlyifitinvolvesqualityefforts
monotonoustrainingwithinsufficientrest
preexistingmedicalconditions(e.g.,coldsorallergies)
poordiet,particularlyinadequateintakeofcarbohydrates,ordehydration
environmentalstress(e.g.,altitude,hightemperatures,andhumidity)and
psychosocialstressors(e.g.,workorschoolconflicts).
AccordingtotheAmericanCollegeofSportsMedicine,overtrainingsyndromecanbeeffectivelyeliminatedthroughalogicaltrainingprogramthatallowsforadequate
restandrecoverywithpropernutritionandhydration.3Studiesofmarathonrunnerssuggestthat,afterrunningamarathon,evenathleteswhoconsumea
highcarbohydratediettakesevendaystoreturnmuscleglycogentopreracelevels.4Acontinuationofregulartrainingpriortofullmuscleglycogenresynthesiswill
inevitablyleadtoadegradationofperformance.Athletes,therefore,needtounderstandthatrestafteraparticularlyhardandintensivesessionisbest.Forathletes
whofearthatareductionintrainingmaycauseadiminutionofcompetitiveness,gettingsufficientrestmaynotbeeasy.Therefore,itisrecommendedthatthose
workingwithathleteshelpthemunderstandthatovertrainingisassociatedwithareductioninperformance,sorestandrecoveryshouldbeanintegralpartofthe
trainingplan.
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OveruseInjury
Overuseinjuriesoccurwhenanathleterepeatsthesamephysicaltaskoverandoveragain.Init'ssimplestandmostbenignform,youcouldconsiderablistercaused
bytherubbingofarunningshoeanoveruseinjury.Inamoreseriousform,theconstantpoundingoflegsonhardpavementcausesbonestovibrateinspecificareas,
and,withenoughvibrationalstress,thebonecandevelopapainfulcrackcalledastressfracture.Thisisanalogoustotakingawireclotheshangerandbendingit
repeatedlyinthesameplace.Afterawhile,thehangerdevelopsacrackandeventuallybreaks.Becauseenduranceathletesspendsomanyhourstraining,overuse
injuryisarealconcern.
Inonestudy,triathletesdevelopedskeletalinjuryearlyinthecompetition,whichbecameworseasthecompetitionprogressed.Theseinjuriestomusclesappearto
altertheuseofenergysubstratesasthetriathlonprogressesandasthebodyhealstheinjuriesfollowingthecompetition.5However,whileproteinbreakdownand
musculardamageoccurduringarace,thewelltrainedathleteshould
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6
experiencenoalterationinfitnessprovidednutritionalstatusismaintained. Thisisbecauseadequatelynourishedathleteshaveabettercapacitytohealtheminortissue
damagethatoccursduringtrainingandcompetition.Inaddition,athleteswhocanmaintaincarbohydrateandfluidlevelsduringexercisearelikelytohavebetterbrain
function,andthistranslatesintoasmootherrunningstylethatislesspronetoinjurydevelopment.Lossofmentalcapacity,whichcaneasilyoccurwitheithera
carbohydrateorfluidstorage,causesabreakdownincoordinationthatcanincreasestructuralstressesthatleadtoinjury.
DietaryAdequacy
Sinceitiswellestablishedthatlowglycogenstoresreducethetimeanathleteisabletoexercise,athletesshouldregularlyconsumecarbohydratetomaintainorreplace
theirlimitedglycogenstores.7Thisrequiresacarbohydrateintakeofbetween7to10gramsperkilogramofbodyweightperday.Asyoucanseefromtable10.2,
evenfor100poundathletes,thisrepresentsasubstantialamountofcaloriesfromcarbohydrate.
Thetimethatenduranceathletesconsumefoodisalsoimportantandmayimpactonglycogenstorageandresynthesis.Inastudyofhighlytrainedmalecrosscountry
runners,itwasfoundthatfoodintakewasadequateandwelltimedexceptfortheperiodfollowingcompetition.Whileitisrecommendedthatenduranceathletes
consumecarbohydratesimmediatelyfollowingcompetitiontoencouragerestorationofglycogenstores,theseathletesdelayedeatingcarbohydratefoodsuntil,on
average,2.5hoursfollowingcompetition.8Thisdelaycausedpoorglycogenreplacement,andsubsequentdaysofexercisehadthenegativeeffectofreduced
endurance.Inanotherstudyofmarathonrunners,itwasfoundthatasignificant
Table10.2EnergyIntakeforEnduranceAthletes
Perpoundofbodyweight
perday
Caloriesperdayfor
100lbathlete
Caloriesper
dayfor200lb
athlete
Carbohydrate
3.2to4.5grams
1,2801,800
2,5603,600
Protein
0.7to0.9grams
280360
560720
Fat
0.35to0.6grams
312540
623864
2,8083,888
1,8722,700
3,7435,184
Energysubstrate
Totalcaloriesperday
Fatvaluesbasedon20percentoftotalcaloricintake.
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9
proportionoftotalenergyintakeoccursafter4:00P.M.,ratherthanearlierinthedaywhenit'sneededthemost. Thisisclearlyamissedopportunity,sincetrained
enduranceathleteshaveanimprovedabilityonethat'sbeenproventostoremuscleglycogenifcarbohydratesareprovidedafterexercise.10,11
Thereisnosubstituteforconsumingsufficientenergyandcarbohydratesforenduranceevents.Supplementsdonotappeartowork,andsubstancesadvertisedas
ergogenicaidsdonotappeartowork.Thekeyistoeatenoughandtoeatitontime.Further,thereissomeevidencethatenduranceathletesstarttofocusonnutrition
severaldaystooneweekpriortoamajorcompetition.12Thisisclearlyastrategythatinhibitsdevelopmentofoptimalnutritionalstatus,andmayplacetheathleteat
riskfornutritionalweaknesses.
Enduranceathletes,becauseofthetimespenttrainingandcompeting,mayhavetofindstrategiesforprovidingenergyandnutrientsduringtheactivity.Thisisnot
easy,sinceprovidingthewrongfoodsortherightfoodsatthewrongtimemaynotbewelltolerated.Addtothisthenervousstomachmanyathletesgetjustbeforea
race,anditmakestakinginnutrientsdifficult.Thepointisthat,ifpossible,enduranceathletesshouldtrysportsbeverages,carbohydrategels,andanyothersourceof
energyandnutrientsthatmightbewelltolerated,becauseitislikelythattheyneedtheenergy.
Whileeachtypeofracealtersslightlytheproportionofcarbohydrateandfatthatisburnedasfuel(moreintensity=proportionatelymorecarbohydratelower
intensity=proportionatelymorefat),it'sthecarbohydratelevelthatwillultimatelydetermineiftheathletewill"hitthewall."Thatis,whenthecarbohydratetankis
empty,theathletewillstop.Sincesomuchtimeisspentracing,everyavailableopportunitymustbecapitalizedontoassurethattheathletehasenoughfoodenergyto
continuetheraceandtostoreenoughenergy(glycogen)todowellduringthenextdayofracing.
Ingeneral,athletesshouldconsiderdoingwhateverisnecessarytotakeinsufficientenergyandnutrients(bringingBaggiesfilledwithfoodtomeetings,eatingwhile
walkingtoclass,snackingwhilegoingtothecar),orallthatgoodtrainingwillbewasted.Eatingonafrequentscheduleisimportantforanotherreason.Athleteswho
donoteatfrequentlybecomefatiguedorinjuredmoreeasilymakingthempronetoproductssoldby"snakeoil"salesmen.Thereisnodoubtwhatsoeverthatmuchof
theattentiongiventoergogenicaidsandnutrientsupplementsbyathletes,whetherthey'recyclists,runners,orswimmers,istoovercomeafailuretohaveplannedto
eatenoughandtoeatontime.
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Maintaininghydrationstatusisimportantforoperatingatoptimalphysiologicallevelsofefficiency.Enduranceathletesshouldpracticeconsumingfluidsfrequently,even
intheabsenceofthirst,toreducethechanceofdehydration.Consumptionofacarbohydratecontainingbeveragewithsmallamountsofsodiumisusefulinfluid
absorptionandinmaintainingthedrivetodrink.
NutrientSupplementation
Thereisampleevidencethatathleteswhodoconsumeahighcarbohydratedietthatprovidesanadequatetotalenergylevelarealsolikelytoobtainsufficientamounts
ofothernutrients,includingvitaminC,thiamin,riboflavin,niacin,calcium,magnesium,andiron.13Thereisnoreason,therefore,tobelievethatadiethighincomplex
carbohydrateswillleadtonutrientdeficiencies.Thesefindingscertainlyplaceindoubtthenecessityforsupplementusage,whichiscommonamongenduranceathletes.
Onestudyfoundthatsupplementusage(especiallyvitaminsCandE,calcium,andzinc)wascommoninmarathonrunners.Fortyeightpercentoftherunners
questionedreportedusingatleastonesupplementwithinthethreedayperiodsurroundingtheLosAngelesMarathon.14Otherstudiesconfirmthatnonsupplemented
marathonrunners,soccerplayers,wrestlers,andbasketballplayershaveadequateserumconcentrationsofvitaminCandvitaminB6,sosupplementationofthese
vitaminsdoesnotappeartobewarranted.15,16Inastudyevaluatingtheeffectivenessofmagnesiumsupplementationonmarathonrunners,itwasfoundthatthe
supplementationdidnotimproveresistancetomuscledamageduringtherace,didnotenhancemusclerecoveryfollowingtherace,anddidnotimproverunning
performance.17
Malemarathonrunnerswereevaluatedtodetermineiftheconsumptionofacommercialergogenicaidsupplementcontainingvitamins,minerals,aminoacids,and
unsaturatedfattyacidsinacomplexwasusefulinimprovingperformance.Theresultsindicatethattheergogenicaidhadnoeffectonimprovementsinoxygen
consumptionoranyotherimportantmetabolicorphysiologicalparameterthatmightbeusefultoenduranceathletes.18
VitaminEmaybeanimportantexceptionregardingitsprovisionasasupplementforenduranceathletes.SincevitaminEisafatsolublevitaminand,therefore,
deliveredinfats(particularlyvegetableoils),itispossiblethattheneedforthisimportantantioxidantmayexceeditsusualprovisionbecausethedietaryfocusofendur
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anceathletesiscarbohydrates.Theendurancesportscombinationofhighoxidativework,whichbrings10to15timesmoreoxygenintoworkingmusclecells,and
lowfatintakemaylimitthedeliveryofsufficientvitaminEtothecellsandpredisposethesecellstooxidativedamage.Thisexerciseinducedincreaseinfreeradicals
(causedbytheoxidativedamageofpolyunsaturatedfatsincellstoproduceperoxide)hasbeendocumented,suggestingthatmoreantioxidantsareneeded.19While
supplementinganimalswithvitaminEhasshownareductioninoxidativestress,therearenogoodstudiestosupporttheideathatthisalsohappensinexercising
humans.20Inanotherstudy,ontheotherhand,therewasnoevidenceofoxidativestressafteratriathlonraceinhighlytrainedcompetitors.21However,sinceoxidative
stressisinvolvedinnumerousdiseasestates,itseemsreasonabletosuggestthatenduranceathletesshouldconsidersupplementingwith300to400milligramsof
vitaminEperday.Thislevelhasbeentestedwithathletesandappearstobewelltoleratedwithnoundesirablesideeffects.22Thisstrategyismeantasasecurity
blanketonly,sincethereisnoapparentdeficiencyofvitaminE,butonlyasuggestionthatoxidativestressmayexistandmaybemediatedsomewhatwithmorevitamin
Einthesystem.
ConcernsforFemaleEnduranceAthletes
Femaleenduranceathletesmustconsumesufficientenergyandnutrientstoavoidamenorrhea.Therearemanyreasonsforamenorrhea(cessationofregularmenstrual
periods),includinghighphysicalstress,highpsychologicalstress,inadequateenergyintake,poorironstatus,highcortisollevels,andlowbodyfatlevels.Itis
conceivablethatfemaleenduranceathleteshaveallofthesefactorsworkingagainstthem.Whilesomeofthesefactorsareclearlyoutofawoman'scontrol,food
intakeisnotoneofthose.Femaleathletesshoulddowhateveriswithintheirmeanstoconsumesufficienttotalenergythatishighincarbohydratesandprovidesallthe
nutrientsneededforgoodhealth.Amenorrheaisstronglyassociatedwithalossinbonedensityandanincreaseinstressfracturerisk.Inaddition,thisplacestheathlete
atincreasedriskforearlyosteoporosis.
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DistanceRunning
Distancerunningiscommonlythoughtofasanydistancethatis10,000meters(6.2miles)orlonger.Togothesedistances,runnersplaceapremiumonstayinginan
aerobicmetabolicpathwayduringthemajorityoftherun.Thismeansthatfatscontributetoasignificantproportionoftotalenergyused,limitingthedependenceon
carbohydrate.Sincecarbohydratestorageislimitedbutfatstorage,fromapracticalstandpoint,islimitless,fatstorageenableslongdistancerunnerstogoverylong
distancesprovidedtheystayaerobic.Thisisconfirmedbyarecentstudythatfoundthatonly2to7percentofthetotalenergyburnedinaerobicactivitywasderived
anaerobically.23However,carbohydratestorageisstillthekeytoperformancebecausewhenthecarbohydraterunsout,thefatsarenolongerefficientlyburnedasa
fuel.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforDistanceRunners
Amenorrhea,lowbonedensity,andstressfracturesarerisks.Thedistancesthatlongdistancerunnersrunweeklytotrainmaypredisposethemtostress
fractures,despiteencouraginganincreasedbonemassfromthestressesplacedontheskeleton.24Whilestressfracturesoccurmorefrequentlyinwomenrunnersthan
inmen(reduced
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estrogeninfemaleathletesnegativelyimpactsonbonedensity),allrunnersshouldassurethattheircalciumintakeisadequatetoreducetheriskoffracture.Thereisa
clearrelationshipbetweenamenorrheaandlowerbonedensity,soamenorrheicrunnersshouldseektheadviceofaphysiciantodetermineifthereareother
reasonablestepsthatcanbetakentoreducetheriskofstressfractures.25
Longdistancerunnersappeartohittheirpeakatanagethatisconsiderablyolderthanathletesinothersports.Forwomen,thismaybearealconcerniftherunningis
accompaniedwithamenorrhea(andassociatedwithlowestrogenlevels),whichcouldleadtoalonglastingbonediseasethathaslifelongimplications.Careshouldbe
takentoreducetheriskofosteoporosis,especiallyifthereislonglastingamenorrhea.Toreducetherisk,femaleathletesshoulddothefollowing:
Consumecalcium(1,500mg/day)fromfood,oracombinationoffoodandsupplements.
Avoidoverconsumptionofproteinasexcessproteinconsumptionisassociatedwithhigherurinarycalciumlosses.
Controltheproductionofstresshormones(particularlycortisol),bymaintaininghydrationandbloodsugarduringexercise.
Avoidovertraining,whichisassociatedwithamenorrhea.
Inadequateenergyintakeisaredflagthatnutrientintakemayalsobelow.Inastudycomparingthenutrientintakesoftrainedfemalerunnerswhoeitherwerenot
menstruatingornotmenstruatingnormally,itwasfoundthattherewereclearnutritionaldifferencesbetweenthesegroups,despitebeingmatchedonheight,weight,
trainingdistance,andbodyfatpercent.26Therunnerswhowerenotmenstruatinghadzincintakeswellbelowtherecommendedlevelofintakeandlowerthanthose
foundintherunnerswhohadnormalmenses.Inaddition,therunnerswhohadnormalmenseshadhigherintakesoffat.Itappearsthathigherfatintakeswere
associatedwithmoreadequatetotalenergyconsumption.Thissuggeststhathighcarbohydratediets,whicharepreferredforoptimalperformance,makeitmore
difficulttoconsumetheneededlevelofenergybecausecarbohydrateshavealowercaloricdensitythanhighfatfoods.Therefore,athletesneedtoconcentrateon
consumingmorefoodwhencarbohydratesconstitutethemainenergysource.Sincefailuretomenstruatenormallyisastrongriskfactorinthedevelopmentofweaker
bonesandresultingstressfractures,femalerunnershave
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goodcausetobefullyawareoftheadequacyoftheirenergyandnutrientintakes.Thereisalmostnoinjurythatismorefrustratingorcareerendingthanthe
developmentoffrequentstressfractures.
Enormousamountsofenergyareneeded.Itmaybehardtoimaginethatpeoplewhoareso''thin"needsomuchenergy.Infact,longdistancerunnersburnso
muchenergythattheyfinditdifficulttoreplacealltheyneed.Consuminglotsofsnacksbetweenmeals,eatingbefore,during,andafterpractice(andcompetitions),
andhavinggoodmealsthatarehighincarbohydrates,moderateinprotein,andlowinfatisimportant.
Taperingactivitypriortoacompetitionworksinimprovingcompetitionperformance.27Itdoessobyimprovingglycogenstores,butitalsohelpstomaketherunner
calmer,whichgivestherunneranimprovedeconomyofrunningmotionthatimprovesendurance.Theimportanceoftaperingexerciseandcarbohydrateloadingprior
toanimportanteventcannotbeoveremphasized.
Mostsurveysofdistancerunnersconfirmthattotalenergyandcarbohydrateintakearebelowtherecommendedlevels,suggestingthatrunnersmustmakeaconcerted
efforttoconsumetherecommendedamountsbefore,during,andafterexercise.28,29Inacasestudyassessingthenutrientintakeofanultraendurancerunnerduringa
race,itwasfoundthatifthepreeventandduringeventguidelinesforfoodandbeveragearefollowed,thenathleteswillhavesufficientenergyandfluidsto
successfullycompletetheevent.30
Fluidsarecrucial.Fluidconsumptionshouldbeonafixedtimeschedule(every10to15minutes)toavoidunderhydrationandthirst.Theremaybenosinglething
thatismoreimportantforassuringalongdistancerunner'ssuccess.Drinknow,drinkagainin15minutes,andwhenyouthinkyou'vehadenough,drinksomemore.
Sufficientfluidintakeiscriticalinendurancerunningsinceagreatdealofbodyheatisgeneratedoveralongperiodoftime,andthisheatisliberatedthroughsweat
evaporation.Manystudiesstronglysuggestthat7percentcarbohydratesolutionswithelectrolytesareeffectiveasbothwaterreplacementandenergyreplacement
beverages.31Longdistancerunnersshoulddevelopthehabitoffrequentfluidconsumptiontomaintainwaterstatus,whethertheyarethirstyornot.Ithasbeenfound
thatafluidintakeof0.5to1literperhourissufficienttopreventsignificantdehydrationinmostathletesin
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mildenvironmentalconditions,butagreaterintakeoffluidsisneededforathletesrunningathigherintensitiesorinmoresevereenvironmentalconditionsinorderto
avoidheatstress.32
Distancerunnerstypicallycarryverylowbodyfat.Successfullongdistancerunnerscommonlylook"thin,"andthisbodyprofilemaybeadvantageoustothemin
dissipatingheatduringlongruns.33Maintainingarelativelylowbodyfatpercentagemaythusbedesirableinlongdistancerunning,sincethatwouldcontributetoa
smallerbodymassandalso,byitself,improveheatdissipation.However,sinceverylowbodyfatlevelsareassociatedwithamenorrhea,femaleathletesshouldseeka
balancebetweenlowbodyfatlevelsandnormalhormonefunction.
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Triathlon
Muscularbalanceintheupperandlowerbodyisimportanttosuccessfultriathletes,becausethethreeeventseachhaveadifferentmuscularfocus.Sinceallthemajor
musclesareputtothetestintriathlons,theseathletesmustconsumeenoughtotalenergytoassurethatthefuelcapacityforeachworkingmusclestartsoutfull.
Swimmers,forinstance,haveamuchhigherupperbodystrengthrequirementthancyclists.34Triathletes,however,needstrengthinallthemuscles.Interestingly
enough,itmaybethisgeneralrequirementforuseofallthemusclesthatmakesthetriathlonasportwithnopreferenceforauniquebodytypeorshape.35Itlookslike
anyonewho'swillingtotrainreallyhardcandoit.
