Bioenergy Preview PDF

State
Bioenergy
Primer
Information and Resources for States
on Issues, Opportunities, and Options
for Advancing Bioenergy
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

and
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
September 15, 2009
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements_________________________________________________________________ iv
Key Acronyms and Abbreviations_______________________________________________________ v
Executive Summary ____________________________________________________ 1

Introduction_ _________________________________________________________ 3
1.1
How the Primer Is Organized_ ____________________________________________________ 5
1.2
References_____________________________________________________________________ 5
What Is Bioenergy?_____________________________________________________ 7
2.1
What Are Biomass Feedstocks?____________________________________________________ 8
2.2
Potential for Increased Production and Use of Biomass Feedstocks_____________________ 11
2.3
How Are Biomass Feedstocks Converted into Bioenergy?_____________________________ 12
2.4
Resources for Detailed Information_ ______________________________________________ 21
2.5
References _ __________________________________________________________________ 22
Benefits, Challenges, and Considerations of Bioenergy_ _____________________ 25

3.1
Energy Security Benefits_ _______________________________________________________ 26
3.2
Economic Benefits_____________________________________________________________ 27
3.3
Environmental Benefits, Challenges, and Considerations_ ____________________________ 29
3.4
Feedstock Supply Challenges_ ___________________________________________________ 35
3.5
Infrastructure Challenges_ ______________________________________________________ 37
3.6
3.7
References _ __________________________________________________________________44
How Can States Identify Bioenergy Opportunities?__________________________ 47

4.1
Step 1: Determine Availability of Biomass Feedstocks_ _______________________________ 48
4.2
Step 2: Assess Potential Markets for Identified Biomass Feedstocks and Bioenergy________ 53
4.3
Step 3: Identify Opportunities for Action___________________________________________ 59
4.4
4.5
References _ __________________________________________________________________ 65
Options for States to Advance Bioenergy Goals_____________________________ 67

5.1
Favorable Policy Development ___________________________________________________ 68
5.2
Favorable Regulatory Development_______________________________________________ 69
5.3
Environmental Revenue Streams _________________________________________________ 70
5.4
Direct Investment/Financing and Incentives _ ______________________________________ 70
5.5
Research, Development, and Demonstration_ ______________________________________ 74
5.6
Information Sharing____________________________________________________________ 74
5.7
5.8
References____________________________________________________________________ 77
Resources and Tools for States_ _________________________________________ 79

Glossary_____________________________________________________________ 93
| State Bioenergy Primer
iii
Acknowledgements
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
would like to acknowledge the many individual and
organizational researchers and government employees
whose efforts helped to bring this extensive report to
fruition. The following contributors provided significant assistance through their review of the document:
EPA -
Paul Argyropoulos, Dale Aspy, Allison Dennis,

Karen Blanchard, William Brandes, Kim Crossman
(now with Energy Trust of Oregon), Scott Davis, Jim
Eddinger, Rachel Goldstein, Doug Grano, Bill Maxwell,
Donna Perla, Felicia Ruiz, Christopher Voell, Robert
Wayland, and Gil Wood.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
- Ann Brennan, Scott Haase, Victoria Putsche, John

Sheehan (now with University of Minnesota), Phil
Shepherd, Walter Short, and Bob Wallace (now with
Pennsylvania State University).
U.S. Forest Service -
Swain.
Marcia Patton-Mallory and Larry
The following individuals authored this report:

EPA -
Danielle Sass Byrnett, Denise Mulholland, and

Emma Zinsmeister.
NREL -
Elizabeth Doris, Anelia Milbrandt, Robi

Robichaud, Roya Stanley (now with the state of Iowa),
and Laura Vimmerstedt.
iv
State Bioenergy Primer |
Key Acronyms and Abbreviations

ACORE
American Council on Renewable Energy
JEDI
Job and Economic Development Impact model
B100
100 percent biodiesel
kWh
Kilowatt-hours
B20
A blend of 20 percent biodiesel and 80 percent

petroleum diesel
LCA
Life-cycle assessment
LCFS
Low carbon fuel standard
B90
A blend of 90 percent biodiesel and 10 percent

petroleum diesel
LFG
Landfill gas
BCAP
Biomass Crop Assistance Program
LMOP
EPAs Landfill Methane Outreach Program
BCEX
Biomass Commodity Exchange
LRAMs
Lost revenue adjustment mechanisms
BERS
Bio-Energy Recovery Systems
MACT
Maximum available control technologies
BPA
Bisphenol A
MSW
Municipal solid waste
Btu
British thermal units
MTHF
Methyl tetrahydrofuran
CHP
Combined heat and power
MW
Megawatts
CMAQ
Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement

program
MWh
Megawatt-hours
NAAQS
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
CNG
Compressed natural gas
NACAA
National Association of Clean Air Agencies
CO
Carbon monoxide
NESHAP
CROP
Coordinated Resource Offering Protocol
National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air

Pollutants
DG
Distributed generation
NREL
DOEs National Renewable Energy Laboratory
DOE
U.S. Department of Energy
NSPS
New Source Performance Standards
DOT
U.S. Department of Transportation
ORNL
DOEs Oak Ridge National Laboratory
DPA
Diphenoloic acid
PBF
Public benefits fund
DSIRE
Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy
PEDA
Pennsylvania Energy Development Authority
E10
A blend of 10 percent ethanol and 90 percent petroleum
PHMSA
DOTs Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety

Administration
E85
A blend of 85 percent ethanol and 15 percent petroleum
PLA
Polylactide
EERE
DOEs Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
PM
Particulate matter
EGRID
EPAs Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated

Database
RDF
Refuse-derived fuel
EIA
DOEs Energy Information Administration
REC
Renewable energy credit
EISA
Energy Independence and Security Act
RFA
Renewable Fuels Association
EPA
RFS
Renewable fuels standard
EPRI
Electric Power Research Institute
RPS
Renewable portfolio standard
ETBE
Ethyl tert-butyl ether
SABRE
State Assessment for Biomass Resources
FFVs
Flexible fuel vehicles
SIP
State Implementation Plan
FIDO
USFS Forest Inventory Data Online
SSEB
Southern States Energy Board
FPW
Food processing waste
Syngas
Synthesis gas
GHG
Greenhouse gas
USDA
U.S. Department of Agriculture
GIS
Geographic Information System
USFS
U.S. Forest Service
GREET
Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use

in Transportation
VOCs
Volatile organic compounds
WARM
EPAs WAste Reduction Model
GW
Gigawatts
WGA
Western Governors Association
IEA
International Energy Agency
WREZ
Western Renewable EnergyZones Project
IGCC
Integrated gasification combined cycle
WWTP
Wastewater treatment plant
| State Bioenergy Primer
vi
State Bioenergy Primer |
Executive
Summary
docUmEnt maP
Across the country, states are

looking for ways to tackle their
energy, environmental, and climate
change challenges through a variety
of approaches. One frequently
CHAPTer one
introduction
CHAPTer TWo
what is bioenergy?
CHAPTer THree
benefits and challenges
CHAPTer foUr
identifying bioenergy opportunities
CHAPTer five
options for advancing bioenergy
discussed option is the use of

biomass resources to develop
bioenergybioheat, biopower,
biofuels, and bioproducts.
Many information resources are available that discuss
biomass/bioenergy in a highly technical manner and/
or that focus only on one feedstock (e.g., forest residues, agricultural crops) or product (e.g., biofuels).
Alternately, some entities present bioenergy information that is relevant to the general public but is too
simplified for decision makers.
This State Bioenergy Primer is designed to bring many
of these resources together and provide useful, targeted
information that will enable a state decision maker to
determine if he/she wants or needs more details.
The primer offers succinct descriptions of biomass
feedstocks (Chapter 2), conversion technologies (Chapter 2), and the benefits/challenges of promoting bioenergy (Chapter 3). It includes a step-wise framework,
resources, and tools for determining the availability of
feedstocks (Chapter 4), assessing potential markets for
biomass (Chapter 4), and identifying opportunities for
action at the state level (Chapter 4). The primer also
Executive Summary | State Bioenergy Primer
describes financial, policy, regulatory, technology, and