Triathlonshavedifferentlengths,dependingonthelocationandsponsor.AnOlympicDistanceTriathlonconsistsofa1.5kilometerswim,a40kilometercycle,anda
10kilometerrun.ThemostwellknownIronmancompetitioninHawaiiincludesa2.4mileswim,a112milebikerun,anda26mile,385yardrun.Arecentsurvey
oflowerleveltriathletesindicatedthateventheyhaveaverageweeklytrainingloadsthatwouldmakemostmeremortalswanttocry.This
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surveydemonstratedthattheaverageswimmingdistanceperweekforthesetriathleteswas8.8kilometers,thecyclingdistancewas270kilometers,andtherunning
distancewas58.2kilometers.36Allthistrainingmakesyouwonderiftheseathletesevertaketimetorest.Infact,studieshaveshownthattriathleteswoulddowellto
taperdowntheiractivitypriortoacompetition.Onestudyshowedastatisticallysignificantimprovementinperformancevaluesthatwerewellabovetheirpretaper
traininglevelwhentriathletesreducedthetotaltimespenttrainingpriortoacompetition.37
Differentsportsapparentlyinduceathletestoconsumedifferentfoodsand,therefore,takeindifferentlevelsofnutrients.Calciumintakeappearstobelowerin
triathletesthaninathletesparticipatinginteamsportssuchasvolleyballandbasketball.OfalltheathletessurveyedinalargeFrenchstudywith10,373subjects,
calciumintakeswerebelowtherecommendedlevelforthetriathletes,andfemaleshadlowercalciumintakesthanmales.38Thisisbadnewsforathleteswhoplaceso
muchrepetitivestressontheskeleton,anditmayplacethematincreasedriskforstressfractures.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforTriathletes
Maintenanceofnormalhydration.Theremaybenomoreimportantperformancerelatedfactorfortriathletesthantocreateastrategyformaintaininghydration
stateduringthisgruelingevent.Triathletesneedtofindasportsbeveragethatiswelltoleratedanddevelopadrinkingschedulethat,attheendofthecompetition,
resultsinthesmallestpossibleweightloss.Drinkingenough(typicallybetween.25to.5litersevery15minutes)toavoidanylevelofunderhydrationisprobablythe
bestergogenicthingatriathletecando.
Therehasbeensomeconcernthattriathletes,whowearawetsuitduringtheswimmingphaseofthetriathlon,whenthewatertemperatureisrelativelywarm,may
predisposethemselvestoheatstressduringthecyclingandrunningportionsoftherace.Inastudyevaluatingthisissue,wearingawetsuitdidnotadverselyimpacton
theathlete'ssubsequentbodytemperatureduringthecyclingandrunningstates,providedthattheathletemaintainedagoodhydrationstate.39Theimportanceofgood
hydrationasitrelatestotriathlonperformanceisthethemeofnumerousstudies,allofwhichstatethatitisoneoftwokeystoasuccessfulrace(theotherbeing
maintenanceofcarbohydratestores).Italsoappearsthattriathletesaretypicallyunsuccessfulatmaintaininggoodhydrationduringacompetition,withawaterrelated
bodyweightlossthatcommonlyexceeds4
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40
percent. Italsoappearsthattriathletesmaybepredisposedtohyponatremia(lowbloodsodiumlevel),whichisaresultofusingreplacementfluidsthatcontainno
electrolytes.41,42Thelevelsofthewaterlossandthehyponatremiaarebothfactorsthatcanclearlyimpactonperformance,whichunderlinestheimportancethat
triathletesshouldgivetoproperfluidreplacementduringtrainingandduringanevent.Thefocusonproperfluidreplacementisimportant,sincetherearepublished
casesofGIdistressintriathleteswhoconsumedfluidsthatweretooconcentratedwithcarbohydrateand/orelectrolytes.43
Consumptionofsufficientenergy.Theenergyrequirementforcarbohydrateinthetriathleteexceedsthebody'sabilitytostoreit.Therefore,triathletesshould
developastrategyforadequateconsumptionofcarbohydrateenergyduringarace(typically1to1.5gramsofcarbohydrateperkilogramofbodyweightperhour).44
Todothis,theathleteshouldfindsportsbeveragesthatcontaincarbohydrateinaformandconcentrationthatarewelltolerated.Sometriathleteshavefoundthatthe
consumptionofcarbohydrategels,bananas,orcrackerscanbeconsumedduringthecycleportionoftherace(takenwithawaterchaser).Ifthisistolerated,itisan
excellentwaytoboostthecarbohydratefuellevelinthebodybeforethebeginningoftherunningportionoftherace.
Itisclearthatnutritioninterventionsthatprovidemorefluidsandcarbohydratestotriathleteswork.Followingsuchanintervention,triathleteswereabletoconsumea
levelofenergyandnutrientsthatwasclosertotheirrequirementthanbeforetheintervention,andthisimprovementledtoanimprovementinenduranceperformance.45
Riskofovertraining.Gettingsufficientrestandtaperingexercisepriortoaracehavebeenshowntobetwoofthebesttrainingstrategiesatriathletecanfollow.By
contrast,triathleteswhoincreasethetrainingfrequencypriortoanimportantracearenotlikelytodotheirbest.Sufficientrestisjustasimportantassufficienttraining
todowell.
Planningamealschedule.Thetriathlonincludesdifferentdistances,dependingonwhetherit'sasprint,theOlympicdistance,alongcourse,ortheironman.The
sprintcantakeaslittleas45minutestocomplete,andtheironmanoftentakeslongerthaneighthours.Regardlessofthecompetitiondistance,triathletestrainhard
andtheyfindthemselvesjugglingtheirtrainingwithworkorschool.Eatinganddrinkingoftentakesabackseattoalltheotherdemandsoflife,yettheyarecritically
importanttothesuccessanathletecan
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realize.Theonlysolutionistositdownandmakeaschedulethatincludesworking,training,eating,resting,anddrinking.Treatthemallashavingequalimportance.
Many(ifnotmost)triathleteshavemorethanoneworkouteachday,andsomeraceweeklyorbimonthly.Thisplacesatremendousenergyrequirementontheathlete
thatiscommonlynotmet.Themoretimeanathletetakestotrain,thelesstimethereistoeat,sothereisanaturalconflictbetweentheincreasedrequirementfor
energyandthereducedtimetosupplywhatisneeded.Thisproblemmakesaclearcaseforplanningtimeforeatingasmuchasplanningtimefortraining.Ifan
athlete'straininghasafixedschedule(itusuallydoes)buttheeatingdoesn't,theathletewillsuffer.
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LongDistanceSwimming
Distanceswimmersareuniquefolks,becausetheymustspendsomuchtimeinthewatertorealizeincrementallyminisculeimprovementsintime.Akeyto
performanceappearstobetheswimmer'scapacitytogofasterwithoutincreasingbloodlactatelevels,ortogofasterwhileutilizingalowerpercentageoftheir
maximalaerobiccapacity.46Thismeanstheswimmerisworkingharderbutstillabletomaintainapredominantlyaerobic(oxidative)metabolicpathway.Thistranslates
intoterrificaerobicfitnessandtheabilitytomaintainenoughglycogenandoxygeninthesystemtoassureandefficientenergyburn.Maintaininglowerbloodlactate
concentrationsmayalsobeafunctionofmaintainingasufficientbloodvolume(lactateinalargervolume=lowerlactateconcentration).Thisis,ofcourse,largely
dependentonadequatehydrationandagoodelectrolytestatus(sodiumhelpsmaintainbloodvolume).
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforDistanceSwimmers
Lowerbonedensities.Swimmers,whencomparedtootherathletes,appeartohavelowerbonedensities.47Thereasonforthisiseasytounderstand,sincethe
impactstressofbeinginwaterislessthanthatofthumpingyourlegsonhardground.However,itmayalsobe
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relatedtospendingmanyhoursdoinglapsinanindoorpoolwhileotherathletesarerunningoutside,wheretheycanincreasetheirexposuretosunlightand
manufacturemorevitaminD.ThevitaminDdifferencemaybeenoughtoinfluencebonedevelopment.Ofcourse,forthoselongdistanceswimmersluckyenoughto
liveinareaswarmenoughforoutdoorpools,thisisnotanissue.However,thereisonestudysuggestingthatswimmers,particularlyfemaleswimmers,maynot
consumesufficientcalcium,afactorthatcouldclearlycontributetolowerbonemineraldensity.48Clearly,havingsufficientcalcium(1,500milligrams/day)iscriticalto
maintainingstrongbones,butswimmersshouldalsomakeanefforttospendsometimeoutsidetoassureanadequatevitaminDsynthesis.
Replacementoffluids.Themainfocusforswimmersinvolvedinanalldaymeet(whichitusuallyis!)isthereplacementofadequatefluidstomaintainbloodvolume
andtoprovideaconstantsourceofcarbohydrate.It'shardtoimaginethatbeinginallthatwatercouldleadtodehydration,butfailuretodrinksufficientfluidscanbea
seriousperformancedetriment.
Consumptionofcarbohydratesduringlongcompetitions.Haveasnackingplanforcompetitionssoyoudon'tgethungry.Thesecompetitionscanlastalong
time,andtheymaymakeyouseriouslyhungrybythetimeyou'rereadytogetinthewater.Inanenduranceevent,youdon'twanttostartbybeinghungry!Sipon
sportsbeveragesandsnackoncrackersandothersimplecarbohydrate(mainlystarchy)foodstogetaconstanttrickleofcarbohydratesintothesystem.Thatway
you'llstarttheeventbeingfullyenergized.
Eatenoughtosupporttheactivity.Swimminglongdistancesusesatremendousamountofenergy,somakecertainenoughfoodisconsumedtomaintainweight
ortoincreaseweightifyou'retryingtobuildmuscle.Swimmersoftencomplainthattheycan'tkeeptheirweightsupduringthelongswimcompetitionseason,andthat
meansthey'reburningmuscletomeettheirneeds.
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Cycling
Thereareanumberofenduranceeventsthattakeplaceoverseveraldaysofcompetition.TheTourdeFrancecycleraceisnotableforitsextremeendurance
demandsonparticipatingathletes,andeachstageoftheraceplacesdifferentphysiologicaldemandsonthecyclist.Theypedalapproximately4,000kilometersover
threeweekswithonlyasingledayofrestallowed!Theenergyexpenditurerangesarethehighestvaluesthathaveeverbeenreportedforathletesoveraperiodlonger
thansevendays.49Theyconsumeapproximately62percentoftheirenergyfromcarbohydrates,15percentfromprotein,and23percentfromfat.Over49percentof
totalenergyconsumptiontakesplacebetweenmeals.Somedayshavelonghardhills,whileotherdayshaveroadsthataremorelevel.StudiesofTourdeFrance
cyclistsindicatethattheyconsumeapproximately30percentoftheirtotaldailyenergyintakeintheformofaliquidcarbohydrateenrichedbeverage.50Sincesomuch
timeduringthedayisspentonthebike,theremaybenootherwaytoadequatelyconsumesufficientenergy.
Instudiesofathletesatthe1996OlympicGamesinAtlanta,U.S.athletesparticipatingincyclingandmountainbikinghadthehighestprevalence(45percent)of
havingbeentoldthattheyhadasthma.51Bycontrast,20percentofthetotalU.S.athletesreportedtheyactually
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hadasthma.Thissuggeststhatasthmamaybeacontributingfactorindeterminingthesportanathleteselectstoparticipatein.Itispossible,forsomeathletes,that
asthmamightbetriggeredbyanallergicresponse,andthiscouldbeanallergicresponsetofood.Cyclistswithasthmashouldbeextremelycarefulaboutavoiding
foodsorothersubstancesthatcouldtriggeranasthmaticresponse.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforCyclists
Recoveringfrommultidayevents.Theenergycostofmultidaycyclingeventsisenormous,anditmaybethemealplanningoftheathlete'steamthatmakesthe
differencebetweenwinningandlosing.Thereisaclearrequirementforcarbohydrate,andthisconflictswiththehugerequirementforenergybecausecarbohydrate
foodshavealowenergydensity.(Bycontrast,fatshaveahighenergydensitybutarenotneededtothedegreethatcarbohydratesare.)Therefore,carbohydrates
shouldbeconsumedinlargequantitiesandfrequently,andthefocusshouldbeonstarchycarbohydrates(pasta,bread,rice,potatoes,etc.)
Consumptionoffoodandfluidduringlongrides.Cyclistshaveanadvantageoverotherenduranceathletesinthattheycaneasilycarryfluidsandfoodsonthe
bikeframeorinjerseypockets.Sincethereislessbouncingwhileridingthanwhilerunning,cyclistscanusuallyconsumesomesolidfoodswithoutexperiencingGI
distress.Cyclistsshouldtakeadvantageofthisonlongridesbybringingalongsportbeveragestodrinkandsomecrackers,bananas,carbohydrategel,orbreadto
eat.Thesehighcarbohydratefoodsshouldbewelltoleratedandcansignificantlyboostthecarbohydratedeliverytoworkingmuscles.
Trainingisverytimeandenergyconsuming.Thelongerathletestrain,themoreenergytheyneed,butthelesstimetheyhavetoconsumeit.Therefore,cyclists
shouldconsiderthetrainingperiodasatimetotakeinaproportionoftheirdailycaloricrequirements.Todothis,cyclistsshouldfindfoodsthatarewelltolerated,
suchasbananasandcrackers,andbringthemalongduringtheride.Sportsbeveragesarealsoanimportantsourceofenergy,sotheseshouldbeconsumedinsteadof
plainwaterasarehydrationbeverage.Afailuretoeatduringtrainingwillinevitablyleadtoaninadequatetotalenergyconsumptionandadecreaseinperformance.
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Summary
Enduranceathletesspendmanyhourstrainingandhaveenormousenergyneeds.However,thesetrainingtimesmakeitdifficulttoconsumetheneededfoods.Athletes
shouldplanmultipleeatingbreaksthroughouttheday(somethinghighincarbohydratetoconsumeeverythreehours)toassureanadequatetotalenergyconsumption.
Fluidintakeisalsocriticallyimportant,andenduranceathletesshoulddevelopthehabitofdrinkingfrequently(every10to15minutes)regardlessofthirst.Thereisa
largebodyofevidencethatsuggestslowerlevelsofeithercarbohydratesorfluidsinhibitendurance.
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11
CombinedPowerandEnduranceSports
TraditionDoesn'tAlwaysWin
Severalyearsago,theuniversityIworkedathiredatopnotch,experiencedcoachforour
basketballteam.Hedidwondersinrecruitment,andhispracticeswere,fromwhatI
heard,characterbuildingexperiences.Theteamwentwellbeyounditsexpectationsduring
thefirstyear,chalkingupthebestseasoninthehistoryoftheuniversity.Allthiswas
accomplisheddespiteateamthatwas,essentially,inheritedfromearlierrecruitmentefforts.
Atthebeginningofthenextseason,disasterloomedahead.Severaloftheplayerswere
ineligiblebecauseofacademicdifficulties,acoupleofrecruitsweretransferswhocouldn't
playrightawaybecauseofNCAArules,andthestarguardbrokehisfootduringthefirst
gameoftheseason.Putsimply,duetofactorswelloutofthecoach'scontrol,thebench
wasthinverythin.
ThereisnoeasygameinNCAADivisionIbasketball,andI'veyettoseeagamebetween
DivisionIteamswhereoneteamhastrulycoasted.Itdoesn'tmatterifit'sapreseason
game,anoutofdivisiongame,ora''HolidayClassic,"theseteamsplaytowin.Froma
physiologicalstandpoint,it'sdifficulttoimagineanyonewhocouldstandtherigorsofan
entiregameplayedatthepacetheseathletesplay.Basketballisasportthatcombines
powerandendurance,andit'sallout,befasterthanyouropponentoryoulosegame.
Whenabenchisthin,itforcesthosewhodoplayintoapositionwheretheyneedallthe
nutritionalandtraininghelptheycanget.
WhenIobservedoneofthegames,Inoticedthattheplayersweren'tfollowinganoptimal
hydrationstrategyduringthegame.Thiswashappeningdespitethegoodeffortsofthe
athletictrainingstaff,whichwasobviouslytryingtodoeverythingwithintheirmeanstoget
theplayerstodrinkonschdule.Besides,thesetrainerswerebusytryingtokeepthe
playerstheyhadphysicallyfunctional(I'veneverseensomuchtape).Afterobservingthis,
IthoughtI'dsendoffamemotothecoachandathletictrainingstafftoremindthemofthe
importanceofwhattheyalreadyknew,thatgametimehydration(withcarbohydrate)is
criticaltoperformancesaltingthememowithscienceasmycrutch.Themostimportant
responsetothismemowasthatthecoachwantedtotalkwithme.(This,bytheway,isa
characteristicofallsuccessfulcoaches.Theywantalltheinformationtheycanget,and
theywantitnow).Afternumberousattemptsatschedulejuggling,wetalkedanditall
boileddowntothis:theuniversityhadacontractwithabeveragecompanytosupplythe
sportsbeverage,andtheathletesdidn'tlikeit.Asaresult,theathleteswereprovidedwith
plain
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waterduringthegames.Plainwaterduringgameshasproblems,nottheleastofwhichis
thatitdoesn'tprovidetheallimportantcarbohydrate.Inaddition,becauseitcontainsno
sodium,itdoesn'tdrivethedesiretodrink.Therefore,athletestendtodrinklessthanthey
need.
Aftersomeexperimentation,wefoundabeveragetheathleteslikedanditwas"hidden"in
thecontainersofthecontratcompany.(Thisisknowasawinwinsolution!)Theresult
was,tosaytheleast,verygood.Theexperiencehelpedtosolidifymybeliefthatifyou
havepartieswillingtolistentothefacts,goodthingswillhappen.
Thischapterprovidesnutritioninformationforsportswhereathletesintermittentlyperformathighintensity.Thatis,thehighintensityeffortsareinterspersedthroughout
acompetitionthathasperiodsoflowerphysicaleffort.Thisischaracteristicofteamsportssuchasbasketball,volleyball,andsoccer,andisalsotypicaloffigure
skating.Thisisdifferentthanothersports,wherethefocusiseithermainlypowerormainlyendurance.Forinstance,thereisnothingingymnasticstrainingor
competitionthatrequiresagreatdealofaerobicendurance,andmarathonrunnersspendalltheirtimetryingtohaveabetteraerobicendurance.Inmanyteamsports,
thepremiumisonboth.Soccerplayersmustrunthefieldbackandforthatacontrolledpaceuntilanopportunitypresentsitselfwhereplayersmustrunatpeakspeed
totakeadvantageofanoffensiveopportunitytoquicklygetbackinanappropriatedefensiveposition.Basketballplayersmayjogbackandforthinasteadyaerobic
pace,butaplayerhastohavesomeclearjumpingpowertograbareboundorsomequickmovesprintingabilitytosplitthedefense.
In1995,MarkDavisattheUniversityofSouthCarolinafoundthatrepeatedsprintworkisenhancedwithconsumptionofacarbohydrateelectrolytebeverage.1
Whileithasbeenwellestablishedforyearsthatcarbohydrateelectrolytebeveragesenhancesubmaximal(belowmaximalaerobiccapacity)enduranceperformance,
thiswasthefirstfindingtoclearlyshowthebenefitsofsuchabeverageduringhighintensity,shortdurationeffortssuchasthosefoundinfootballorbasketball.
Comparedtoatrialwhenaplacebo(water)wasconsumed,subjectsperformedsevenadditionaloneminutesprintsofcyclingat120to130percentofpeak
whentheyconsumeda6percentcarbohydrateelectrolytebeverage.Thisisequivalenttomakingadramaticimprovementinsprintcapabilityduringthelast5to10
minutesofabasketballgame.
Inasimilarstudy,alsoin1995,Nicholasetal.foundthatsportsdrinks(i.e.,carbohydrateelectrolytebeverages)canhelpmaintain
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2
highintensityeffortsduringhighintensityactivitiesthatconsistofintermittentsprinting,running,andjogging. Again,thesefindingshavestrongimplicationsfor
improvedmaintenanceofhighintensityactivityoverthecourseofatypicalbasketballandsoccergame.