informational strategies for encouraging investment
in bioenergy projects and advancing bioenergy goals
(Chapter 5). Each chapter contains a list of selected
resources and tools that states can use to explore topics
in further detail.
Bioenergy Considerations
Biomass energy, or bioenergyfuel or power derived
from organic mattercan be used to produce transportation fuel, heat, electric power, or other products.
Bioenergy currently represents approximately 3 to 4
percent of the United States total energy production
(EIA, 2008).
The benefits of increased use of bioenergy depend
upon the intended use and source, but can include: improved energy security and stability through reduced
dependence on foreign sources of energy; increased
economic development and job growth through
creation of new domestic industries and expansion
of existing industries; and expanded environmental
benefits, including reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions.
Along with the opportunities, however, are potential
challengesamong them the need for reliable feedstock supplies, the problems of infrastructure constraints for delivering of feedstocks and distribution of
products, the potential for ancillary environmental and
land use impacts resulting from increasing biomass
supplies to produce bioenergy, and the potential for
tradeoffs in air emissions resulting from direct combustion of biomass.
State Bioenergy Primer | Executive Summary
Each states individual geography, economic base, market conditions, climate, and state-specific incentives
and regulations will impact the feedstocks and bioenergy outputs that make economic and environmental
sense for that state to pursue.
A decision maker starts identifying potentially fruitful
bioenergy opportunities by examining all potential
feedstocksboth agricultural/energy crops (e.g., corn,
soybeans, switchgrass) and waste/opportunity fuels
(e.g., wastewater treatment biogas, wood waste, crop
residues, manure, landfill gas, solid waste)and their
specific location and costs within the state. The evaluation of biomass resources is followed by an assessment
of the potential markets and competition for those
feedstocks and what steps would be required to capitalize on the bioenergy potential.
If a decision maker determines that the benefits of
bioenergy outweigh the challenges for their state, numerous options are available for advancing bioenergy
goals. Favorable policy development, favorable regulatory development, capitalization of environmental
revenue streams, direct investment/financing or incentives, and research and development are all options for
effectively promoting bioenergy in a state.
Each of the chapters in this Bioenergy Primer describes
how states consider these and other issues as they
decide whether or not to develop a bioenergy promotion strategy, and is augmented by case studies about
how states have successfully implemented a variety of
approaches.
Chapter ONE
Biomass energy, or bioenergyfuel

or power derived from organic
matteris one of the keys to a
sustainable energy future in the
United States and throughout the
world. Bioenergy has the potential to:
Improve
energy security and stability by reducing dependence on fossil sources of energy.
Increase
economic development and job growth

through creation of new domestic industries.
Document Map
Introduction
Chapter One
Introduction
Chapter Two
What Is Bioenergy?
Chapter Three
Benefits and Challenges
Chapter Four
Identifying Bioenergy Opportunities
Chapter Five
Options for Advancing Bioenergy
Chapter One Contents

1.1 How the Primer Is Organized
1.2 References
Produce
environmental benefits, including reduction

of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
Along with the potential opportunities, however,
are challengesamong them the need for reliable
feedstock supplies, the problem of infrastructure constraints, and the potential for environmental and land
use impacts resulting from increasing biomass supplies
to produce bioenergy.
In 2006, and for the sixth year in a row, biomass was
the leading source of renewable energy in the United
States, providing more than 3 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu) of energy. Biomass was the source for
49 percent of all renewable energy, or nearly 3.5 percent of the total energy produced in the United States
(EIA, 2008).
Chapter One | State Bioenergy Primer
Does the market for bioenergy look

promising in my state?
The questions below can help state officials evaluate the potential for a bioenergy market
in their state.
1. Does the state have sufficient biomass resources to support bioenergy development?
2. Are energy (electricity, propane, fuel oil,
natural gas, or liquid fuel) costs in the state
relatively high?
3. Is the cost of energy (e.g., electricity, gasoline, natural gas, oil) projected to increase?
4. Are electricity demand, renewable electricity demand, and/or biofuels demand projected to increase?
5. Are policy makers in the state inclined to
hedg e against potential future volatility?
6. Does the state have an electrical or thermal renewable portfolio standard that requires use of renewable energy?
7. Does the state have a renewable fuel
standard that requires use of biofuels?
8. Are financial incentives for production
of bioenergy (e.g., production incentives,
tax incentives, low-interest loans, rebates,
environmental revenue streams) offered in
the state?
9. Does the state have standardized, simplified utility interconnection requirements for
smaller bioenergy producers?
If a state has answered yes to two or more of the questions above, the market for bioenergy
could be promising. Chapters 3 and 5 of this primer may be of most interest.
If a state does not yet have the answers to these questions, the resources in this primer should
be helpful for determining what approaches can be taken to answer them.
Figure 1-1. The Role of Renewable Energy Consumption in the Nations Energy Supply, 2006
Source: EIA, 2008
Total = 6.922 Quadrillion Btu
Total = 99.861 Quadrillion Btu

Petroleum
40%
Solar 1%
Hydroelectric 41%
Nuclear
8%
Renewable
7%
Geothermal 5%
Biomass 49%
Natural Gas
22%
State Bioenergy Primer | Chapter One
Coal
22%
Wind 4%
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) estimates that

the land resources of the United States could produce
enough biomass to replace 30 percent of the current
U.S. demand for petroleum on a sustainable basis by
the mid-21st century (U.S. DOE, 2005).
Ultimately, the outlook for bioenergy depends heavily
on policy choices made at the state and federal levels.
The federal government and many states are exploring
the role of biomass as a means to achieve economic,
energy, and environmental goals.
EPA has produced this State Bioenergy Primer with the
following objectives:
To
provide a basic overview of bioenergy, including what it is, its potential benefits, and its potential
challenges.
To
describe the steps that state decision makers can

take to assess whether and how to promote bioenergy.
To
identify opportunities for state actions to support

bioenergy.
To
present resources for additional information.
1.1 How the Primer

Is Organized
In addition to providing basic information and
overviews of relevant issues, each chapter includes
an extensive list of resources for additional,
detailed information. These resources are also
complied into a stand-alone resource kit found in
Appendix A.
1.2 References
EIA (Energy Information Administration),
2008. Renewable Energy Annual 2006., Washington,

DC, 2008.
U.S. DOE (Department of Energy),
2005. Biomass as
Feedstock for a Bioenergy and Bioproducts Industry:
The Technical Feasibility of a Billion-Ton Annual
Supply. DOE/DO-102995-2135. Washington, DC,
April 2005. http://feedstockreview.ornl.gov/pdf/billion_ton_vision.pdf.
To
provide examples and lessons learned from state

experiences with bioenergy.
How the STATE Bioenergy primer Is organized
CHAPTER TWO: What
Is Bioenergy?
CHAPTER THREE: Benets
and Challenges
Describes biomass feedstocks and conversion technologies for

producing bioenergy
Discusses energy security, economic benets and

challenges, and environmental issues
CHAPTER FOUR: Identifying
CHAPTER FIVE: Options
Bioenergy Opportunities
Presents steps for identifying biomass resource availability,

assessing market potential, and evaluating existing policies and
opportunities for action
APPENDIX A: Tools
for Advancing Bioenergy
Describes how states can facilitate projects through policies

and regulations, incentives, direct investment, research and
development, and information sharing
and
Resources for States
APPENDIX B: Glossary
of Bioenergy Terms
Lists all resources referenced

throughout the document
Provides an at-a-glance guide to

key terms
Chapter One | State Bioenergy Primer
State Bioenergy Primer | Chapter One
Chapter TWO
Bioenergy refers to renewable energy

produced from biomass, which
is organic material such as trees,
plants (including crops), and waste
materials (e.g., wood waste from
mills, municipal wastes, manure,
landfill gas (LFG), and methane from
wastewater treatment facilities).
Biopower refers
to the use of biomass to produce

electricity. Biomass can be used alone or cofired with
another fuel, typically coal, within the same combustion chamber.
Bioheat refers
to the use of biomass to produce heat.
Document Map
What Is Bioenergy?
Chapter One
Introduction
Chapter Two
What Is Bioenergy?
Chapter Three
Chapter Four
Chapter Five
Chapter Two Contents