Theeffectsoftheintakeoftheindividualcomponentsofasportsbeverage(electrolytes,water,orcarbohydrate)andthecombinationofallcomponentsonexercise
performancehavealsobeenstudied.Comparedtotheelectrolyteonlytrial,performanceduringthewateronlyandcarbohydrateonlytrialswereapproximately6
percentfaster.However,thecombinationofcarbohydrateandfluidcausedaperformanceenhancementthatwasapproximately12percentfasterthantheelectrolyte
trial,and5to6percentfasterthanwhenwateronlyorcarbohydrateonlywereconsumed.3Thesefindingssupportthethesisthatcarbohydrateenhanceswater
absorption,andthatcarbohydratehasthemostlimitedstorageofanyenergysubstrateinthesystem.Thehighdemandsoncarbohydrateduringhighintensitywork
requireaconstantvigilancetoassureproperandspeedyreplacement.Thisstudywasbasedonearlierwork,whichfoundthatexerciseperformanceimproved
significantlywithcarbohydratefeedings.4Ithasalsobeenfoundthattheoptimallevelofcarbohydrateconcentrationduringexerciseis6percent.Thisconcentration
wasbestforfluidabsorptionandalsohelpedtoefficientlydelivercarbohydrate.Alevelgreaterthanthis(about8percent)causedfluidabsorptiontobereducedor,
dependingonthesourceofcarbohydrate,tostoptotally.5
Whenbasketballplayersjump(leap!)fortheball,orsoccerplayerssprinttowardtheballandjumphightokickit,theseactivitiescanbecomparedtocertainforms
ofstrengthtraining.Inastudyofresistancetrainedathletes,itwasfoundthatathletestendedtoperformmorerepetitionsforthesameweightwhencarbohydratewas
consumedversusawaterplacebo.Bloodglucoseandlactateconcentrationswerehigherwiththecarbohydratetrial,suggestingthatmorecarbohydratewasavailable
andusedtosustainthehighintensityexercise.6Inastudyrecentlypublished,headtoheadcomparisonsofGatorade,Powerade,andAllSportweremade.7Itwas
foundthatGatoradestimulatesfluidabsorptionfasterthaneitherPoweradeorAllSport.Thisdifferencecanbeattributedtoboththetypeofcarbohydrateandthe
concentrationofcarbohydrateinthebeverages.Gatoradehasacarbohydrateconcentrationlevelthatisconsistentwiththepositivefindingsinvirtuallyallthestudies
(6percent)andcontainsanequalmixtureofsucroseandglucose.PoweradeandAllSporthavehighercarbohydrateconcentrationsandincludealargequantityof
fructose.Fructosehasbeen
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showntocausegastrointestinal(GI)distressitisalsolessefficientinraisingbloodglucosebecauseitrequiresasecondaryconversionintheliverfollowingabsorption.
A1998studyhasfoundthatathleteswhodorepeatedorsustainedhighpowereffortsexperienceareductioninperformancewhentheyaredehydrated.8Giventhe
importanceofcarbohydratebeveragesineffectiverehydrationduringexercise,itseemsclearthatthismightbeastrategythatwouldhelpmaintainthepowerand
enduranceoftheathletesonthebasketballteam.ThefluidconsumptionguidelinesestablishedbytheAmericanCollegeofSportsMedicinearesummarizedintable
11.1.9
Thereareseveralgeneralnutritionguidelinesinvolvingwhattodobefore,during,andafterexerciseandcompetitionthataregoodforvirtuallyallathletesinvolved
insportsthatincludeperiodsofmaximalintensity.Seetable11.2fortheseguidelines.
Thetwokeystotheseguidelinesarefluidsandcarbohydratesinthecontextofagenerallyvarieddiet.Athletesshouldfindwaystoconsumebothfluidsand
carbohydratesat,literally,everyopportunity.Recentfindingstendtocontradictthetraditionalandcommonlyfollowedbeliefthatcarbohydratecontainingbeverages
areusefulonlyforendurance(aerobic)activitiesthatlastlongerthan60minutes.Thebestpredictorsofathleticperformancearemaintenanceofbloodvolumeand
maintenanceofglycogen/glucose.Whatfollowsaresomestrategiesthatmightbeusefulforachievingbothenhancedhydrationandimprovedmaintenanceofsystem
carbohydrateindifferentsports.
Table11.1ACSMFluidIntakeGuidelines
Timing
Amount
Adaptation
Beforeexercise(2
hoursprior)
Drink500milliliters(17ounces)
None
Duringexercise
Drink6001,200milliliters(2040
ounces)perhour
Drink150300milliliters(510ounces)
every1520minutes
Afterexercise
Basedonpreandpostexercise
bodyweight,drinkenoughfluid
torestorebodyweight(16
ouncesfluid=1poundbody
weight ).
Drink50percentoverandabovethe
volumeingestedtorestorepreexercise
bodyweight.Thiscompensatesforurine
losses,whichmayinducehypohydration
whenonly100percentoffluidis
consumed.
1.5timeslossinbodyweightshouldbeconsumedasfluid.
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Table11.2GeneralGuidelinesforAthletesInvolvedinSportsThatIncludeIntermittentPeriodsof
HighIntensityWork
Generalnutrition
Maintainadiethighincomplexcarbohydrates,moderateinprotein,
andrelativelylowinfat.Striveforavariedconsumptionoffoodsto
assureexposuretoallthenutrientsthatthebody'scellsneed.
Varyingyourintakealsohelpstoassurethatyoudon'toverexpose
yourcellstosubstancesinfoodsthatmaybe,withfrequentexposue,
harmfultogeneralhealth.
Thepreexerciseor
precompetitionmeal
Consumestarchy,easytodigest,highcarbohydratefoods.Consume
plentyoffluidswithmealsandduringtheperiodbetweenthemeal
andtheexercisesessionorcompetition.Whenpossible,consumethe
highcarbohydratemealabout3hoursbeforeexercise.
Duringexercise
replenishment
Consumeasportsdrinkthatisapproximatelya6to7percent
carbohydratesolution.Thedrinkshouldalsocontainasmallamount
ofsalttoencouragedrinkingduringthecompetition.Drink20to40
ouncesoffluidperhour,dependingontheenvironmental
temperatureandhumidityandyourpredispositiontosweating.In
somesports,therearenonaturalbreaksintheaction,whichmakesit
difficulttoconsumefluidsatthisrate.Insuchcases,athletesand
coachesshoulddevelopaclearstrategyforfluidconsumptionthat
cantakeplaceduring"timeouts"inthegame.Agoodstrategywill
assurethatthereareadequatepersonnelavailabletoprovidefluids
quicklyandefficientlytoeveryplayeronthefieldwheneverabreak
intheactionoccurs.
Postexerciseor
postcompetition
replenishment
Drinkasportsdrinktoensurequickrehydrationandreplenishmentof
depletedglycogenstores.Consumeapproximately24ouncesper
poundofbodyweight(1.5litersperkilogramofbodyweight)lost
duringtheactivity.Muscleglycogenstoresareefficientlyreplacedif
theathleteconsumescarbohydrateimmediatelyfollowingtheactivity.
Forthetwohoursimmediatelyfollowingactivity,consumehigh
glycemicindexfoods(i.e.,foodshighinnaturalsugarsorfoodsthat
arequicklyandeasilydigestedintosugars).Thegoalistoconsume
atleast50grams(200calories)ofcarbohydrateeveryhouruntilthe
nextmealtime.Ingeneral,strivetoconsumeapproximately4gramsof
carbohydrateperpoundofbodyweightduringthe24hours
followingexerciseorcompetition.
AdaptedfromWilliamsandNicholas1998.
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Basketball
Basketballcombinesmanyofthebestaspectsofteamcooperationandindividualeffort,withtwoguards,twoforwards,andonecenterwhoallplaybothdefense
andoffenseduringthe32(highschool)to48(professional)minutesofthegame.Basketballisagameplayedaroundtheworldbybothmen'sandwomen'steamsand
hasbeenahighlyvisiblepartoftheOlympicGamessincethe1936OlympicsinBerlin.Amongthemostimpressivewinningstreaksinbasketballwasthe10national
championships(7wonconsecutively)bytheJohnWoodencoachedUCLAmen'steams.Inaconversationmanyyearslater,oneofJohnWooden'splayerssaidthat
Woodenwasbrilliantatmakingsurehisteamwasthebestconditionedonthefloor,andpartofthatconditioningregimenwasmakingcertaintheplayersworked
harderduringpracticethanwouldbeneededduringanygameagainstanyopponent.Buthealsomadecertainalloftheplayersateandrestedwellenoughtobeready
togivea100percenteffort.
Itisclearfromstudiesinintermittenthighintensitysports,thatbasketballplayerscangainanadvantagebyfocusingontheconsumptionoftherightfoodsandfluids
duringthepre,during,andpostgameperiods.Inastudythatsurveyedthenutritionknowledgeofcollegebasketballcoachesandcoachesinothersports,itwas
foundthatonly33percentofthecoacheswereconfidentthatthey
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10
respondedcorrectlytoquestionsrelatedtonutrition. Inaddition,thissurveynotedthatcoachesfeltcollegeathleteshadproblemswiththeconsumptionofjunkfood,
hadgenerallypooreatinghabits,andgenerallyconsumedunbalanceddiets.Inasurveyofmaleandfemalebasketballplayers,itwasfoundthatthedietofthefemale
playerswaslackinginanumberofnutrients,andthattherewasanexcessiverelianceonnutrientsupplements.11Noneofthis,ofcourse,isconsistentwithwhat
basketballplayersneedtodotocompeteeffectively.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforBasketball
Basketballplayershaveahalftimethatcanbeusedtoreplenishfluidsandcarbohydrates.Basketballgameshavetheadvantageofhavinga10to20minute
halftimebreak.Thisisanexcellentopportunityforplayerstosiponasportsbeveragetoreplacelostfluidsandcarbohydrates.Someplayersmayalsofindtheydo
wellbyeatingsomeplaincrackersanddrinkingwater.However,thisisnotagoodtimetoconsumecandybarsandotherfoodsthat,whiletheycontainsomesugar,
arealsohighinfat.Whatbasketballplayersreallyneedatthistimeiscarbohydrateandwater,andeatinganythingelsedetractsfromwhattheyshouldhave.
Timespentonthebenchshouldbeusedtomaintainhydrationstate.Naturalbreaksinthegamefromofficialtimeoutsorsubstitutionsshouldbetaken
advantageofbysippingonsportsbeverages,whethertheplayersfeeltheyneeditornot.Sippingonbeveragesshouldbecomepartofthegameplan,justas
importantasmakingtherightteamdefensiveoroffensiveplays.Aplayermaynotwanttodoit,butit'sthe"team"thingtodo.
Frequentpracticesandgamescanwearaplayerout.Basketballplayerstypicallypracticesixdayseachweek,andoftenhavetwopracticesinasingleday.Add
tothatamatchschedulethathasthemplayingaleastonegameduringtheweek,andit'seasytoseewhyatypicalbasketballseasoncanwearaplayerout.Ingeneral,
playersshouldeatenoughcarbohydratetosupportbothglycogenstorage(criticaltobasketballperformance)andalsoconsumesufficientenergytomaintainmuscle
mass.Acommoncomplaintofcoachesisthattheyfinditdifficulttokeeptheweightofmanyplayersashighastheywouldliketo,andthisisasuresignthatthe
playersarenoteatingenoughtosupporttheintenseactivityofpracticeandgames.Teams
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thatcanmakeitthroughtheseasonwithweightmaintainedgenerallyarestrongerandhavebetterendurancethanthosewhodon't.
Playingaswellinthesecondhalfasinthefirsthalfwinsgames.Teamsthatcanmanagetokeeptheirstrengthandenduranceupduringthesecondhalfofthe
gametendtodobetteronthescoreboardthanteamsthatdon't.Todothis,playersshouldestablishapatternoffrequentsippingonacarbohydratecontaining
beverage,whethertheythinktheyneeditornot.Studiesshowthatthisfrequentsippingpatternhelpsplayerskeeptheirstrengthandendurancelongerthanifthey
drinkwateraloneorfailtodrinkatall.
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FigureSkating
Figureskatingtookitsnamefromthe"figures"thatcompetitorswererequiredtocomplete.Thesefigureswereliterallyoutlinedontheiceastwoorthreelobedfigure
eightsthat"figure"skatershadtoskateoverandmatchascloselyaspossibletoreceiveatopscore.In1991,however,the"figures"incompetitiveskatingwere
removedandreplacedwithashortandlongprogram,butthename''figureskating"hasremained.Competitivefigureskatersaimtoproduceperformancesthatare
smooth,graceful,artistic,andappeartobeeffortless.Theshort,curvedbladesandtoepicksusedbyfigureskaterspermittheseathletestocreatemovementswith
sharpturnsandhighjumpswithspins.Figureskatershavethreeseparateevents,andtrainingisspecializedforeachofthese:individualfigureskating,pairsskating,
andicedancing.Figureskatingisasinglegendercompetition(i.e.,malescompeteagainstmales,andfemalescompeteagainstfemales),andpairsskatingandice
dancingaremixedgenderevents.
Inindividualfigureskating,thereisanexpectationofgraceandeffortlessnessintheperformance,butthereisalsoacompetitivepremiumplacedonachievingdifficult
spinsandjumpsthatfavorstrongbutsmallerathletes.Sincethedensityofairandtheresistanceoficedonotchangeforeachathlete,largeathleteshaveagreaterice
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resistanceandareconfrontedwithgreaterrelativeairresistancethansmallercompetitors.Therefore,largerskatersrequiresignificantlygreaterstrengthtodothesame
skillsassmallerskaters.Thetopsuccessfulfigureskatershaverecentlybeensmallerthaninpreviousyears.
Inpairsskating,itiscommontoseethemalepartnerconsiderablylargerandstrongerthanthefemale.Foranyonewhohasseenapairscompetition,thereasonis
obvious:themalemustliftandthrowhisfemalepartnerfrequentlyduringthecompetition,andthisiseasierifhe'sliftingsomeonesmaller.Findingtherightphysical
matchisdifficult,andpoorlymatchedpairsskatershavedifficultyperformingatthetopleveleveniftheyaresuperbindividualskaters.
Inicedancing,thereisamuchsmallerpremiumonalargemaleandsmallerfemalesincetherearenothrowsoroverheadliftsinthecompetition.Giventheintricacyof
footmovementandgracefoundinicedancing,thesportiswellnamed.Theconstantmovementcoupledwithalowerpowerrequirementmakesthisthemost
"aerobic"ofthethreeskatingdisciplines.
Instudiesoffigureskaters,ithasbeenfoundthattheypossessanaverageaerobiccapacitybuthavetheabilitytoproducehighpowerpeaks.12Thatis,whenthey
needto,theycancallupontheirmusclestoproduceatremendousamountofpowerallatonce.Ithasalsobeenfoundthatyoungfemaleskatersconsumedietsthat
arerelativelyhighinfatandproteinandrelativelylowincarbohydrate,calcium,andiron.13Althoughtherehasbeenatraditionalconcernthatcompetitivefigureskaters
maynotconsumesufficienttotalenergy,arecentstudysuggeststhatthisconcernmaybeunfoundedformostskaters.14However,thereappearstobeaportionof
theseskaterswhomaybeatriskforcertaindisorderedeatingpatternsand,whenthisoccurs,nutrientintakeislikelytobelow.
Aswithanyelitesport,injuriesoccur.Thereisparticularconcernabouttherateofinjuriesamongpairsskaters.Inonestudy,thefemaleseniorpairsskatersreported
anaverageof1.4seriousinjuriesoveraninemonthperiod,whileotherskatershadinjuryratesthatwereaveraging0.5seriousinjuriesperskateroverthissametime
period.15Mostoftheseinjuriesarelowerextremityinjuriesthatmightberelatedtobootdesign,butotherresearcherssuggestthatinjuriesmightberelatedtopoor
conditioning.16
Page283
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforFigureSkating
Skatersareextremelyconcernedabouttheirweight,sinceappearanceontheiceisimportantinthissport.Achievementofoptimalweightisbestachieved
throughtheconsumptionofalowfat,moderateprotein,highcomplexcarbohydrateintakeplusagoodexerciseandconditioningprogram.Althoughdietingis
counterproductive,thereisgoodevidencethatthisistheweightmanagementstrategyofchoiceamongskaters.Theconsumptionofadequateenergyfrom
carbohydrateisimportantforbothperformanceandachievementofadesirablebodycomposition.Inadequateenergyintakemaypredisposetheskatertonutrient
deficiencies,lowenergyexpenditure,andhighbodyfatlevelsthatcanincreasetheriskofinjury,createillhealth,andreduceathleticperformance.
Thehighjumpsinfigureskatingplaceagreatdealofrelianceonphosphocreatineandmuscleglycogen.Adequateenergyintakefromcarbohydrate,
interspersedwitharegularintakeofmeats(toprovidecreatineorsufficientproteintomakecreatine)isimportantforskaters.Forvegetarianskaters,assuringan
adequatetotalproteinandtotalenergyconsumptioniscriticaltomaintainingmusclemassandsynthesizingcreatine.Thequickburstofmuscularactivityassociated
withthehighjumpsrequiredincompetitivefigureskatingisnotpossiblewithoutsufficientstorageofphosphocreatineandmuscleglycogen.Fordanceskating
competitions,thefuelrequirementinvolvesmoremuscleglycogenthanphosphocreatine,sotheseathletesarelikelytodobetterwithslightlylessprotein(ormeat),but
stillrequireanadequatetotalenergyintaketoperformadequately.
Practicesareconsiderablylongerthanperformances.Althoughskatingperformancesmayonlylastseveralminutes,practicesmaylastforanhourorlonger,they
mayoccurmorethanonceeachday,andtheymaybeveryearlyinthemorningorverylateatnight(icetimeishardtofind).Thismeansthatskatersmustaltereating
patternstosatisfytheirpracticeneeds.Forveryearlymorningpractices,skatersshouldeatanddrinksomethingbeforetakingtheice,tobecertainthatmusclesare
wellfueled.Forlatenightpractices,asmalldinnertwohoursbeforepracticefollowedbyanothersmalldinnerimmediatelyafterpracticewillhelpassurethatmuscles
arewellfueled.Skatingwhilethemusclesareon"empty"willnothelpthembecomemoreconditionedandmayactuallybecounterproductiveininducingatraining
benefit.
Page284
Soccer
Thepopularityofsoccerworldwideisenormous,andisincreasinginpopularityintheUnitedStates.Thisisawonderfulsportfromafitnessstandpoint,astheaverage
distancecoveredbyatypicalsoccerplayerduringamatchisapproximately10kilometers.17Inaddition,soccerplayersappeartohavesignificantlygreaterbone
mineraldensities(likelytobeduefromalltherunningstressesplacedonthebones)thanageandweightmatchedcontrols.18,19Whilemuchofthisactivityisaerobic,
agooddealofitisanaerobicasplayerssprinttogofortheball.Itappearsasifthereislessactivityinthesecondhalfofthegamewhencomparedtothefirst,andthat
lowermuscleglycogenlevelsmaybethecauseofthisreductioninactivity.Itwassuggestedlongagothattheingestionofcarbohydratesimmediatelybefore,during,
andafteragamemayplayanimportantroleinreducingplayerfatigueduringagame.20
Instudiesofprofessionalsoccerplayers'nutrientconsumption,itwasfoundthatenergyandnutrientintakewassimilartothatofthegeneralpopulation,despitehaving
afarhigherenergyandnutrientrequirement.21,22Whiletherecommendedtrainingdietforsoccerplayersshouldbecomprisedof55to65percentcarbohydrate,12to
15percentprotein,andlessthan30percentfat,23theathletesinthisandothersurveyshaddietsthatwereconsiderablylowerincarbohydrateandhigherinfat.24Itis
generallybelievedthatplayingsoccer
Page285
25
placesahighdemandonglycogenstores,soglycogendepletioncouldcauseprematurefatigueandreducedperformanceduringamatch. Ofcourse,adequate
energyintake,estimatedtobeapproximately4,000caloriesformalesand3,200caloriesforfemales,isalsoimportant.Withoutsufficientenergyintake,glycogenwill
becomedepletedregardlessofthemakeupofthediet.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforSoccer
Playinsoccerisexpectedtobecontinuous,makingitdifficultforplayerstoconsumefluids.Sincesoccerplayersmaynothaveanopportunitytoregularly
consumefluidsduringagame,pregamehydrationstatusisparticularlyimportant.Whenpossible(betweenperiodsandduringofficialbreaks),playersshoulddo
whateverisreasonablypossibletoconsumesomesportsbeveragetorehydrateandtoreplacecarbohydrates.
Surveyssuggesttheconsumptionofcarbohydratesislessthanoptimalforsoccerplayers.Carbohydrateconsumptioniscriticalfortheachievementofoptimal
soccerperformance.Sincesurveyssuggestthatsoccerplayerstypicallyconsumedietsthatmatchthoseofthegeneralpublic,withacarbohydrateintakeofaround50
percentoftotalcalories,playersshouldmakeaconsciousefforttoimprovecarbohydrateintake.
Pregameglycogenstorageiscritical.Soccerplayersspendalotoftimerunningupanddownthefield,andthisplacesatremendousdrainonmuscleglycogen.