2.1 What Are Biomass Feedstocks?
2.2 Potential for Increased Production and Use of
Biomass Feedstocks
2.3 How Are Biomass Feedstocks Converted
into Bioenergy?
2.4 Resources for Detailed Information
2.5 References
Biomass combined heat and power (CHP)
refers
to the cogeneration of electric energy for power and
thermal energy for industrial, commercial, or domestic heating or cooling purposes through the use of
biomass.
Biofuels are
fuels (often for transportation) made from

biomass or its derivatives after processing. Examples of
commercially available biofuels include ethanol, biodiesel, and renewable diesel.
Bioproducts are
commercial or industrial products

(other than food or feed) that are composed in whole
or in significant part of biomass. Examples of bioproducts include soy ink, cellophane, food utensils, and
paints made from biomass-based materials.
Chapter Two | State Bioenergy Primer
Bioenergy is becoming an increasingly attractive

energy choice because of high or volatile fossil fuel
prices, concerns about national energy independence,
the impacts of conventional energy use on the environment, and global climate change. More production and
use of bioenergy can improve environmental quality
(provided best available technologies and pollution
controls are used); provide opportunities for economic
growth, often in rural areas; support state energy and
environmental goals; and increase domestic energy
supplies, which will enhance U.S. energy independence
and security.
The basic process for using the energy in biomass to
produce biopower, bioheat, biofuels, or bioproducts is
shown in Figure 2-1.
2.1 What Are Biomass

Feedstocks?
A feedstock is a material used as the basis for manufacture of another product. Biomass feedstocks are
sources of organic matter that are used as key inputs in
production processes to create bioenergy. Both agricultural/energy crops and waste/opportunity fuels can be
used as biomass feedstocks.
Agricultural/Energy Crops
Several traditional crops that are grown for food and
other uses can also be used to produce bioenergy,
primarily as biofuels. Crops currently used as biomass
feedstocks include:
Figure 2-1. Stages of Bioenergy Production

Source: Biomass Research and Development Board, 2008
State Bioenergy Primer | Chapter Two
Corn.
Corn is the primary biomass feedstock currently

used in the United States to produce ethanol (and coproducts, as described in Section 2.2.2).
Rapeseed.
Rapeseed is the primary feedstock used in

Europe to produce biodiesel (EERE, 2008).
Sorghum.
Sorghum is used in the United States as an

alternative to corn for ethanol production. As of 2008,
15 percent of U.S. grain sorghum is being used for
ethanol production at eight plants (Biomass Research
and Development Initiative, 2008).
Soybeans.
Soybeans are the primary biomass feedstock

currently used in the United States to produce biodiesel
from soybean oil.
Sugarcane.
Brazil uses sugarcane to produce ethanol

and uses the sugarcane residue for process heat.
Other crops that are planted and harvested specifically
for use as biomass feedstocks in the production of bioenergy are referred to as energy crops. Energy crops
are fast-growing and grown for the specific purpose of
producing energy (electricity or liquid fuels) from all
or part of the resulting plant. The advantages of using
crops specifically grown for energy production include
consistency in moisture content, heat content, and
processing characteristics, which makes them more
cost-effective to process efficiently (U.S. EPA, 2007a).
Emerging energy crops include:
Microalgae.
The oil in microalgae can be converted

into jet fuel or diesel fuel (National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL), 2006). Microalgae with high lipid
content are best suited to production of liquid fuel.
Microalgae are highly productive, do not use agricultural land or products, and are carbon-neutral (Mayfield, 2008). More than 50 companies are researching
microalgal oil production, including development of
new bioreactors and use of biotechnologies to influence
microalgal growth (NREL, 2008).
Switchgrass; poplar and willow trees.
These energy
crops are not yet being grown commercially in the
United States for bioenergy, but may have the greatest potential for dedicated bioenergy use over a wide
geographic range. The U.S. Department of Energy (U.S.
DOE) estimates that about 190 million acres of land
in the United States could be used to produce energy
crops such as switchgrass and poplar and willow trees
(U.S. EPA, 2007a; Antares, 2003). Several states in the
Midwest and South could produce significant biopower
using switchgrass, which is currently grown on some
Conservation Reserve Program1 acres and on hay acres
as a forage crop (U.S. EPA, 2007a; Ugarte et al., 2006).
Waste/Opportunity Fuels
Biomass feedstocks from waste materials are often
referred to as opportunity fuels because they would
otherwise go unused or be disposed of; bioenergy
production is an opportunity to use these materials
productively. Common opportunity fuels include:
Biogas.
Biogas, consisting primarily of methane, is

released during anaerobic decomposition of organic
matter. Facilities that deal with large quantities of organic waste can employ anaerobic digesters and/or gas
collection systems to capture biogas, which can be used
as a source of on-site bioheat and/or biopower. Major
sources of biogas include:
Wastewater
treatment plants (WWTPs). Anaerobic

digesters can be used during treatment of wastewater
to break down effluent and release biogas, which can
then be collected for subsequent use as a source of
bioenergy. According to an analysis by the U.S. EPA
Combined Heat and Power Partnership, as of 2004,
544 municipal WWTPs in the United States use anaerobic digesters. Only 106 of these facilities utilize
the biogas produced by their anaerobic digesters to
generate electricity and/or thermal energy. If all 544
facilities were to install CHP systems, approximately
1 The Conservation Reserve Program, administered by USDA, provides

technical and financial assistance to eligible farmers and ranchers to address
soil, water, and related natural resource concerns on their lands in an environmentally beneficial and cost-effective manner. For more information see www.
nrcs.usda.gov/programs/CRP/.
340 megawatts (MW) of biogas-fueled electricity

could be generated (U.S. EPA, 2007a).
Animal feeding operations.
EPAs AgSTAR Program

has identified dairy operations with more than 500
head and swine operations with more than 2,000
head as the most viable candidates for anaerobic
digestion of manure and subsequent methane capture
(U.S. EPA, 2007a). As of April 2009, 125 operators in
the United States collect and use their biogas. In 113
of these systems, the captured biogas is used to generate electrical power, with many of the farms recovering waste heat from electricity-generating equipment
for on-farm use. These systems generate about
244,000 MWh of electricity per year. The remaining
12 systems use the gas in boilers, upgrade the gas for
injection into the natural gas pipeline, or simply flare
the captured gas for odor control (U.S. EPA, 2009b).
For more information on how anaerobic digestion is
used to produce biogas for bioenergy, refer to Section 2.2.1 Conversion Technologies for Biopower
and Bioheat.
Landfills.
As the organic waste buried in landfills

decomposes, a gas mixture of carbon dioxide (CO2)
and methane (CH4) is produced. Gas recovery
systems can be used to collect landfill emissions,
providing usable biogas for electricity generation,
CHP, direct use to offset fossil fuels, upgrade to pipeline quality gas, or use in the production of liquid
fuels. As of December 2008, EPAs Landfill Methane
Outreach Program estimated that, in addition to the
approximately 445 landfills already collecting LFG to
produce energy, 535 landfills are good candidates for
landfill gas-to-energy projects (U.S. EPA, 2008a).
Biosolids.
Biosolids are sewage sludge from wastewater

treatment plants. Biosolids can be dried, burned, and
used in existing boilers as fuel in place of coal, or cofired with coal to generate steam and power. Biosolids
can also be converted into biogas for bioenergy (see
Biogas section above). The high water content of most
biosolids can present challenges for combustion. As a
result, biosolids must generally go through a drying
process prior to being used for energy production.
Crop residues.
More than 300 million acres are used

for agricultural production in the United States. As of
2004, the most frequently planted crops (in terms of
average total acres planted) were corn, wheat, soybeans,
hay, cotton, sorghum, barley, oats, and rice. Following
the harvest of many traditional agricultural crops, residues such as crop stalks, leaves, cobs, and straw are left
in the field. Some of these residues could be collected
and used as bioenergy feedstocks (U.S. EPA, 2007a).
Food processing wastes.
Food processing wastes