Playerswhobeginthegamewithmorestoredglycogenwillexperienceanenduranceadvantage.Toachieveahigherglycogenstorage,playersshouldconsistently
consumeplentyofcarbohydratesandfluidsandalsofocusmainlyoncarbohydratesduringthepregamemeal.
Page286
Tennis
Itisgenerallyagreedthattennishasbothaerobicandanaerobiccomponents,butthemajorityofenergysupplyappearstocomefromanaerobicsystems.26,27Itisthis
heavyrelianceontheanaerobicmetabolicsystemthatislikelytobethereasonwhyithasbeenfoundthatcarbohydratesupplementationimprovesthestrokequality
duringthefinalstagesofatennismatch.28Sincelonglasting,highintensityexerciseishighlydependentoncarbohydrateasafuel,itmakesperfectsensethattennis
playersshouldassurethatcarbohydrateisavailabletothemusclesasafuel.
Whilecarbohydrateconsumptionmaybeofconcern,itappearsthatcollegiatetennisplayers(DivisionI)havebeenwellcoachedtoconsumesufficientfluidsinhot
environments.Inastudyevaluatingfluidandelectrolytebalanceduringmultidaymatchplayinahotenvironment,itwasfoundthattheathletessuccessfullymaintained
overallbalance,resultinginnooccurrenceofheatillness.29
Italsoappears,fromdataonyoungtennisplayers,thattheadequacyofenergyintakeisbetterthanthatseeninothersports(gymnasticsandswimming).Itiswell
establishedthatmenstrualonsetis,toagreatdegree,dependentontheadequacyofenergyintake.Ingeneral,femalesexperiencethefirstmensesatage13.Females
whohaveenergydeficits,however,mayhaveuptoatwo
Page287
yeardelayintheageofmenarche.Tennisplayers,however,appeartohaveonlyaslightdelay(13.2years)intheageofmenarche,suggestingthatenergy
consumptionisgood.30Typically,thereislessconcernintennison"makingweight."Thefocusisonconditioning,regardlessofwheretheweightendsup.
NutritionallyRelevantFactorsforTennis
Tennisiscommonlyplayedoutsideoncourtswherethereflectivetemperatureoffthecourtishigherthantheenvironmentaltemperature.Theheatat
courtsidecanquicklycauseheatillnessiftennisplayersfailtotakestepstoadequatelyhydratethemselves.Playersshouldbeawareofthesignsofheatdisorders
(thirst,fatigue,visionproblems,inabilitytospeaknormally)andtakequickactionifthey,apartner,oranopponentappearstohaveanyheatrelatedsymptoms(see
table11.3).
Tennishasnaturalbreaksaftereachoddgame,whentheopponentschangesides.Thesenaturalbreaksinatennismatchare,perhaps,whyithasbeenfound
thattennisplayersareinrelativelygoodhydrationstateduringandfollowingamatch.However,sincecarbohydratesupplementationhasbeenfoundtoimproveend
ofgamestrokes,playersshouldmakecertainthatthebeverageconsumedcontains
Table11.3HeatDisorderSymptoms
Heatcramps
Musclespasmsthatoccurinvoluntarilyduringorafterexercise,typicallywith
themusclesthatdidmostoftheworkduringtheexercise.
Heatexhaustion
Weakandrapidheartratewithlowbloodpressure,headache,dizziness,and
severeweakness.Bodytemperatureisnotelevatedtodangerouslevels,but
sweatratemaybereduced,increasingtheriskofhighbodytemperature.
Bloodvolumeistypicallylow.Atthisstage,theathleteshouldstop
exercising,gotoashadyareaorcoolbuilding,andconsumefluidsto
rehydrate.
Heatstroke
Afailureofthebody'sabilitytomaintaintemperature.Characterizedbya
failuretosweat.Circulatorysystemcollapsemayleadtodeath.Immediate
stepsshouldbetakentocoolthebodybyapplyingice,placingthepersonin
coldwater,and/orapplyingalcoholrubs.Thisisanemergencycondition,so
medicalassistanceshouldbecalledimmediately.
ReprintedbypermissionfromM.H.Williams,1997,Nutritionforfitnessandsport,5thed.(NewYork:
McGrawHill),208209.ReproducedwiththepermissionofTheMcGrawHillCompanies.
Page288
carbohydrate.Thesesportsbeverages,ifsippedduringamatch,willhelptoassurethathighintensityactivitycanbemaintainedforalongerperiodoftime.
Summary
Sportsthatrequireacombinationofpowerandendurancehaveonlyrecentlyreceivedthesamekindofscientificattentionthatendurancesportshaveenjoyedfor
manyyears.Interestingly,studiesonthesesportsindicatethatcarbohydrateconsumptionisusefulinenhancingperformanceeveniftheactivitylastslessthanone
hour.Thisisanimportantfinding,sincethetraditionalthoughthasbeenthatwaterisanappropriatehydrationbeverageforactivitieslastinglessthanonehour,butthat
carbohydratecontainingsportsbeveragesareimportanttoconsumeforactivitieslastinglongerthanonehour.Wenowknowthatevenintheseshorteractivites,
carbohydrateconsumptionisperformanceenhancing.Sincemanyofthesesports(basketball,soccer,tennis)placeanenormouscaloricdrainonthesystem,athletes
shoulddevelopeatingstrategies(i.e.,eatingenough)thatencouragemaintenanceofmusclemassduringlongandarduousseasons.
Page289
AppendixA
Followingaresixsamplemealplanstoassistathletesandcoachesinplanningmealsthatmeetneededenergyandnutrientrequirements.Energyrequirementsare
calculatedas30to50caloriesperkilogramofbodyweight,althoughenergyrequirementsvarybydurationandintensityofactivityandbygrowthphase.Thesemeal
plansmeetcarbohydraterequirementscalculatedas8gramsperkilogramofbodyweight,andalsoprovideaminimumof1.5gramsofproteinperkilogramofbody
weight.DataforthesemealplansarederivedfromUSDAnutrientdatabaseforstandardreference(releaseSR11,1996).
Page290
2,500Calories
Food
Breakfast
1cupwholewheatcereal
1cupskimmilk
Cal
Carb
Prot
Fat
166
37.7
5.1
0.6
86
11.9
8.4
0.4
1banana
105
26.7
1.2
0.6
Subtotals(19%oftotalcalories)
470
102.1
16.4
2.1
MidAM
snack
5saltinecrackers
63
10.2
1.3
1.7
1cupapplejuice
117
29.0
0.2
0.3
Subtotals(7%oftotalcalories)
180
39.2
1.5
2.0
Lunch
chickenbreast(broiled)
142
0.0
26.7
3.1
2slicesbread,crackedwheat
132
26.0
4.4
1.1
cupsalad(lettuceandvegetables)
17
3.4
1.3
0.1
1tbsplemonjuice(fordressing)
1.3
0.1
0.0
Subtotals(17%oftotalcalories)
409
60.1
33.6
4.3
MidPM
snack
2ouncescheese,cheddar
225
0.7
13.9
18.6
1apple(raw)
81
21.1
0.3
0.5
Subtotals(13%oftotalcalories)
306
21.8
14.2
19.1
Dinner
2.5cupsspaghettiandmeatballs
720
83.8
40.3
25.2
1rool
119
19.6
2.9
3.0
1cupCaesarsalad
1.3
0.9
0.1
1tbspCaesarsaladdressing
57
3.5
0.1
4.9
1orange
72
15.4
1.2
0.2
Subtotals(40%oftotalcalories)
123.6
45.4
33.5
Evening
snack
1cuppopcorn(airpopped)
35
6.9
1.1
0.5
8ouncesGatorade
75
21.1
0.0
0.2
Subtotals(5%oftotalcalories)
110
28.0
1.1
0.5
2,452
375
112
61
60
18
22
977
Dailytotals(grams)
Percentoftotalcalories
OtherKeynutrientsProvidedbythisfoodintake
Nutrient
Amount
Nutrient
Calcium
1,242mg
Thiamin
1.8mg
Iron
18mg
Riboflavin
2.2mg
VitaminC
417mg
Amount
Note:Thisleveloffoodintakeisappropriateforanathlete
weighingabout125lbs.
Page291
2,500Calories(Lactovegetarian)
Food
Breakfast
1cuporangejuice
1cupwholewheatcereal
1cupskimmilk
Cal
Carb
Prot
112
25.8
1.7
0.5
166
37.7
5.1
0.6
86
11.9
8.4
0.4
1banana
105
26.7
1.2
0.6
Subtotals(19%oftotalcalories)
470
102.1
16.4
2.1
MidAM
snack
5saltinecrackers
63
10.2
1.3
1.7
1cupapplejuice
117
29.0
0.2
0.3
Subtotals(7%oftotalcalories)
180
39.2
1.5
2.0
Lunch
2cupssobanoodles
226
48.9
11.5
0.2
4piecestofu,fried
141
5.5
8.9
10.5
2slicescrackedwheatbread
132
26.0
4.4
1.1
cupsalad
17
3.4
1.3
0.1
1tbsplemonjuice(fordressing)
1.3
0.1
0.0
1cupfruitcocktail
114
29.4
1.1
0.0
Subtotals(26%oftotalcalories)
632
114.5
27.4
11.9
MidPM
snack
2ouncescheese,cheddar
225
0.7
13.9
18.6
1apple
81
21.1
0.3
0.5
Subtotals(13%oftotalcalories)
306
21.8
14.2
19.1
Dinner
8ouncespasta(madewithoutegg)
283
57.3
10.0
2.2
1cupmarinarasauce
170
25.5
4.0
8.4
2tbspparmesancheese
46
0.4
4.2
3.0
1roll
119
19.6
2.9
3.0
1cupcaesarsalad
1.3
0.9
0.1
1tbspceasarsaladdressing
57
3.5
0.1
4.9
Subtotals(31%oftotalcalories)
123.6
45.4
33.5
Evening
snack
1cuppopcorn(airpopped)
35
6.9
1.1
0.5
8ouncesGatorade
75
21.1
0.0
0.2
Subtotals(5%oftotalcalories)
110
28.0
1.1
0.5
428.3
83.8
57.3
67
13
20
977
Dailytotals(grams)
Percentoftotalcalories
2,440
Otherkeynutrientsprovidedbythisfoodintake
Nutrient
Amount
Nutrient
Amount
Calcium
1,359mg
Thiamin
2.0mg
Iron
18mg
Riboflavin
2.1mg
VitaminC
401mg
Note:Thisleveloffoodintakeisappropriateforan
athleteweighingabout125lbs.
Fat
Page292
3,000Calories
Food
Breakfast
1cuporangejuice
111.6
25.8
1.7
0.5
1cupstrawberries
44.7
10.5
0.9
0.6
1cupwholewheatcereal
116.2
26.0
3.3
0.7
1cup1%milk
102.2
11.7
8.0
2.6
1roll
75.0
13.4
2.0
1.3
1tspmargarine
33.8
0.0
0.0
3.8
1tbspstrawberryjam
54.4
14.0
0.1
0.0
Subtotals(18%oftotalcalories)
537.4
101.4
16.2
9.4
MidAM
snack
1plainbagel
199.9
38.0
7.0
2.0
1tspmargarine
33.8
0.0
0.0
3.8
1tbspjamorpreserves
54.4
14.0
0.1
0.0
16ouncesGatorade
100.2
28.1
0.0
0.0
Subtotals(11%oftotalcalories)
388.4
80.1
7.2
5.8
Lunch
2slicesturkey(forsandwich)
46.8
0.0
9.6
0.7
2slicesbread(forsandwich)
131
26.1
4.4
1.1
Lettuce(forsandwich)
2.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1tbspmayonnaise(forsandwich)
49.5
0.2
0.1
5.5
1cupcranberryjuice
216.3
54.7
0.0
0.4
1mediumapple
81.4
21.1
0.3
0.5
1/3cuppotatosalad
216.6
25.7
2.9
11.5
Subtotals(25%oftotalcalories)
744.6
128.1
17.4
19.6
MidPM
snack
3Dutchtypepretzels
187.2
36.4
4.7
2.2
16ouncesGatorade
100.2
28.1
0.0
0.0
cupgrapes
29.0
8.0
0.3
0.2
Subtotals(13%oftotalcalories)
316.4
72.4
5.0
2.3
Dinner
1cupschickenchowmein
382.5
15.0
46.5
15.0
1cuprice
199.5
43.3
4.0
0.5
6ouncestea
1.7
0.5
0.0
0.0
1orange
61.6
15.4
1.2
1.2
Subtotals(21%oftotalcalories)
654.4
74.2
51.7
15.6
Evening
snack
1banana
104.9
26.7
1.2
0.6
2ouncescheddarcheese
112.7
0.4
7.0
9.3
2squaresgrahamcrackers
109.1
20.8
2.3
2.7
8ouncesGatorade
50.0
14.0
0.0
0.0
Subtotals(13%oftotalcalories)
376.8
61.9
10.4
12.5
Dailytotals(grams)
3,009
518
108
65
Percentoftotalcalories
67.1
14.0
18.9
Cal
Carb
Prot
Fat
Otherkeynutrientsprovidedbythisfoodintake
Nutrient
Amount
Nutrient
Amount
Calcium
1,200mg
Thiamin
3.7mg
Iron
37.3mg
Riboflavin
4.2mg
VitaminC
528.8mg
Note:Thisleveloffoodintakeisappropriateforanathleteweighingabout170lbs.
Page293
3,500Calories
Food
Breakfast
1.5cupsorangejuice
Cal
Carb
Prot
Fat
167.4
38.7
2.6
0.8
44.7
10.5
0.9
0.6
1cupstrawberries
1.5cupswholewheatTotal
174.2
39.0
5.0
1.0
1cup1%milk
102.2
11.7
8.0
2.6
1roll
75.0
13.4
2.0
1.3
1tspmargarine
33.8
0.0
0.0
3.8
1tbspstrawberryjam
54.4
14.0
0.1
0.0
Subtotals(19%oftotalcalories)
651.3
127.3
18.7
199.9
38.0
7.0
2.0
MidAM
snack
1plainbagel
10.0
1tspmargarine
33.8
0.0
0.0
3.8
1tbspjamorpreserves
54.4
14.0
0.1
0.0
16ouncesGatorade
100.2
28.1
0.0
0.0
Subtotals(11%oftotalcalories)
388.4
80.1
7.2
5.8
1roastbeefsandwich
346.1
33.4
21.5
13.8
1cupcranberryjuice
216.3
54.7
0.0
0.4
1mediumapple
81.4
21.1
0.3
0.5
2/3cuppotatosalad
216.6
25.7
2.9
11.5
1peach
37.4
9.7
0.6
0.1
Subtotals(25%oftotalcalories)
897.9
144.5
25.3
26.2
3Dutchtypepretzels
187.2
36.4
4.7
2.2
16ouncesGatorade
100.2
28.1
0.0
0.0
1cupgrapes
57.9
15.8
0.6
0.3
Subtotals(10%oftotalcalories)
345.4
80.3
5.3
2.5
1.5cupschickenchowmein
382.5
15.0
46.5
15.0
1cuprice
199.5
43.3
4.0
0.5
6ouncestea
1.7
0.5
0.0
0.0
1orange
61.6
15.4
1.2
0.2
1cup1%milk
102.2
11.7
8.0
2.6
1tspsugar(fortea)
15.4
34.0
0.0
0.0
Subtotals(21%oftotalcalories)
762.9
89.8
59.8
18.2
1banana
104.9
26.7
1.2
0.2
1cup1%milk
102.1
11.7
8.0
2.6
3grahamcrackers
163.6
31.2
3.4
4.0
16ouncesGatorade
100.3
28.1
0.0
0.0
Subtotals(13%oftotalcalories)
470.9
97.7
12.6
7.2
Dailytotals(grams)
Percentoftotalcalories
Lunch
MidPM
snack
Dinner
Evening
snack
3,517
620
129
70
68.4
14.2
17.4
Otherkeynutrientsprovidedbythisfoodintake
Nutrient
Amount
Nutrient
Amount
Calcium
1,760mg
Thiamin
5.1mg
Iron
51.3mg
Riboflavin
6.2mg
VitaminC
639.4mg
Note:Thisleveloffoodintakeisappropriateforanathleteweighingabout190lbs.
Page294
4,000Calories
Food
Breakfast
Cal
1.5cupsorangejuice
Carb
Prot
167.4
38.7
2.6
0.8
44.7
10.5
0.9
0.6
1cupstrawberries
2cupswholewheatTotal
232.3
52.0
6.6
1.4
2cups1%milk
204.3
23.3
16.1
5.2
1roll
75.0
13.4
2.0
1.3
1tspmargarine
33.8
0.0
0.0
3.8
1tbspjam
54.4
14.0
0.1
0.0
Subtotals(21%oftotalcalories)
811.5
152.0
28.4
13.0
199.9
38.0
7.0
2.0
MidAMsnack
1plainbagel
1tspmargarine
33.8
0.0
0.0
3.8
1tbspjam
54.4
14.0
0.1
0.0
16ouncesGatorade
100.2
28.1
0.0
0.0
Subtotals(11%oftotalcalories)
388.4
80.1
7.2
5.8
1roastbeefsandwich
346.1
33.4
21.5
13.8
1mediumbakedpotato
145.1
33.6
3.1
0.2
1tbspsourcream(forpotato)
25.7
0.5
0.4
2.5
1.5cupstossedsalad
33.1
6.7
2.6
0.1
1tbspItaliandressingforsalad
68.7
1.5
0.1
7.1
1.5cupscranberryjuice
216.3
54.7
0.0
0.4
1apple
81.4
21.1
0.3
0.5
1peach
37.4
9.7
0.6
0.1
Subtotals(24%oftotalcalories)
953.9
161.1
28.5
24.6
3Dutchtypechowmein
187.2
36.4
4.7
2.2
16ouncesGatorade
100.2
28.1
0.0
0.0
1cupgrapes
57.9
15.8
0.6
0.3
Subtotals(10%oftotalcalories)
345.4
80.3
5.3
2.5
2cupschickenchowmein
510.0
20.0
62.0
20.0
2cupsrice
399.5
86.6
8.0
1.0
6ouncestea
1.8
0.5
0.0
0.0
1orange
61.6
15.4
1.2
0.2
1cup1%milk
102.2
11.7
8.0
2.6
1tspsugar(fortea)
15.4
34.0
0.0
0.0
Subtotals(28%oftotalcalories)
138.1
79.3
23.7
Lunch
MidPMsnack
Dinner
1089.9
1cup1%milk
102.1
11.7
8.0
2.6
3grahamcrackers
163.6
31.2
3.4
4.0
16ouncesGatorade
100.3
28.1
0.0
0.0
Subtotals(13%oftotalcalories)
470.9
97.7
12.6
7.2
697
153
74
68.6
15.1
16.4
Eveningsnack
Dailytotals(grams)
Percentoftotalcalories
3,958
Otherkeynutrientsprovidedbythisfoodintake
Nutrient
Amount
Nutrient
Amount
Calcium
1,986mg
Thiamin
6.5mg
Iron
65.5mg
Riboflavin
7.3mg
VitaminC
745.4mg
Note:Thisleveloffoodintakeisappropriateforanathleteweighingabout220lbs.
Fat
Page295
5,000Calories
Food
Cal
Carb
Prot
1.5cupsorangejuice
167.4
38.7
2.6
0.8
1cupstrawberries
44.7
10.5
0.9
0.6
2cupswholewheatTotal
232.3
52.0
6.6
1.4
2cups2%milk
242.4
23.3
16.3
9.4
1roll
75.0
13.4
2.0
1.3
1tspmargarine
33.8
0.0
0.0
3.8
1tbspjam
54.4
14.0
0.1
0.0
Subtotals(17%oftotalcalories)
849.6
152.1
28.6
17.2
1plainbagel
199.9
38.0
7.0
2.0
2tbspcreamcheese
195.5
1.5
4.2
19.5
1banana
104.9
26.7
1.2
0.6
16ouncesGatorade
100.2
28.1
0.0
0.0
Subtotals(12%oftotalcalories)
600.5
94.3
12.4
22.1
1hamburgerwithroll
401.4
54.7
22.6
22.9
1mediumbakedpotato
145.1
33.6
3.1
0.2
1tbspsourcream(forpotato)
25.7
0.5
0.4
2.5
1.5cupstossedsalad
33.1
6.7
2.6
0.1
1tbspItaliandressing(forsalad)
68.7
1.5
0.1
7.1
1.5cupscranberryjuice
216.3
54.7
0.0
0.4
1mediumapple
81.4
21.1
0.3
0.5
1servingcoffeecake
150.7
24.5
2.95
4.5
Subtotals(22%oftotalcalories)
168.0
32.0
38.2
Breakfast
MidAMsnack
Lunch
1122.5
3sliceswholewheattoast
182.1
35.7
7.9
2.3
1tbspjam
54.4
14.0
0.1
0.0
16ouncesGatorade
100.2
28.1
0.0
0.0
1banana
104.9
26.7
1.2
0.6
Subtotals(11%oftotalcalories)
542.9
104.6
9.3
14.2
2cupschickenchowmein
510.0
20.0
62.0
20.0
2cupsrice
399.5
86.6
8.0
1.0
6ouncestea
1.8
0.5
0.0
0.0
1tspsugar(fortea)
15.4
34.0
0.0
0.0
1orange
61.6
15.4
1.2
0.2
1cup2%milk
121.2
11.7
8.1
4.7
1slicechocolatecake
162.4
24.6
2.0
7.2
Subtotals(25%oftotalcalories)
162.7
81.4
33.0
MidPMsnack
Dinner
1271.3
1cupicecream
269.2
31.7
4.8
14.3
3grahamcrackers
163.6
31.2
3.4
4.0
16ouncesGatorade
100.3
28.1
0.0
0.0
Subtotals(13%oftotalcalories)
637.9
117.7
9.4
18.9
Dailytotals(grams)
799
173
144
Percentoftotalcalories
61.7
13.4
24.9
Eveningsnack
5,025
Otherkeynutrientsprovidedbythisfoodintake
Nutrient
Amount
Nutrient
Calcium
2,338mg
Thiamin
6.8mg
Iron
69.0mg
Riboflavin
8.1mg
VitaminC
755.4mg
Note:Thisleveloffoodintakeisappropriateforanathleteweighingabout240lbs.
Fat
Amount
Page296
AppendixB
IronContentofSelectedFoodsinDescendingIronAmount
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount
Iron(mg)
Product19cereal(1oz)
18.00
Totalcereal(1oz)
18.00
Oysters,raw(1cup)
15.60
Enchilada(1enchilada)
11.00
CreamofWheat(1cup)
10.90
MaltOMeal(1cup)
9.60
Cashewnuts,dryroasted(1cup)
8.20
40%BranFlakes,Kellogg(1oz)
8.10
Seaweed,spirulina,dried(1oz)
8.10
Cap'nCrunchcereal(1oz)
7.50
Oatmeal,cookedfrominstant(1pkt)
6.70
Peaches,dried(1cup)
6.50
Spinach,cooked(1cup)
6.40
Apricots,dried,uncooked(1cup)
6.10
Duck,roasted,fleshonly(duck)
6.00
Limabeans,dry,cooked(1cup)
5.90
Beefliver,fried(3oz)
5.30
Chickpeas,cooked,drained(1cup)
4.90
Hamburger,4ozpattyandroll(1sandwich)
4.80
Redkidneybeans,dry,canned(1cup)
4.60
Cereal,mostpopularbrands(1oz)
4.50
Cheeseburger,4ozpattyandroll(1sandwich)
4.50
Chiliconcarnew/beans(1cup)
4.30
Figs,dried(10figs)
4.20
Roastbeefsandwich(1sandwich)
4.00
Page297
CalciumContentofSelectedFoodsinDescendingCalciumAmount
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount
Calcium(mg)
Yogurt,w/lowfatmilk,plain(8oz)
415.00
Macaroniandcheese(1cup)
362.00
Enchilada(1enchilada)
322.00
Milk,lowfat,1%fat(1cup)
313.00
Milk,skim,nofat(1cup)
302.00
Orangejuice,calciumfortified(1cup)
300.00
Milk,lowfat,2%fat(1cup)
297.00
Milk,whole,3.3%fat(1cup)
291.00
Figs,dried(10figs)
269.00
Spinach,cooked(1cup)
245.00
Cheeseburger,4ozpattyandroll(1sandwich)
236.00
Oysters,raw(1cup)
226.00
Turnipgreens,cooked(1cup)
200.00
Oatmeal,cookedfrominstant(1pkt)
168.00
Pasteurizedprocessedcheesefood,American(1
oz)
163.00
Bokchoy,cooked(1cup)
160.00
Fetacheese(1oz)
140.00
Spaghettiw/meatballsandtomatosauce(1cup)
124.00
Tofu(1piece)
108.00
Kale,cooked(1cup)
90.00
Chiliconcarnew/beans(1cup)
82.00
Chickpeas,cooked,drained(1cup)
80.00
Hamburger,4ozpattyandroll(1sandwich)
75.00
Redkidneybeans,dry,canned(1cup)
74.00
Raisins(1cup)
71.00
Broccoli(1cup)
70.00
Page298
BVitaminContentofSelectedFoodsinDescendingBVitaminAmount
Fooddescriptionandcommonserving
amount
B1(mg)
Niacin(mg)
Product19cereal(1oz)
1.50
1.70
20.00
Totalcereal(1oz)
1.50
1.70
20.00
Seaweed,spirulina,dried(1oz)
0.67
1.40
3.60
Duck,roasted,fleshonly(duck)
0.57
1.40
11.30
Oatmeal,cookedfrominstant(1pkt)
0.53
0.38
5.90
Cap'nCrunchcereal(1oz)
0.50
0.55
6.60
MaltOMeal(1cup)
0.48
0.24
5.80
Roastbeefsandwich(1sandwich)
0.40
0.33
6.00
Hamburger,4ozpattyandroll(1sandwich)
0.38
0.38
7.80
40%BranFlakes,Kellogg(1oz)
0.37
0.43
5.00
Cereal,mostpopularbrands(1oz)
0.37
0.43
5.00
Cornflakes,Kellogg(1oz)
0.37
0.43
5.00
RiceKrispiescereal(1oz)
0.37
0.43
5.00
Oysters,raw(1cup)
0.34
0.43
6.00
Cheeseburger,4ozpattyandroll(1
sandwich)
0.33
0.48
7.40
Chickenpotpie,homerecipe(1piece)
0.32
0.32
4.90
Cashewnuts,dryroasted(1cup)
0.27
0.27
1.90
Bagels,plain(1bagel)
0.26
0.20
2.40
Limabeans,dry,cooked(1cup)
0.25
0.11
1.30
Spaghettiwithmeatballsandtomatosauce
(1cup)
0.25
0.30
4.00
CreamofWheat(1cup)
0.24
0.00
1.50
Raisins(1cup)
0.23
0.13
1.20
Rice,white,cooked(1cup)
0.23
0.02
2.10
Macaroniandcheese(1cup)
0.20
0.40
1.80
Enchilada(1enchilada)
0.18
0.26
0.00
Beefliver,fried(3oz)
0.18
3.52
12.30
Chickpeas,cooked,drained(1cup)
0.18
0.09
0.90
Spinach,cooked(1cup)
0.17
0.42
0.90
Redkidneybeans,dry,canned(1cup)
0.13
0.10
1.50
Figs,dried(10figs)
0.13
0.16
1.30
Yogurt,w/lowfatmilk,plain(8oz)
0.10
0.49
0.30
Milk,lowfat,2%fat(1cup)
0.10
0.40
0.20
Milk,lowfat,1%fat(1cup)
0.10
0.42
0.20
Turkey,roasted,light+dark(1cup)
0.09
0.25
7.60
Milk,whole,3.3%fat(1cup)
0.09
0.40
0.20
Milk,skim,nofat(1cup)
0.09
0.34
0.20
Chiliconcarnew/beans(1cup)
0.08
0.18
3.30
Raisinbread(1slice)
0.08
0.15
1.00
Tofu(1piece)
0.07
0.04
0.10
Beefsteak(3oz)
0.06
0.21
3.30
Tunasalad(1cup)
0.06
0.14
13.30
Chicken,roasted,breast(3oz)
0.06
0.10
11.80
Fetacheese(1oz)
0.04
0.24
0.30
Beef,corned(3oz)
0.02
0.20
2.90
Apricots,dried,uncooked(1cup)
0.01
0.20
3.90
Pasteurizedprocessedcheesefood,
American(1oz)
0.01
0.13
0.00
Peaches,dried(1cup)
0.00
0.34
7.00
[B1=ThiaminB2=Riboflavin]
(Source:USDAHomeandGardenBulletin#72)
B2(mg)
Page299
EnergyDistributionofFoodsCommonlyConsumed,inAlphabeticalOrder
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount
Carb
%
Prot%
Fat%
Calories
100%NaturalCereal(1Oz)
52
39
138
1000Island,saladdrsng,reglr(1Tablespoon)
13
87
62
40%BranFlakes,Kellogg(1Oz)
78
14
113
40%BranFlakes,Post(1Oz)
88
12
100
AlfalfaSeeds,Sprouted,Raw(1Cup)
50
50
AllBranCereal(1Oz)
77
15
109
Almonds,Whole(1Oz)
13
13
74
183
AngelfoodCake,FromMix(1Piece)
91
128
AppleJuice,Canned(1Cup)
100
116
ApplePie(1Piece)
58
39
414
Apples,Raw,Unpeeled(1MediumApple)
100
84
Applesauce,Canned,Sweetened(1Cup)
100
204
Applesauce,Canned,Unsweetened(1Cup)
100
112
ApricotNectar(1Cup)
97
148
Apricots,Canned,JuicePack(1Cup)
94
132
Apricots,Canned,Unsweetened(3Halves)
91
44
Apricots,Dried,Uncooked(1Cup)
92
349
Apricots,Raw(3Apricots)
92
52
Artichokes,Globe,Cooked(1Artichoke)
80
20
60
Asparagus,CookedFrmRaw(4Spears)
60
40
20
Avocados,Florida(1Avocado)
29
65
371
Bagels,Egg(1Bagel)
77
14
198
Bagels,Plain(1Bagel)
77
14
198
BakingPwdrBiscuits,HomeRecipe(1Biscuit)
50
43
105
Bananas(1Banana)
89
121
BarbecueSauce(1Tablespoon)
100
BeanSprouts,Mung,Cooked(1Cup)
63
38
36
BeanSprouts,Mung,Raw(1Cup)
67
33
36
BeanWithBaconSoup,Canned(1Cup)
52
18
30
178
BeefAndVegetableStew(1Cup)
27
29
44
223
BeefGravy,Canned(1Cup)
35
29
36
125
BeefNoodleSoup,Canned(1Cup)
43
24
33
83
BeefPotpie,HomeRecipe(1Piece)
31
16
53
510
BeefRoast,Rib,LeanOnly(2.2Oz)
46
54
BeefSteak,Sirloin,Broil,Lean(2.5Oz)
62
38
142
BeetGreens,Cooked(1Cup)
67
33
48
(continued)
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Page300
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
EnergyDistributionofFoodsCommonlyConsumed,inAlphabeticalOrder(continued)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount
Beets,Cooked,Drained,Diced(1Cup)
85
15
52
Beets,Cooked,Drained,Whole(2Beets)
88
13
32
BlackBeans,Dry,Cooked(1Cup)
70
26
233
BlackEyedPeas,Dry,Cooked(1Cup)
70
26
201
Blackberries,Raw(1Cup)
85
11
85
BlueCheese(1Oz)
24
72
100
BlueCheeseSaladDressing(1Tablespoon)
90
80
Blueberries,Raw(1Cup)
86
10
93
BlueberryMuffins,FromMix(1Muffin)
61
31
145
BlueberryMuffins,HomeRecipe(1Muffin)
58
33
137
BlueberryPie(1Piece)
57
39
389
Bologna(2Slices)
16
80
180
BostonBrownBread(1Slice)
83
101
BranMuffins,FromMix(1Muffin)
67
25
144
BranMuffins,HomeRecipe(1Muffin)
54
38
142
BrazilNuts(1Oz)
84
203
Broccoli,Frozen,Cooked(1Piece)
67
33
12
Broccoli,Raw,Cooked(1Spear)
58
29
13
69
BrownAndServeSausage(1Link)
15
85
53
BrownGravyFromDryMix(1Cup)
65
14
21
86
Browniesw/Nuts(1Brownie)
43
53
102
BrusselsSprouts,Raw,Cooked(1Cup)
68
21
12
77
Butter,Salted(1Tablespoon)
100
99
Buttermilk,Fluid(1Cup)
49
33
18
98
Cabbage,Common,Cooked(1Cup)
88
13
32
Cabbage,Common,Raw(1Cup)
80
20
20
Cabbage,Red,Raw(1Cup)
80
20
20
CamembertCheese(1Wedge)
28
72
113
Cantaloupe,Raw(sMelon)
84
105
Cap'nCrunchCereal(1Oz)
75
22
123
Caramels,PlainOrChocolate(1Oz)
74
23
119
Carrots,Raw,Whole(1Carrot)
88
13
32
CashewNuts,DryRoasted,Salted(1Cup)
22
10
68
831
Catsup(1Tablespoon)
100
16
Cauliflower,CookedFromRaw(1Cup)
75
25
32
Cauliflower,Raw(1Cup)
71
29
28
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Calories
Page301
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount
Celery,Raw(1Stalk)
100
Calories
4
CheddarCheese(1Oz)
26
74
109
CheeriosCereal(1Oz)
70
14
16
114
CheeseCrackers,Plain(10Crackers)
44
49
55
CheeseCrackers,Sandwich(1Sandwich)
48
10
43
42
CheeseSaucew/Milk(1Cup)
30
21
50
309
Cheeseburger,Regular(1Sandwich)
36
20
44
307
Cheesecake(1Piece)
36
57
286
Cherries,Sweet,Raw(10Cherries)
77
16
57
CherryPie(1Piece)
58
38
422
ChickenlaKing,HomeRecipe(1Cup)
10
23
66
462
ChickenAndNoodles,HomeRecipe(1Cup)
29
25
46
354
$jtChickenChowMein,Canned(1Cup):
72
28
100
ChickenChowMein,HomeRecipe(1Cup)
16
49
35
254
ChickenGravy,Canned(1Cup)
26
10
64
198
ChickenNoodleSoup,Canned(1Cup)
51
23
26
70
ChickenPotpie,HomeRecipe(1Piece)
31
17
52
539
ChickenRiceSoup,Canned(1Cup)
45
26
29
62
CghickenFried,Batter,Breast(4.9Oz)
15
40
46
354
Chicken,Fried,Batter,Drumstick(2.5Oz)
13
34
53
187
Chicken,Fried,Drumstick(1.7Oz)
44
53
119
Chicken,Fried,Flour,Breast(3.5Oz)
58
38
213
Chicken,Roasted,Breast(3.0Oz)
80
20
135
Chicken,Roasted,Drumstick(1.6Oz)
73
27
66
Chicken,Stewed,Light+Dark(1Cup)
65
35
233
Chickpeas,Cooked,Drained(1Cup)
65
22
13
276
ChiliConCarnew/Beans,Cnnd(1Cup)
36
22
42
344
ChocolateChipCookies(4Cookies)
49
47
211
ChocolateMilk,Lowfat1%(1Cup)
64
20
17
163
ChocolateMilk,Regular(1Cup)
50
15
35
208
ChopSueyw/Beef+Pork(1Cup)
17
34
50
309
ClamChowder,Manhattan,Canned(1Cup)
59
20
22
82
ClamChowder,NewEng,w/Milk(1Cup)
41
22
38
167
Clams,Raw(3Oz)
13
72
15
61
Coconut,Raw,Shredded(1Cup)
16
80
303
Coffeecake,Crumb,FromMix(1Piece)
65
27
235
Cola,Regular(12FlOz)
100
164
(continued)
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Page302
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
EnergyDistributionofFoodsCommonlyConsumed,inAlphabeticalOrder(continued)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount
Carb
%
Prot%
Fat%
Collards,CookedFromRaw(1Cup)
71
29
28
CornChips(1Oz)
42
53
153
CornFlakes,Kellogg(1Oz)
92
104
CornFlakes,Toasties(1Oz)
92
104
CornGrits,CookedWithSalt(1Cup)
91
136
CornMuffins,FromMix(1Muffin)
57
35
154
CornMuffins,HomeRecipe(1Muffin)
60
32
141
CornOil(1Tablespoon)
100
126
Corn,Canned,CreamStyle(1Cup)
88
209
Corn,Canned,WholeKernel(1Cup)
85
10
193
Corn,CookedFromRaw,Yellow(1Ear)
78
12
97
CottageCheese,Creamed,LargeCurd(1Cup)
11
50
40
226
CottageCheese,Creamed,SmallCurd(1Cup)
11
50
39
209
Crabmeat,Canned(1Cup)
75
22
123
CrackedWheatBread(1Slice)
74
12
14
65
CranberryJuiceCocktailw/VitC(1Cup)
100
152
CranberrySauce,Canned,Sweetened(1Cup)
99
436
CreamCheese(1Oz)
88
102
CreamOfChickenSoupw/Milk,Canned(1Cup)
32
15
53
187
CreamOfMushroomSoupw/H2O,Canned(1Cup)
29
65
125
CreamOfMushroomSoupw/Milk(1Cup)
29
11
60
210
CreamOfWheat,Cooked,Instant(1Cup)
88
12
132
CreamePie(1Piece)
52
45
455
Croissants(1Croissant)
46
46
236
Cucumber,w/Peel(6Slices)
100
CustardPie(1Piece)
43
11
46
333
Custard,Baked(1Cup)
38
18
44
307
DanishPastry,Fruit(1Pastry)
46
48
245
DanishPastry,Plain,NoNuts(1Ring)
46
48
1,331
Dates(10Dates)
97
252
DevilsFoodCakeWithChocFrosting(1Piece)
66
30
244
Doughnuts,CakeType,Plain(1Doughnut)
44
50
216
Doughnuts,YeastLeavened,Glazed(1Doughnut)
44
49
237
Eggnog(1Cup)
39
12
49
347
Eggplant,Cooked,Steamed(1Cup)
86
14
28
Eggs,Cooked,Fried(1Egg)
26
69
91
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Calories
Page303
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount
Carb
%
Prot%
Fat%
Calories
Eggs,Cooked,HardCooked(1Egg)
29
66
82
Eggs,Cooked,Poached(1Egg)
29
66
82
Eggs,Cooked,Scrambled/Omelet(1Egg)
26
67
108
Enchilada(1Enchilada)
30
25
45
320
EnglishMuffin,Egg,Cheese,Bacon(1Sandwich)
35
20
45
358
EnglishMuffins,Plain(1Muffin)
79
15
137
EvaporatedMilk,Skim,Canned(1Cup)
58
38
201
EvaporatedMilk,Whole,Canned(1Cup)
29
20
50
339
Fats,Cooking/VegetblShorteng(1Tablespoon)
100
117
FetaCheese(1Oz)
22
73
74
FigBars(4Cookies)
79
17
212
Figs,Dried(10Figs)
92
530
Filberts,(Hazelnuts)Chopped(1Cup)
83
780
Filberts,(Hazelnuts)Chopped(1Oz)
84
194
FishSandwich,Reg,w/Cheese(1Sandwich)
37
15
48
427
FlounderOrSole,BakedWithMargarine(3Oz)
54
46
118
Frankfurter,Cooked(1Frank)
14
83
141
FrenchBread(1Slice)
77
13
10
93
FrenchSaladDressing,Regular(1Tablespoon)
95
85
FrenchToast,HomeRecipe(1Slice)
44
15
41
155
FrootLoopsCereal(1Oz)
85
117
FruitCocktail,Canned,JuicePack(1Cup)
97
120
FruitPunchDrink,Canned(6FlOz)
100
88
Fruitcake,Dark(1Piece)
58
37
171
Fudge,Chocolate,Plain(1Oz)
73
23
115
GelatinDessert,Prepared(Cup)
89
11
76
GingerAle(12FlOz)
100
128
GingerbreadCake,FromMix(1Piece)
74
21
172
GoldenGrahamsCereal(1Oz)
85
113
GrahamCracker,Plain(2Crackers)
77
16
57
GrapeDrink,Canned(6FlOz)
100
104
GrapeJuice,Canned(1Cup)
97
156
GrapeSoda(12FlOz)
100
184
GrapeNutsCereal(1Oz)
88
12
104
GrapefruitJuice,Raw(1Cup)
96
96
Grapefruit,Raw,Pink(Fruit)
91
44
Grapes,Raw(10Grapes)
100
40
(continued)
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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
EnergyDistributionofFoodsCommonlyConsumed,inAlphabeticalOrder(continued)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount
Carb
%
Prot%
Fat%
GreatNorthernBeans,Dry,Cooked(1Cup)
70
26
217
GroundBeef,Broiled,Regular(3Oz)
33
67
242
Haddock,Breaded,Fried(3Oz)
16
38
46
177
HalfAndHalf,Cream(1Tablespoon)
18
82
22
Halibut,Broiled,Butter,LemonJuice(3Oz)
60
40
134
Hamburger,RegularWithRoll(1Sandwich)
43
19
38
259
HardCandy(1Oz)
100
112
Herring,Pickled(3Oz)
37
63
185
HollandaiseSce,w/H2O,FrmMx(1Cup)
22
70
256
Honey(1Tablespoon)
100
68
HoneyNutCheeriosCereal(1Oz)
81
11
113
HoneydewMelon,Raw(1/10Melon)
92
52
IceCream,Vanilla,Regular(1Cup)
47
46
274
IceCream,Vanilla,SoftServe(1Cup)
39
53
387
IceMilk,Vanilla,4%Fat(1Cup)
61
11
28
190
IceMilk,Vanilla,SoftServe3%(1Cup)
66
14
20
229
ItalianBread(1Slice)
85
15
80
ItalianSaladDressing,Regular(1Tablespoon)
95
85
JamsAndPreserves(1Tablespoon)
100
56
Jellies(1Tablespoon)
100
52
JellyBeans(1Oz)
100
104
Kale,CookedFromRaw(1Cup)
62
18
20
45
Kiwifruit,Raw(1Kiwi)
92
48
Lamb,Chops,Arm,Braised,Lean(1.7Oz)
52
48
131
Lamb,Chops,Loin,Broil,Lean(2.3Oz)
58
42
130
Lamb,Leg,Roasted,LeanOnly(2.6Oz
60
40
134
Lard(1Tablespoon)
100
117
LemonJuice,Canned(1Cup)
83
12
77
LemonMeringuePie(1Piece)
59
35
358
LemonLimeSoda(12FlOz)
100
156
Lemons,Raw(1Lemon)
83
17
24
Lentils,Dry,Cooked(1Cup)
68
28
225
Lettuce,Crisphead,Raw,Wedge(1Wedge)
75
25
16
Lettuce,Looseleaf(1Cup)
67
33
12
Light,CoffeeOrTableCream(1Tablespoon)
13
87
31
LimaBeans,Dry,Cooked(1Cup)
73
24
269
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Calories
Page305
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount
Carb
%
Prot%
Fat%
Calories
LimaBeans,Frozen,Cooked(1Cup)
72
23
177
LimeJuice,Raw(1Cup)
96
92
LimeJuice,Canned(1Cup)
83
12
77
Limeade,Concen,Frozen,Diluted(6FlOz)
100
80
LuckyCharmsCereal(1Oz)
81
11
113
MacadamiaNuts,OilRoasted,Salted(1Cup)
90
1035
MacaroniAndCheese,Canned(1Cup)
45
16
39
230
MacaroniAndCheese,HomeRecipe(1Cup)
38
16
46
426
Macaroni,Cooked,Firm,(1Cup)
81
15
193
MaltOMeal,WithSalt(1Cup)
87
13
120
Mangos,Raw(1Mango)
92
153
Margarine,Regulr,Hard,80%Fat(1Tablespoon)
100
99
Margarine,Regulr,Soft,80%Fat(1Tablespoon)
100
99
Margarine,Spread,Hard,60%Fat(1Tablespoon)
100
81
Margarine,Spread,Soft,60%Fat(1Tablespoon)
100
81
Marshmallows(1Oz)
96
96
MayonnaiseTypeSaladDressing(1Tablespoon)
26
74
61
Mayonnaise,Regular(1Tablespoon)
100
99
MelbaToast,Plain(1Piece)
80
20
20
MilkChocolateCandy,Plain(1Oz)
42
53
153
MilkChocolateCandy,WithRiceCrispies(1Oz)
50
44
143
MilkChocolateCandy,w/Almonds(1Oz)
37
56
162
MilkChocolateCandy,w/Peanuts(1Oz)
31
10
59
167
Milk,Whole,3.3%Fat(1Cup)
30
22
49
148
Milk,LowFat,1%Fat(1Cup)
45
30
25
107
Milk,LowFat,2%,NoAddedSolid(1Cup)
38
26
36
125
Milk,Skim(1Cup)
60
40
80
MinestroneSoup,Canned(1Cup)
51
18
31
87
MixedGrainBread(1Slice)
74
12
14
65
MixedNutsw/Peanuts,Dry,Salted(1`Oz)
15
11
74
183
MozzarellaCheese,Skim,LowMoisture(1Oz)
40
56
81
MuensterCheese(1Oz)
26
74
109
MushroomGravy,Canned(1Cup)
44
10
46
118
Mushrooms,Raw(1Cup)
75
25
16
NatureValleyGranolaCereal(1Oz)
57
34
133
Nectarines,Raw(1Nectarine)
83
12
77
Noodles,Egg,Cooked(1Cup)
76
14
194
(continued)
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Page306
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
EnergyDistributionofFoodsCommonlyConsumed,inAlphabeticalOrder(continued)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount
OatmealBread(1Slice)
74
12
14
65
Oatmealw/RaisinsCookies(4Cookies)
59
37
246
Oatmeal,Cooked,Instant(1Cup)
70
17
13
142
OceanPerch,Breaded,Fried(1Fillet)
15
34
52
191
OkraPods,Cooked(8Pods)
75
25
32
OliveOil(1Tablespoon)
100
126
Olives,Canned,Green(1Medium)
100
18
OnionRings,Breaded(2Rings)
40
56
81
Onions,Raw,Chopped(1Cup)
86
14
56
OrangeJuice,Raw(1Cup)
93
112
OrangeSoda(12FlOz)
100
184
Oranges,Raw(1Orange)
94
64
Oysters,Breaded,Fried(1Oyster)
24
24
53
85
Oysters,Raw(1Cup)
22
54
24
148
Pancakes,Buckwheat(1Pancake)
48
16
36
50
Pancakes,Plain,HomeRecipe(1Pancake)
58
13
29
62
ParmesanCheese,Grated(1Oz)
36
61
133
Parsley,Raw(10Springs)
100
Parsnips,Cooked,Drained(1Cup)
94
128
PasteurizedProceesedCheese,Swiss(1Oz)
29
66
95
PasteurizedProcessedCheese,American(1Oz)
23
77
105
Peabeans,Dry,Cooked(1Cup)
70
26
229
Pea,Green,Soup,Canned(1Cup)
63
21
16
171
PeachPie(1Piece)
59
37
409
Peaches,Frozen,Sweetened(1Cup)
97
248
Peaches,Canned,Juicepack(1Cup)
94
124
Peaches,Dried(1Cup)
92
425
Peaches,Raw(1Peach)
91
44
PeanutButter(1Tablespoon)
12
19
69
104
PeanutButterCookies(4Cookies)
44
50
254
PeanutOil(1Tablespoon)
100
126
Peanuts,OilRoasted,Salted(1Cup)
12
17
71
903
Pears,Raw,DAnjou(1Pear)
90
133
Pears,Canned,JuicePack(1Cup)
97
132
Pears,Raw,Bartlett(1Pear)
88
113
Peas,EdiblePod,Cooked,Drained(1Cup)
69
31
64
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Calories
Page307
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount
Peas,Green,FrozenCooked(1Cup)
74
26
Calories
124
PecanPie(1Piece)
47
48
600
Pecans,Halves(1Cup)
10
85
769
PepperTypeSoda(12FlOz)
100
164
Peppers,HotChili,Raw,Gren(1Pepper)
80
20
20
Peppers,Sweet,Cooked,Green(1Pepper)
100
12
Peppers,Sweet,Raw,Green(1Pepper)
80
20
20
Pickles,Cucumber,Dill(1Pickle)
100
PineNuts(1Oz)
11
83
185
Pineapple,Juice,Canned,Unsweetened(1Cup)
97
140
Pineapple,Canned,JuicePack(1Cup)
98
160
Pineapple,Raw,Diced(1Cup)
85
10
89
PineappleGrapefruitJuiceDrink(6FlOz)
100
92
PintoBeans,Dry,Cooked(1Cup)
74
23
265
PistachioNuts(1Oz)
16
13
71
178
PitaBread(1Pita)
80
15
165
Pizza,Cheese(1Slice)
53
20
27
297
Plums,Canned,JuicePack(1Cup)
97
156
Plums,Raw(1MediumPlum)
100
16
Popcorn,AirPopped(1Cup)
86
14
28
Popsicle(1Popsicle)
100
72
PorkChop,Loin,Broiled,Lean(2.5Oz)
56
44
164
PorkFreshHam,Roasted,Lean(2.5Oz)
53
47
152
Pork,Cured,Bacon,Regular,Cooked(3Slices)
23
77
105
Pork,Cured,CanadianBacon(2Slices)
52
43
84
Pork,Link,Cooked(1Link)
25
75
48
Pork,LuncheonMeat,CookedHam,Lean(2Slices)
59
36
75
PotatoChips(10Chips)
37
59
107
PotatoSaladMadew/Mayonnaise(1Cup)
34
57
329
Potatoes,AuGratin(1Cup)
34
15
52
331
Potatoes,BakedWithSkin(1Potato)
91
224
Potatoes,BoiledAndPeeled(1Potato)
90
10
120
Potatoes,MashedWithMilk(1Cup)
86
173
Potatoes,Scalloped(1Cup)
49
13
38
213
Potatoes,FrenchFried,Rrozen,OvenCooked(10Strips)
61
32
112
PoundCake,FromHomeRecipe(1Slice)
53
40
113
Pretzels,Stick(10Pretzels)
100
8
(continued)
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EnergyDistributionofFoodsCommonlyConsumed,inAlphabeticalOrder(continued)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount
Carb
%
Prot%
Fat%
Pretzels,Twisted,Dutch(1Pretzel)
75
12
13
69
Product19Cereal(1Oz)
89
11
108
ProvoloneCheese(1Oz)
27
69
104
PruneJuice,Canned(1Cup)
96
188
Prunes,Dried(5Large)
97
128
Pudding,Choc,CookedFromMix(Cup)
66
11
24
152
Pudding,Chocolate,Canned(5Oz)
52
43
231
Pudding,Rice,FromMix(Cup)
68
10
23
160
Pudding,Tapioca,FromMix(Cup)
66
11
24
152
Pudding,Vanilla,Canned(5Oz)
57
39
230
Pudding,Vanilla,From0Mix(Cup)
66
11
24
152
Pudding,Vanilla,InstantFromMix(Cup)
68
10
23
160
PumpernickelBread(1Slice)
75
14
11
85
PumpkinAndSquashKernels(1Oz)
12
17
71
165
PumpkinPie(1Piece)
46
47
325
QuicheLorraine(1Slice)
19
72
600
Radishes,Raw(4Radishes)
100
RaisinBran,Kellogg(1Oz)
80
11
105
RaisinBran,Post(1Oz)
80
11
105
RaisinBread(1Slice)
75
12
13
69
Raisins(1Cup)
94
489
Raspberries,Raw(1Cup)
81
13
69
RedKidneyBeans,Dry,Canned(1Cup)
71
25
237
RefriedBeans,Dry,Canned(1Cup)
67
24
303
Relish,Sweet(1Tablespoon)
100
20
RiceKrispiesCereal(1Oz)
93
108
Rice,Brown,Cooked(1Cup)
87
229
Rice,White,Cooked(1Cup)
93
216
RicottaCheese,PartSkimMilk(1Cup)
16
33
51
335
RoastBeefSandwich(1Sandwich)
40
26
34
341
Rolls,Dinner,Commercial(1Roll)
68
10
22
82
Rolls,Dinner,HomeRecipe(1Roll)
67
10
23
119
Rolls,Frankfurter+Hamburger(1Roll)
73
11
16
110
Rolls,Hard(1Roll)
76
13
11
158
Rolls,HoagieOrSubmarine(1Roll)
71
11
18
404
RootBeer(12FlOz)
100
168
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
Calories
Page309
(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount
Carb
%
Prot%
Fat%
Calories
RyeBread,Light(1Slice)
74
12
14
65
RyeWafers,WholeGrain(2Wafers)
75
17
53
SafflowerOil(1Tablespoon)
100
126
Salami,CookedType(2Slices)
24
73
135
Salmon,Baked,Red(3Oz)
65
35
129
Salmon,Canned,Pink,w/Bones(3Oz)
60
40
113
Salmon,Smoked(3Oz)
50
50
144
Saltines(4Crackers)
73
18
49
SandwichSpread,Pork,Beef(1Tablespoon)
21
10
69
39
SandwichTypeCookie(4Cookies)
59
37
196
Sardines,CannedInOil(3Oz)
50
50
161
Sauerkraut,Canned(1Cup)
83
17
48
Scallops,Breaded,Frozen,Reheat(6Scallops)
21
32
47
190
SemisweetChocolate(1Cup)
40
57
965
SesameSeeds(1Tablespoon)
17
75
48
Shakes,Thick,Chocolate(10Oz)
69
10
21
348
Shakes,Thick,Vanilla(10Oz)
62
14
25
325
Sheetcake,WithFrosting(1Piece)
68
28
450
Sherbet,2%Fat(1Cup)
84
13
280
ShortbreadCookies(2Cookies)
46
49
148
ShreddedWheatCereal(1Oz)
81
11
113
Shrimp,Canned,Drained(3Oz)
87
97
Shrimp,FrenchFried(3Oz)
22
32
45
198
SnackCakes,DevilsFood,CreameFilled(SmallCake)
63
33
108
SnackTypeCrackers(1Cracker)
47
53
17
SnapBean,Cooked,Green(1Cup)
83
17
48
SourCream(1Tablespoon)
13
87
31
SoySauce(1Tablespoon)
50
50
16
Soybeans,Dry,Cooked(1Cup)
31
33
37
246
Spaghetti,WithMeatballsAndTomatoSauce(1Cup)
46
22
32
340
Spaghetti,Cooked,Firm(1Cup)
81
15
193
Spaghetti,Cooked,Tender(1Cup)
82
13
157
SpecialKCereal(1Oz)
78
22
108
SpinachSuffle(1Cup)
20
74
218
Spinach,Cooked,Tender(1Cup)
58
42
48
Spinach,Raw(1Cup)
50
50
16
Squash,Summer,Cooked,Drained(1Cup)
65
16
18
49
(continued)
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
EnergyDistributionofFoodsCommonlyConsumed,inAlphabeticalOrder(continued)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount
Carb
%
Prot%
Fat%
Calories
Strawberries,Raw(1Cup)
75
17
53
SugarCookies(4Cookies)
52
45
240
SugarFrostedFlakes,Kellogg(1Oz)
96
108
SugarSmacksCereal(1Oz)
85
117
Sugar,White,Granulated(1Tablespoon)
100
48
SunflowerOil(1Tablespoon)
100
126
SunflowerSeeds(1Oz)
12
14
74
170
SuperSugarCrispCereal(1Oz)
93
112
Sweet(Dark)Chocolate(1Oz)
41
57
158
SweetenedCondensedMilk(1Cup)
66
10
24
1003
SweetPotatoes,Baked,Peeled(1Potato)
93
120
SwissCheese(1Oz)
30
67
108
Syrup,ChocolateFlavored,Fudge(2Tablespoons)
61
33
137
TableSyrup(CornAndMaple(2Tablespoons)
100
128
Taco(1Taco)
31
18
51
195
Tahini(1Tablespoon)
13
13
75
96
Tangerines,Raw91Fruit)
90
10
40
TartarSauce(1Tablespoon)
95
76
Tea,Instnat,Prepared,Unsweetened(8FlOz)
100
Tea,Instant,Prepared,Sweetened(8FlOz)
100
88
Tofu(1Piece)
13
39
48
93
TomatoJuice,CannedWithSalt(1Cup)
83
17
48
TomatoSauce,CannedWithSalt(1Cup)
86
14
84
TomatoSoupw/Water,Canned(1Cup)
72
19
94
TomatoSoupWithMilk,Canned(1Cup)
53
14
33
166
Tomatoes,Raw(1Tamato)
83
17
24
Tortillas,Corn(1Tortilla)
75
12
13
69
TotalCereal(1Oz)
81
11
109
TrixCereal(1Oz)
93
108
Trout,Broiled,w/ButterAndLemonJuice(3Oz)
51
49
165
TunaSalad(1Cup)
20
35
45
379
Tuna,CannedInOil,(3Oz)
60
40
159
Tuna,CannedInWater(3Oz)
93
129
Turkey,Roasted,DarkMeat(4Pieces)
64
36
150
Turkey,Roasted,LightMeat(2Pieces)
79
21
127
TurnipGreens,CookedFromRaw(1Cup)
75
25
32
(tablecontinuedonnextpage)
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(tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Fooddescriptionandcommonservingamount
Carb
%
Prot%
Fat%
VanillaWafers(10Cookies)
62
34
187
VealCutlet,MedFat,Braised,Broiled(3Oz)
53
47
173
VegetableBeefSoup,Canned(1Cup)
49
29
22
82
VegetableJuiceCocktail,Canned(1Cup)
85
15
52
VegetarianSoup,Canned(1Cup)
65
11
24
74
ViennaBread(1Slice)
75
12
13
69
ViennaSausage(1Sausage)
18
82
44
VinegarAndOilSaladDressing(1Tablespoon)
100
72
Waffles(1Waffle)
52
13
35
208
Walnuts,Black,Chopped(1Cup)
15
78
819
Watermelon,Raw(1Piece)
82
11
170
WheatBread(1Slice)
74
12
14
65
WheatBread,Toasted(1Slice)
70
17
13
69
WheatThinCrackers(4Crackers)
61
12
27
33
WheatiesCereal(1Oz)
88
12
104
WhippedTopping,Pressurized(1Tablespoon)
100
WhippingCream,Unwhipped,Heavy(1Tablespoon)
100
54
WhippingCream,Unwhipped,Light(1Tablespoon)
100
45
WhiteBread(1Slice)
74
12
14
65
WhiteCakeWithWhiteFrosting(1Piece)
64
31
261
WhiteSaucew/MilkFromMix(1Cup)
35
17
49
241
WhiteSauce,Medium,HomeRecipe(1Cup)
24
10
67
406
WholeWheatBread(1Slice)
71
16
12
73
WholeWheatWafers,Crackers(2Crackers)
48
10
43
42
YellowCakeWithChocolateFrosting(1Piece)
66
30
244
YellowCakeWithChocolateFrosting(1Piece)
59
38
263
Yogurt,w/LowFatMilk,Plain(8Oz)
43
32
24
148
Yogurt,w/NonfatMilk(8Oz)
57
43
120
Yogurt,WithLowFatMilk,FruitFlavored(8Oz)
75
17
230
(Source:USDAHomeandGardenBulletin#72)
Calories
Page312
ENDNOTES
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temperatures.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.22:477483.
24Burke,L.M.1996.Rehydrationstrategiesbeforeandafterexercise.Aust.J.Nutr.Diet53(4Suppl):S22S26.
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25Montner,P.,Stark,D.M.,Riedesel,M.L.,Murata,G.,Robergs,R.,Timms,M.,andChick,T.W.1996.Preexerciseglycerolhydrationimprovescycling
endurancetime.Int.J.SportsMed.17:2733.
26Lyle,D.M.,Lewis,P.R.,Richards,D.A.B.,Richards,R.,Bauman,A.E.,Sutton,J.R.,andCameron,I.D.1994.HeatexhaustionintheSunHeraldcitytosurf
funrun.Med.J.Aust.161:361365.
27McConnell,G.,Burge,C.M.,Skinner,S.L.,andHargreaves,M.1995.Ingestedfluidvolumeandphysiologicalresponsesduringprolongedexerciseinamild
environment[abstract].Med.Sci.SportsExerc.27:S19.
28Walsh,R.M.,Noakes,T.D.,Hawley,J.A.,andDennis,S.C.1994.Impairedhighintensitycyclingperformancetimeatlowlevelsofdehydration.Int.J.Sports
Med.15:392398.
29Maughan,R.J.,Fenn,C.E.,andLeiper,J.B.1989.Effectsoffluid,electrolyteandsubstrateingestiononendurancecapacity.Eur.J.Appl.Physiol.58:481486.
30Mitchell,J.B.,Costill,D.L.,Houmard,J.A.,Fink,W.J.,Pascoe,D.D.,andPearson,D.R.1989.Influenceofcarbohydratedosageonexerciseperformanceand
glycogenmetabolism.J.Appl.Physiol.67:18431849.
31Tsintzas,O.K.,Liu,R.,Williams,C.,Campbell,I.,andGaitanos,G.1993.Theeffectofcarbohydrateingestiononperformanceduringa30kmrace.Int.J.
SportNutr.3:127139.
32Coggan,A.R.,andCoyle,E.F.1987.Reversaloffatigueduringprolongedexercisebycarbohydrateinfusionoringestion.J.Appl.Physiol.63:23882395.
33Coyle,E.F.,Hagberg,J.M.,Hurley,B.F.,Martin,W.H.,Ehami,A.A.,andHolloszy,J.O.1983.Carbohydratefeedingduringprolongedstrenuousexercisecan
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34Coyle,E.F.,Coggan,A.R.,Hemmert,M.K.,andIvy,J.L.1986.Muscleglycogenutilizationduringprolonged,strenuousexercisewhenfedcarbohydrate.J.
Appl.Physiol.61:165172.
35Tsintzas,O.K.,Williams,C.,Boobis,L.,andGreenhaff,P.1995.Carbohydrateingestionandglycogenutilizationindifferentmusclefibertypesinman.J.
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36Hargreaves,M.,Costill,D.L.,Coggan,A.R.,Fink,W.J.,andNishibata,I.1984.Effectofcarbohydratefeedingsonmuscleglycogenutilizationandexercise
performance.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.16:219222.
37Yaspelkis,B.B.,Patterson,J.G.,Anderla,P.A.,Ding,Z.,andIvy,J.L.1993.Carbohydratesupplementationsparesmuscleglycogenduringvariableintensity
exercise.J.Appl.Physiol.75:14771485.
38Below,P.R.,MoraRodriguez,R.,GonzalezAlonso,J.,andCoyle,E.F.1995.Fluidandcarbohydrateingestionindependentlyimprovesperformanceduringone
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39Below,P.R.,MoraRodriquez,R.,GonzalezAlonso,J.,andCoyle,E.F.1995.Fluidandcarbohydrateingestionindependentlyimproveperformanceduring1h
ofintenseexercise.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.27:200210.
40Nicholas,C.W.,Williams,C.,Lakomy,H.K.A.,Phillips,G.,andNowitz,A.1995.Influenceofingestingacarbohydrateelectrolytesolutiononendurance
capacityduringintermittent,highintensityshuttlerunning.J.SportsSci.13:283290.
41Simard,C.,Tremblay,A.,andJobin,M.1988.Effectsofcarbohydrateintakebeforeandduringanicehockeymatchonbloodandmuscleenergysubstrates.
Res.Q.Exerc.Sport59:144147.
42Coyle,E.F.,Coggan,A.R.,Hemmert,M.K.,andIvy,J.L.1986.Muscleglycogenutilizationduringprolonged,strenuousexercisewhenfedcarbohydrate.J.
Appl.Physiol.61:165172.
43Murray,R.,Paul,G.L.,Seifert,J.G.,Eddy,D.E.,andHalaby,G.A.1989.Theeffectsofglucose,fructose,andsucroseingestionduringexercise.Med.Sci.
SportsExerc.21:275282.
44Owen,M.D.,Kregel,K.C.,Wall,P.T.,andGisolfi,C.V.1986.Effectsofingestingcarbohydratebeveragesduringexerciseintheheat.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.
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45Murray,R.,Paul,G.L.,Seifert,J.G.,Eddy,D.E.,andHalaby,G.A.1989.Theeffectsofglucose,fructose,andsucroseingestionduringexercise.Med.Sci.
SportsExerc.21:275282.
46Bjorkman,O.,Sahlin,K.,Hagenfeldt,L.,andWahren,J.1984.Influenceofglucoseandfructoseingestiononthecapacityforlongtermexerciseinwelltrained
men.Clin.Physiol.4:483494.
47Hargreaves,M.1996.PhysiologicalbenefitsoffluidandenergyreplacementduringexerciseAust.J.Nutr.Diet53(4Suppl):S3S7.
48Mason,W.L.,McConell,G.K.,andHargreaves,M.1993.Carbohydrateingestionduringexercise:Liquidvs.solidfeedings.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.25:966
969.
49Coggan,A.R.,andCoyle,E.F.1987.Reversaloffatigueduringprolongedexercisebycarbohydrateinfusionoringestion.J.Appl.Physiol.63:23882395.
50Coyle,E.F.,andMontain,S.J.1992.Benefitsoffluidreplacementwithcarbohydrateduringexercise.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.24(suppl):324S330S.
51Wagenmakers,A.J.M.,Brouns,F.,Saris,W.H.M.,andHaliday,D.1993.Oxidationratesoforallyingestedcarbohydratesduringprolongedexerciseinmen.J.
Appl.Physiol.75:27742780.
52Broad,E.M.,Burke,L.M.,Gox,G.R.,Heeley,P.,andRiley,M.1996.Bodyweightchangesandvoluntaryfluidintakesduringtrainingandcompetitionsessions
inteamsports.Int.J.SportNutr.6:307320.
53Noakes,T.D.,Adams,B.A.,Myburgh,K.H.,Greff,C.,Lotz,T.,andNathan,M.1988.Thedangerofinadequatewaterintakeduringprolongedexercise.Eur.
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54Rothstein,A.,Adolph,E.F.,andWills,J.H.1947.Voluntarydehydration.InPhysiologyofmaninthedesert,ed.Adolph,E.F.,254270.NewYork:
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55Carter,J.E.,andGisolfi,C.V.1989.Fluidreplacementduringandafterexerciseintheheat.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.21:532539.
56GonzalezAlonso,J.,Heaps,C.L.,andCoyle,E.F.1992.Rehydrationafterexercisewithcommonbeveragesandwater.Int.J.SportsMed.3:399406.
57Maughan,R.J.,andLeiper,J.,B.1995.Sodiumintakeandpostexerciserehydrationinman.Eur.J.Appl.Physiol.71:311319.
58Maughan,R.J.,Leiper,J.B.,andShirreffs,S.M.1996.Restorationoffluidbalanceafterexerciseinduceddehydration:Effectsoffoodandfluidintake.Eur.J.
Appl.Physiol.73:317325.
59Burke,L.M.1996.Rehydrationstrategiesbeforeandafterexercise.Aust.J.Nutr.Diet53(4Suppl):S22S26.
Chapter3
1Williams,M.H,1992.Nutritionforfitnessandsport.(Dubuque,IO:WilliamC.BrownPublishers).224225.
2Katch,F.I.,andMcArdle,W.D.1993.Introductiontonutrition,exercise,andhealth.4thed.Philadelphia:Lea&Febinger.
3Williams,M.H.1999.Nutritionforhealth,fitness,andsport.(NewYork:WCBMcGrawHill).317318.
4ArchimedeswasaGreekmathematician,engineer,andphysicist.Hediscoveredformulasfordeterminingtheareaandvolumeofdifferentshapestheprincipalof
buoyancy.
5Grediagan,M.A.,Cody,M.,Rupp,J.,Benardot,D.,andShern,R.1995.Exerciseintensitydoesnoteffectbodycompositionchangeinuntrained.Moderately
overfatwomen.J.Am.DieteticsAss.95(6):661665.
6Saltzman,E.,andRoberts,S.B.1995.Theroleofenergyexpenditureinenergyregulation:findingsofadecadeofresearch.Nutr.Rev.53(8):209220.
7Forbes,G.F.,Brown,M.R.,Welle,S.L.,andLipinski,B.A.1986.Deliberateoverfeedinginwomenandmen:energycostandcompositionoftheweightgain.Brit.
J.ofNutr.56:19.
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8Roberts,S.B.,Young,V.R.,Fuss,P.,etal.1990.Energyexpenditureandsubsequentnutrientintakesinoverfedyoungmen.Am.J.Clin.Nutr.259:R4619.
9Diaz,E.O.,Prentice,A.M.,Goldberg,G.R.,Murgatroyd,P.R.,andCoward,W.A.1992.Metabolicresponsetoexperimentaloverfeedinginleanandoverweight
healthyvolunteers.Am.J.Clin.Nutr.56:64155.
10Leibel,R.L.,Rosenbaum,M.,andHirsch,J.1995.Changesinenergyexpenditureresultingfromalteredbodyweight.NewEng.J.Med.332:6218.
Chapter4
1Greenhaff,P.L.,Casey,A.,Short,A.H.,Harris,R.,Soderlund,K.,andHultman,E.1993.Influenceoforalcreatinesupplementationofmuscletorqueduring
repeatedboutsofmaximalvoluntaryexerciseinman.Clin.Sci.84:565571.
2Harris,R.C.,Soderlund,K.,andHultman,E.1992.Elevationofcreatineinrestingandexercisedmuscleofnormalsubjectsbycreatinesupplementation,Clin.Sci.
83:367374.
3Maughan,R.J.1995.Creatinesupplementationandexerciseperformance.Intl.J.SportNutr.5:94101.
4Walker,J.B.1979.Creatinebiosynthesis,regulation,andfunction.Adv.Enzmmol.50:117142.
5Butterfield,G.,Cady,C.,andMoynihan,S.1992.Effectofincreasingproteinintakeonnitrogenbalanceinrecreationalweightlifters.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.
24:S71.
6Nagle,F.J.,andBassett,D.R.1989.Energymetabolism.InNutritioninexerciseandsport,ed.Hickson,J.F.,andWolinsky,I.BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress,
87106.
7Costill,D.L.,andHargreaves,M.1992.Carbohydratenutritionandfatigue.SportsMed.13(2):86
8Valeriani,A.1991.Theneedforcarbohydrateintakeduringenduranceexercise.SportsMed.12(6):349.
9Williams,M.H.1992.Nutritionforfitnessandsport.NewYork:WCB/McGrawHill,5864.
10Bergstrom,J.,Hermansen,L.,Hultman,E.,andSaltin,B.1967.Diet,muscleglycogen,andphysicalperformance.Acta.Physiol.Scand.71:140.
11Costill,D.L.,andHargreaves,M.1992.Carbohydratenutritionandfatigue.SportsMed.13(2):86.
12Nagle,F.J.,andBassett,D.R.1989.Energymetabolism.InNutritioninexerciseandsport,ed.Hickson,J.F.,andWolinsky,I.BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress,
87106.
13Coyle,E.F.1983.Effectsofglucosepolymerfeedingsonfatigabilityandthemetabolicresponsetoprolongedstrenuousexercise.InRosssymposiumonnutrient
utilizationduringexercise,ed.Fox,E.L.Columbus,OH:RossLaboratories,411.
14Nagle,F.J.,andBassett,D.R.1989.Energymetabolism.InNutritioninexerciseandsport,ed.Hickson,J.F.,andWolinsky,I.BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress,
87106.
15Greenhaff,P.L.1995.Creatineanditsapplicationasanergogenicaid.Int.J.SportNutr.5:S100S110.
16Greenhaff,P.L.,Casey,A.,Short,A.H.,Harris,R.,Soderlund,K.,andHultman,E.1993.Influenceoforalcreatinesupplementationonmuscletorqueduring
repeatedboutsofmaximalvoluntaryexerciseinman.Clin.Sci.84:565571.
17Maughan,R.J.1995.Creatinesupplementationandexerciseperformance.Intl.J.SportNutr.5:94101.
18Kozak,C.J.,Benardot,D.,Cody,M.,Doyle,J.A.,andThompson,W.R.1996.Theeffectofcreatinemonohydratesupplementationonanaerobicpowerand
anaerobicenduranceinelitefemalegymnasts.Master'sthesis,GeorgiaStateUniversity.
19Harris,R.C.,Soderlund,K.,andHultman,E.1992.Elevationofcreatineinrestingandexercisedmuscleofnormalsubjectsbycreatinesupplementation,Clin.
Sci.83:367374.
20Maughan,R.J.1995.Creatinesupplementationandexerciseperformance.Intl.J.SportNutr.5:94101.
21Walker,J.B.1979.Creatinebiosynthesis,regulation,andfunction.Adv.Enzmmol.50:117142.
Page321
22Pritchard,N.R.,andKalra,P.A.1998.Creatinesupplementslinkedtorenaldamage.TheLancet351:12521253.
23Maughan,R.J.1995.Creatinesupplementationandexerciseperformance.Intl.J.SportNutr.5:94101.
24Lyons,T.P.,Riedesel,M.L.,Meuli,L.E.,andChick,T.W.1990.Effectsofglycerolinducedhyperhydrationpriortoexerciseintheheatonsweatingandcore
temperature.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.22(4):477483.
25Montgomery,D.L,andBeaudin,P.A.1982.Bloodlactateandheartrateresponseofyoungfemalesduringgymnasticroutines.J.SportsMed.22:358365.
26Butterfield,G.,Cady,C.,andMoynihan,S.1992.Effectofincreasingproteinintakeonnitrogenbalanceinrecreationalweightlifters.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.
24:S71.
27Tarnopolsky,M.A.,MacDougallJ.D.,andAtkinson,S.A.1988.Influenceofproteinintakeandtrainingstatusonnitrogenbalanceandleanbodymass.J.Appl.
Physiol.64(1):187193.
28Spriet,L.L.1995.Caffeineandperformance.Int.J.SportNutr.5:S84S99.
29Bucci,L.1993.Nutrientsasergogenicaidsforsportsandexercise.BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress.
30Kanter,M.M.,andWilliams,M.H.1995.Antioxidants,canritine,andcholineasputativeergogenicaids.Int.J.SportNutr.5:S120S131.
31Bucci,L.1993.Nutrientsasergogenicaidsforsportsandexercise.BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress,620.
32Babayan,V.K.1967.Mediumchaintriglycerides:Theircomposition,preparation,andapplication.J.Am.OilChem.Soc.45:23.
33Bach,A.S.,andBabayan,V.K.1982.Mediumchaintriglycerides:Anupdate.Am.J.Clin.Nutr.36:950.
34Avakian,E.V.,andSugimoto,B.R.1980.EffectofPanaxginsengextractonbloodenergysubstratesduringexercise.Fed.Proc.39:287.
Chapter5
1Horswill,C.A.1993.Weightlossandweightcyclinginamateurwrestlers:Implicationsforperformanceandrestingmetabolicrate.Int.J.SportNutr.3:245260.
2Strauss,R.H.,Lanese,R.R.,andLeizman,D.J.1988.Illnessandabsenceamongwrestlers,swimmers,andgymnastsatalargeuniversity.Am.J.SportsMed.
16:653655.
3Ryan,A.J.1981.Anabolicsteroidsarefool'sgold.Fed.Proc.40:26822688.
4Kleiner,S.M.1995.Theroleofmeatintheathlete'sdiet:It'seffectonkeymacroandmicronutrients.GatoradeSportsSci.Inst.:SportsSci.Exch.8(5).
5BarOr,O.,Clarkson,P.,Coyle,E.,Davis,J.M.,Ekblom,B.,Gisolfi,C.,Hagerman,F.,Horswill,C.,Kanter,M.,Kraemer,W.,Lamb,D.,Maughan,R.,
Murray,R.,andSpriet,L.1993.GatoradeSportsSci.Inst.:SportsSci.Exch.Roundtable4(4).
6Gregory,J.,Greene,S.,Thompson,j.,Scrimgeour,C.,andRennie,M.1992.Effectsoforaltestosteroneundecanoateongrowth,bodycomposition,strengthand
energyexpenditureofadolescentboys.Clin.Endocr.37:207213.
7Binnerts,A.,Swart,G.,Wilson,J.,Hoogerbrugge,N.,Pols,H.,Birkenhager,J.,andLamberts,S.1992.Theeffectofgrowthhormoneadministrationingrowth
hormonedeficientadultsonbone,protein,carbohydrate,andlipidhomeostasis,aswellasonbodycomposition.Clin.Endocr.37:7987.
8Deyssig,R.,Frisch,H.,Blum,W.,andWaldhor,T.1993.Effectofgrowthhormonetreatmentonhormonalparameters,bodycomposition,andstrengthinathletes.
Acta.Endocr.128:313318.
9Yarasheki,K.,Campbell,J.,Smith,K.,Rennie,M.,Holloszy,J.,andBier,D.1992.Effectofgrowthhormoneandresistanceexerciseonmusclegrowthinyoung
men.Am.J.Phys.E261E267.
10Williams,M.H.1993.Nutritionalsupplementsforstrengthtrainedathletes.GatoradeSportsSci.Inst.:SportsSci.Exch.6(6).
11Bucci,L.,Hickson,J.,Pivanik,J.,Wolinsky,I.,McMahon,J.,andTurner,S.1990.Ornithineingestionandgrowthhormonereleaseinbodybuilders.Nutr.Res.
10:239245.
Page322
12Fogelholm,M.,Naveri,H.,Kiilavuori,K.,andHarkonen,M.1993.Lowdoseaminoacidsupplementation:Noeffectsonserumhumangrowthhormoneand
insulininmaleweightlifters.Int.J.SportNutr.3:290297.
13Lambert,M.,Hefer,J.,Millar,R.,andMacfarlane,P.1993.Failureofcommercialoralaminoacidsupplementstoincreaseserumgrowthhormoneconcentrations
inmalebodybuilders.Int.J.SportNutr.3:298305.
14Bucci,L.,Hickson,J.,Wolinksy,I.,andPivarnrnik,J.1992.Ornithinesupplementationandinsulinreleaseinbodybuilders.Int.J.SportNutr.2:287291.
15Summinski,R.,Robertson,R.,Goss,E.,Robinson,A.,DaSilva,S.,Kane,J.,Utter,A.,andMetz,K.1993.Theeffectofaminoacidingestionandresistance
exerciseongrowthhormoneresponsesinyoungmales[Abstract].Med.Sci.SportsExer.25:S77.
16Fry,A.,Kraemer,W.,Stone,M.,Warren,B.,Keamey,J.,Maresh,C.,Weseman,C.,andFleck,S.1993.Endocrineandperformanceresponsestohigh
volumetrainingandaminoacidsupplementationinelitejuniorweightlifters.Int.J.SportNutr.3:306322.
17Elam,R.1988.Morphologicalchangesinadultmalesfromresistanceexerciseandaminoacidsupplementation.J.SportsMed.Phys.Fitness28:3539.
18Elam,R.,Hardin,D.,Sutton,R.,andHagen,L.1989.Effectsofarginineandornithineonstrength,leanbodymass,andurinaryhydroxyprolineinadultmales.J.
SportsMed.Phys.Fitness29:5256.
19Barron,R.,andVanscoy,G.1993.Naturalproductsandtheathlete:Factsandfolklore.Ann.Pharmacother.27:607615.
20Williams,M.1992.Nutritionforfitnessandsport.Dubuque,IA:BrownandBenchmark.
21Hawkins,C.J.,WalbergRankin.J.,andSebolt,D.1991.Oralargininedoesnotaffectbodycompositionormusclefunctioninmaleweightlifters.Med.Sci.Sports
Exer.23:S15.
22Cynober,H.,Vaubourolle,M.,Dore,A.,andGiboudeau,J.1984.Kineticsandmetaboliceffectsoforallyadministeredornithinealphaketoglutarateinhealthy
subjects.Am.J.Clin.Nutr.39:514519.
23Williams,M.H.1993.Nutritionalsupplementsforstrengthtrainedathletes.GatoradeSportsSci.Inst.:SportsSci.Exch.476(6).
24BarOr,O.,Clarkson,P.,Coyle,E.,Davis,J.M.,Ekblom,B.,Gisolfi,C.,Hagerman,F.,Horswill,C.,Kanter,M.,Kraemer,W.,Lamb,D.,Maughan,R.,
Murray,R.,andSpriet,L.1993.Physiologyandnutritionforcompetitivesport.GatoradeSportsSci.Inst.:SportsSci.Exch.Roundtable144(4).
25Geil,P.B.,andAnderson,J.W.1994.Nutritionandhealthimplicationsofdrybeans:Areview.J.Am.Coll.Nutr.13:549558.
26MaresPerlman,J.A.,Subar,A.F.,Block,G.,Greger,J.L.,andLuby,M.H.1995.ZincintakeandsourcesintheU.S.adultpopulation:19761980.J.Am.
Coll.Nutr.14:349357.
27Pate,R.R.,Miller,B.J.,Davis,J.M.,Slentz,C.A.,andKlingshirn,L.A.1993.Ironstatusoffemalerunners.Int.J.SportNutr.3:222231.
28Telford,R.D.,Bunney,C.J.,Catchpole,E.A.,Catchpole,W.R.,Deakin,V.,Gray,B.,Hahn,A.G.,andKerr,D.A.1992.Plasmaferritinconcentrationand
physicalworkcapacityinathletes.Int.j.SportNutr.2:335342.
29Singh,A.,Moses,E.,andDeuster,P.1992.Chronicmultivitaminmineralsupplementationdoesnotenhancephysicalperformance.Med.Sci.SportsExer.
24:726732.
30Telford,R.,Catchpole,E.,Deakin,V.,Hahn,A.,andPlank,A.1992.Theeffectof78monthsofvitamin/mineralsupplementationonathleticperformance.Int.
J.SportNutr.2:135153.
31Clancy,S.,Clarkson,P.,DeCheke,M.,Nasaka,K.,Cunningham,J.,andFeedson,P.1993.Chromiumsupplementationinfootballplayers[Abstract].Med.Sci.
SportsExer.24:S194.
32Hallmark,M.,Reynolds,T.,DeSouza,C.,Dotson,C.,Anderson,R.,andRogers,M.1993.Effectsofchromiumsupplementationandresistivetrainingonmuscle
strengthandleanbodymassinuntrainedmen[Abstract].Med.Sci.SportsExer.25:S101.
33Nielsen,E.1992.Factsandfallaciesaboutboron.Nutr.Today27:612.
34Ferrando,A.,andGreen,N.1993.Theeffectofboronsupplementationonleanbodymass,plasmatestosteronelevels,andstrengthinbodybuilders.Int.J.Sport
Nutr.3:140149.
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35Brilla,L.,andHaley,T.1992.Effectofmagnesiumsupplementationonstrengthtraininginhumans.J.Am.Coll.Nutr.11:326329.
36Williams,M.H.1993.Nutritionalsupplementsforstrengthtrainedathletes.GatoradeSportsSci.Inst.:SportsSci.Exch.476(6).
Chapter6
1Ekblom,B.,andBergh,U.1994.Physiologyandnutritionforcrosscountrysiking.InPerspectivesinexercisescienceandsportsmedicine:Physiologyand
nutritionforcompetitivesport,ed.Lamb,D.,Knuttgen,H.,andMurray,R.,373.Indianapolis,IN:BenchmarkPress.
2Economos,C.D.,Bortz,S.S.,andNelson,M.E.1993.Nutritionalpracticesofeliteathletes.SportsMed.16:383.
3Burke,L.,Gollan,R.,andRead,R.1991.DietaryintakesandfooduseofgroupsofeliteAustralianmaleathletes.Int.J.SportNutr.1:378.
4Murray,R.,andHorswill,C.A.1998.Nutrientrequirementsforcompetitivesports.InNutritioninexerciseandsport,3rded.,ed.Wolinsky,I.,BocaRaton,FL:
CRCPress.521558.
5Pate,R.R.,andBranch,J.D.1992.Trainingforendurancesport.Med.Sci.SportsExer.24:S340.
6Armstrong,L.1991.Considerationsforreplacementbeverages:Fluidelectrolytebalanceandheatillness.InFluidreplacementandheatstress,ed.Marriott,B.
andRosemont,C.Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress.
7Sawka,M.N.,andWenger,C.B.1988.Physiologicalresponsestoacuteexerciseheatstress.InHumanperformancephysiologyandenvironmentalmedicine
atterrestrialextremes,ed.Pandolf,K.B.,Sawka,M.N.,andGonzalez,R.R.BenchmarkPress:Indianapolis,IN.
aWilliams,M.H.1999.Nutritionforhealth,fitnessandsport,5thed.NewYork,NY:WCBMcGrawHill,76.
8Hargreaves,M.,Dillo,P.,Angus,D.,andFebbraio,M.1996.Effectoffluidingestiononmusclemetabolismduringprolongedexercise.J.Appl.Physiol.80(1):
3636.
9Armstrong,L.E.,Costill,D.L.,andFink,W.J.1985.Influenceofdiureticinduceddehydrationoncompetitiverunningperformance.Med.Sci.SportsExerc.
17:456.
10Walsh,R.M.,Noakes,T.D.,Hawley,J.A.,andDennis,S.C.1994.Impairedhighintensitycyclingperformancetimeatlowlevelsofdehydration.Int.J.Sport
Nutr.15:392.
11Maughan,R.1991.Carbohydrateelectrolytesolutionsduringprolongedexercise.InPerspectivesinexercisescienceandsportsmedicine:Ergogenics
enhancementofperformanceinexerciseandsport,ed.Lamb,D.,andWilliams,M.Indianapolis,IN:BrownandBenchmark.3550.
12Coyle,E.F.,Coggan,A.R.,Hemmert,M.K.,andIvy,J.L.1986.Muscleglycogenutilizationduringprolongedstrenuousexercisewhenfedcarbohydrate.J.Appl.
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Page331
INDEX
A
absorptionofnutrients6466
aerobicpower,eatingfor:
carbohydrates164167,177
aftercompetition/practice172
beforecompetition/practice168169
duringcompetition/practice170172
eatingerrorinenduranceathletes159160
fat174175,177
fluids162,164,177
minerals176,178
protein173174,178
summaryon176178
vitamins175176,178
alcohol26,205206
amenorrhea:
andbodyfat101
andcalcium4748
inenduranceathletes258
ingymnasts230231,232233
inrunners259260,262
aminoacids.
Seealsoproteins
defined15,16
asergogenicaid132133
formuscledevelopment150152
anaerobicmetabolism146149
anaerobicpower,eatingfor:
eatingbehaviorsofpowerathletes150
andenergydemands142149
nutrientscontrollingmuscledevelopment150157
protein141142,150,153154
summaryon157158
anemia5457,61
antioxidants:
forenduranceactivities176,178
formuscledevelopment155
selenium58,63
vitaminA4041,44
vitaminC3638,39
vitaminE4243,44,257258
B
balance,nutrient:
carbohydrates6,1214,25,71.
Seealsocarbohydrates
digestionandabsorption6466
fats6,1924,25.
Seealsofats
FoodGuidePyramid810
foodsourcesofessentialnutrients297312
functionsofnutrients67
importanceof36
intakeguidelines711
macrominerals4553
microminerals5463
proteins6,1419,25.
Seealsoproteins
RDAs1011
rules68
sampledailyintake6871
samplemealplans289295
summaryon7172
vitamins24,2644.
Seealsovitamins
baseball215219
basketball273280
betacarotene4041,44
bicarbonate131
bioelectricalimpedanceanalysis(BIA)111112
biotin(vitaminH)35,39
bodybuilding220223
nutrientscontrollingmuscledevelopment150157
andproteinintake125,141142,150,153154
bodycompositionassessment:
bioelectricalimpedanceanalysis(BIA)111112
bodyfatpercent102
commonissueswith119122
dualenergyxrayabsorptiometry(DEXA)47,113,121
fatmassandleanmass100102
hydrostaticweighing108110
influencesonbodycomposition114116
performanceandbodycomposition103107
purposeof103
skinfolds110111
summaryon122
weight116119
bodyfat:
arbitrarilylowlevelsof121
Page332
bodyfat(continued):
rangesformaleandfemaleathletes106107
inwomen101,115
bonedensity47,233,267268
boron155
Bvitamincontentofselectedfoods299
Bvitamins:
cobalamin(vitaminB12)3233,39
forenduranceactivities175,178
niacin(vitaminB3)30,38
pantothenicacid(vitaminB5)3536,39
pyridoxine(vitaminB6)3032,38
riboflavin(vitaminB2)2829,38
thiamin(vitaminB1)2728,38
C
caffeine133135,205
calcium4648,52
calciumcontentofselectedfoods298
carbohydrateloading126128
carbohydrates:
foraerobicpower164167
complex1314
dailyintakeof71
forenduranceathletes164167,177
functionsof6
simple1213
typesof165166
carnitine135
chloride51,53
choline152
chromium6061,62,155
cobalamin(vitaminB12)3233,39,155
combinedpowerandendurancesports:
basketball273280
figureskating281283
fluidintakefor273277
soccer274,275,284285
summaryon288
tennis286288
copper59,61
creatine:
asergogenicaid123124,128130,145
andmuscledevelopment152
forsprinters238239
forswimmers243
cycling269270
D
Davis,Mark274
digestionandabsorption6466
distancerunning259262
distanceswimming267268
dualenergyxrayabsorptiometry(DEXA)47,113,121
E
eatingdisorders99100,101
enduranceactivities,eatingguidelinesfor:
carbohydrates164167,177
aftercompetition/practice172
beforecompetition/practice168169
duringcompetition/practice170172
eatingerrorinenduranceathletes159160
fat174175,177
fluidintake162,164,168172,177
glycerolandwater130131
minerals176,178
protein14,173174,178
summaryon176178
vitamins175176,178
endurancesports.
Seealsocombinedpowerandendurancesports
cycling269270
dietaryadequacyfor255257
distancerunning259262
distanceswimming267268
overtrainingfor252253,265
overuseinjuryfrom254255
oxygenuptakein251
supplementusagefor257258
triathlons249250,263266
energy(fuel)systems:
aerobicmetabolism144,148
anaerobicmetabolism(glycolysis)146149
andmusclefibertypes142143
phosphagensystem(creatinephosphate)144,145146,148
ergogenicaids:
bicarbonate131
caffeine133135,205
carbohydrateloading126128
carnitine135
creatine123124,128130,145,152,238239
defined124125
forenduranceathletes257258
ginseng136137
glycerol20,21,8788,130131
mediumchaintriglycerides(MCTs)2223,136,156
omega3fattyacids135136
proteinsandaminoacids132133
summaryon137
vitaminE257258
essentialfats2021
essentialnutrients:
balanceof56
carbohydrates6,1214,25,71
Page333
digestionandabsorptionof6466
fats6,1924,25.
Seealsofats
foodsourcesof297312
functionsof67
intakeguidelines711
macrominerals4553
microminerals5463
proteins6,1419,25.
Seealsoproteins
sampledailyintake6871
simplerulesfor68
sixclassesof45
summaryon7172
vitamins24,2644.
Seealsovitamins
water7.
Seealsowater
eveningcompetitions199
F
fats:
defined1920
determinationoffatneeds24,25
forenduranceathletes174175
essential2021
fishoils20,2324
functionsof6
lipidstructure2123
formuscledevelopment156157
fatsolublevitamins:
defined40
vitaminA4041,44
vitaminD4142,44
vitaminE4243,44,257258
vitaminK43,44
fattyacids:
defined20
omega3135136,156
femaleathletes:
amenorrheain4748,101,258.
Seealsoamenorrhea
andbodyfat101,106107,115
eatingdisordersin99100,101
inendurancesports258
figureskaters282
gymnasts230231,232233
irondeficiencyanemiain54
runners259260,262
swimmers268
tennisplayers286287
femaleathletetriad101
figureskating281283
fishoils2324
flouride62
fluidintake.Seehydration
folicacid3335,39
FoodGuidePyramid810
football224228
G
gammaoryzanol156,157
Gatorade81,91,208,213,275
ginseng136137
glandulars152
glucosetolerancefactor6061,62,155
glycemicindex167
glycerol20,21,8788,130131
glycolysis146149
gymnastics229233
H
Halberstam,David215
heatcramps287
heatexhaustion287
heatstroke287
Herbert,Victor37
hockey234236
humangrowthhormone150151
hydration:
forbaseballplayers216217
forbasketballplayers273274,279
forcombinedpowerandendurancesports273277
forcyclists270,271
fordistancerunners261262
forenduranceactivities162,164,168172,177
duringexercise8995
factorsaffectinggastricemptying8285
forfootballplayers228
functionsofwater7
Gatorade81,91,208,213,275
withglycerol20,21,8788,130131
forhockeyplayers236
importancetoathletes7375
monitoringoffluidbalance7882
postexercisefluidconsiderations9597
preexercisefluidconsiderations8689
forsoccerplayers285
summaryon9798
forswimmers243,268
temperatureregulationandwaterbalance7678
fortennisplayers287288
duringtravel204,205,208209
fortriathletes264265
hydrostaticweighing108110
I
inosine153
iodine58,61
iron5457,61
ironcontentofselectedfoods297
Page334
J
jetlag204206
L
Laertius,Diogenes214
LaRosa,Joseph244
M
macrominerals:
calcium4648,52
chloride51,53
defined45
magnesium4950,53,155156
phosphorus4849,52
potassium5152
sodium5051,53
sulfur53
magnesium4950,53,155156
manganese5960,63
meals:
ontheroad201214
samplemealplans289295
timingof179200
mediumchaintriglycerides2223,136,156
microminerals:
chromium6061,62
copper59,61
fluoride62
iodine58,61
iron5457,61
manganese5960,63
molybdenum63
selenium58,63
zinc5758,62
MiloofCrotona149,150
minerals:
forenduranceactivities176,178
functionsof7,4445
macrominerals4553
microminerals5463
molybdenum63
monounsaturatedfats2122
morningcompetitions197199
muscledevelopment,nutrientsfor
aminoacids150152
choline152
creatine123124,128130,145,152,238239
fatsandfatderivatives156157
inosine153
glandulars152
proteinintake141142,153154
vitaminsandminerals154156
yohimbine153
musclefibertypes142143
myths,nutritional6671
N
niacin(vitaminB3)30,38
nutrients,essential:
balanceof56
carbohydrates6,1214,25,71
digestionandabsorptionof6466
fats6,1924,25.
Seealsofats
foodsourcesof297312
functionsof67
intakeguidelines711
macrominerals4553
microminerals5463
proteins6,1419,25.
Seealsoproteins
sampledailyintake6871
simplerulesfor68
sixclassesof45
summaryon7172
vitamins24,2644.
Seealsovitamins
water7.
Seealsowaterandsportsdrinks
nutritionalmyths6671
O
omega3fattyacids135136,156
overtraining252253,265
overuseinjury254255
P
pantothenicacid(vitaminB5)3536,39
phosphorus4849,52
phylloquinone43,44
polyunsaturatedfats22
potassium5152
powersports.:
Seealsocombinedpowerandendurancesports
baseball215219
bodybuilding220223
foodinlockerroomafter213214
football224228
gymnastics229233
hockey234236
summaryon247
swimming240243
trackandfield237239
wrestling244247
proteins:
aminoacids15,16,132133
foranaerobicpower141142,150,153154
determinationofproteinneeds1618
forenduranceathletes14,173174,178
asergogenicaids132133
functionsof6
formuscledevelopment153154
andtotalenergyintake1819
pyridoxine(vitaminB6)3032,38
Page335
R
RecommendedDietaryAllowances1011
Reese,Jeff244
restaurantfood209,210
riboflavin2829,38
running:
distance259262
sprinting237239
S
samplemealplans289295
saturatedfats2122
Saylor,Billy244
selenium58,63
simplecarbohydrates1213
skating,figure281283
skinfolds110111
smilax157
soccer274,275,284285
sodium5051,53
sports,combinedpowerandendurance:
basketball273280
figureskating281283
fluidintakefor273277
soccer274,275,284285
summaryon288
tennis286288
sports,endurance:
cycling269270
dietaryadequacyfor255257
distancerunning259262
distanceswimming267268
overtraining252253
overuseinjury254255
oxygenuptakein251
supplementusagefor257258
triathlons249250,263266
sports,power:
baseball215219
bodybuilding220223.
Seealsobodybuilding
foodinlockerroomafter213214
football224228
gymnastics229233
hockey234236
summaryon247
swimming240243
trackandfield237239
wrestling244247
sprinters237239
sulfur53
supplements:
bicarbonate131
caffeine133135,205
carbohydrateloading126128
carnitine135
creadne123124,128130,145,152
forenduranceathletes257258
ginseng136137
glycerol20,21,8788,130131
mediumchaintriglycerides(MCTs)2223,136,156
omega3fattyacids135136
proteinsandaminoacids132133
summaryon137
vitaminE257258
swimming:
asendurancesport267268
aspowersport240243
T
tennis286288
thiamin2728,38
timingofmeals:
backloading179
competitionday197199
fivedaysbeforecompetition188189
fourdaysbeforecompetition190192
goalstoachievepriortocompetition181
importanceof180181
onedaybeforecompetition192,194196
sevendaysbeforecompetition183185
sixdaysbeforecompetition185187
summaryon199200
andtaperedtraining181182
threedaysbeforecompetition190192
twodaysbeforecompetition192,193194
traceminerals:
chromium6061,62
copper59,61
fluoride62
iodine58,61
iron5457,61
manganese5960,63
molybdenum63
selenium58,63
zinc5758,62
trackandfield237239
travelandnutrition:
familiarfoods201202,207208
generalguidelinesforeating203204
jetlag204206
restaurantfood209,210
snacks203,205
summaryon209210
watersupply204,205,208209
triathletes249250,263266
triglycerides:
defined19,20
Page336
triglycerides(continued):
glycerolin20,21,8788,130131
mediumchain2223,136,156
V
vegetarians:
carnitinefor135
ironintakein54,55
proteinintakeof17,18
vitaminB12statusof33
zincintakein226
vitaminA(retinolbetacarotene)4041,44
vitaminB1(thiamin)2728,38
vitaminB2(riboflavin)2829,38
vitaminB3(niacin)30,38
vitaminB5(pantothenicacid)3536,39
vitaminB6(pyridoxine)3032,38
vitaminB12(cobalamin)3233,39,155
vitaminC(ascorbicacid)3638,39
vitaminD(cholecalciferol)4142,44
vitaminE(tocopherol)4243,44,257258
vitaminH(biotin)35,39
vitaminK(phylloquinone)43,44
vitamins:
foranaerobicpower154,155
defined24
forenduranceathletes175176,178
fatsoluble4044
functionsof6,3839,44
watersoluble2639
W
waterandsportsdrinks(fluidintake):
forbaseballplayers216217
forbasketballplayers273274,279
forcombinedpowerandendurancesports273277
forcyclists270,271
fordistancerunners261262
forenduranceactivities162,164,168172,177
duringexercise8995
factorsaffectinggastricemptying8285
forfootballplayers228
functionsofwater7
Gatorade81,91,208,213,275
andglycerol20,21,8788,130131
forhockeyplayers236
importancetoathletes7375
monitoringoffluidbalance7882
postexercisefluidconsiderations9597
preexercisefluidconsiderations8689
forsoccerplayers285
summaryon9798
forswimmers243,268
temperatureregulationandwaterbalance7678
fortennisplayers287288
duringtravel204,205,208209
fortriathletes264265
watersolublevitamins2639
biotin(vitaminH)35,39
defined2627
folicacid3335,39
niacin(vitaminB3)30,38
pantothenicacid(vitaminB5)3536,39
vitaminB1(thiamin)2728,38
vitaminB2(riboflavin)2829,38
vitaminB6(pyridoxine)3032,38
vitaminB12(cobalamin)3233,39,155
vitaminC3638,39
weight116119.Seealsobodycompositionassessment
weightloss
andeatingdisorders99100,101
inwrestlers244247
women:
amenorrheain4748,101,258.
Seealsoamenorrhea
andbodyfat101,106107,115
eatingdisordersin99100,101
inendurancesports258
figureskaters282
gymnasts230231,232233
irondeficiencyanemiain54
runners259260,262
swimmers268
tennisplayers286287
Wooden,John278
wrestling244247
Y
yohimbine153
Z
zinc:
forfootballplayers226
functionsandsourcesof5758,62
forvegetarians226
Page337
ABOUTTHEAUTHOR
DanBenardot,PhD,RD,isanassociatedeanforresearchandisonthefacultyofthedepartmentsofnutritionandkinesiologyandhealthatGeorgiaState
Universityandhasbeeninvolvedinsportsnutritionresearchsince1981.HeisthecodirectoroftheLaboratoryforEliteAthletePerformanceatGSU,whichprovides
trainingandnutritionplansthathelpathletesintheirpursuitofexcellence.
AsthenationalteamnutritionistandchairoftheAthleteWellnessProgramforUSAGymnastics,Benardotworkedwiththegoldmedalwinningwomen'sgymnastics
teamatthe1996AtlantaOlympicGames.HehasbeenfundedbytheUnitedStatesOlympicCommitteetodoresearchwitheliteathletesandhasalsoworkedwith
topathletesfromavarietyofteamandindividualsports.
BenardotservedaseditorinchiefofSportsNutrition:AGuideforProfessionalsWorkingwithActivePeopleandhasearnednumerousawardsforoutstanding
servicefromtheAmericanDieteticAssociation.BorninGreece,BenardotgainedhisloveforsportwhilegrowingupintheLakePlacidregionofnorthernNewYork
State.HenowliveswithhiswifeandtwochildreninAtlanta,Georgia,whereheenjoystennis,skiing,andphotography.