include nut shells, rice hulls, fruit pits, cotton gin trash,
meat processing residues, and cheese whey, among
others. Because these residues can be difficult to use
as a fuel source due to the varying characteristics of
different waste streams, the latter two of these food
processing wastes are often disposed of as industrial
wastewater. Work is under way in the food processing
industry to evaluate the bioenergy potential of these
residues, including collection and processing methods
to allow more effective use as biomass feedstocks.
Utilities and universities have used food wastes such as
peanut hulls and rice hulls for biopower. Many anaerobic digester operators are currently adding agricultural
and food wastes to their digesters to provide enhanced
waste management and increased biogas generation
(U.S. EPA, 2007a).
Forest residues.
Residues from silviculture (wood

harvesting) include logging residues such as limbs
and tops, excess small pole trees, and dead or dying
trees. After trees have been harvested from a forest
for timber, forest residues are typically either left in
the forest or disposed of via open burning through
forest management programs because only timber of a
certain quality can be used in lumber mills and other
processing facilities. An advantage of using forest residues from silviculture for bioenergy production is that
a collection infrastructure is already in place to harvest
the wood. Approximately 2.3 tons of forest residues are
available for every 1,000 cubic feet of harvested timber
(although this number can vary widely); these residues
are available primarily in the West (U.S. EPA, 2007a).
Forest thinnings.
Forest thinnings can include underbrush, saplings, and dead or dying trees removed
from dense forest. Harvesting, collecting, processing,
and transporting loose forest thinnings is costly. The
use of forest thinnings for power generation or other
facilities is concentrated in the western United States;
in other areas not already used for silviculture, there is
no infrastructure to extract forest thinnings. Typically,
the wood from forest thinnings is disposed of through
controlled burning due to the expense of transporting
it to a power generation facility (U.S. EPA, 2007a).
10
Cellulosic Feedstocks
Cellulosic feedstocks include opportunity fuels (e.g., wood
waste, crop residues) and energy crops (e.g., switchgrass,
poplar, and willow trees). In using cellulosic feedstocks,
the fiber, or cellulose, is broken down into sugars or other
intermediate products that can be converted to bioenergy.
Using cellulosic feedstocks such as wood waste and municipal
solid waste for ethanol or other biofuel production or
bioproducts development could reduce the waste stream
in the United States. Ethanol production from cellulosic
feedstocks has not yet occurred on a commercial scale but is
actively under development (see Section 2.2.2 Conversion
Technologies for Biofuels). For discussions of the benefits and
challenges of ethanol production, see Chapter 3, Benefits,
Challenges, and Considerations of Bioenergy.
Municipal solid waste.
Municipal solid waste

(MSW)trash or garbagecan be collected at landfills, dried, and burned in high-temperature boilers to
generate steam and electricity. Mass burn incineration
is the typical method used to recover energy from
MSW, which is introduced as is into the combustion chamber; pollution controls are used to limit
emissions into the air. Some waste-to-energy facilities
have been in operation in the United States for more
than 20 years. More than one-fifth of incinerators use
refuse-derived fuel (RDF), which is MSW that has
been thoroughly sorted so that only energy-producing
components remain (U.S. EPA, 2008b). RDF can be
burned in boilers or gasified (U.S. DOE, 2004). (See the
related section above on biogas, which describes collection of biogas from landfills for use as bioenergy.) The
waste-to-energy industry currently generates 17 billion
kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity per year. However,
based on the total amount of MSW disposed of in the
United States annually (250 to 350 million tons), MSW
could be used as fuel to generate as much as 70 to 130
billion kWh per year (U.S. EPA, 2008e).
Restaurant
wastes. Used vegetable oils, animal fats,

and grease from restaurants can be used as biomass
feedstocks to produce biodiesel. Small-scale efforts
have been successfully implemented in a number of
cities, counties, and universities across the country.
For example, San Francisco initiated a program to
use restaurant wastes to fuel the citys fleet of more
than 1,600 diesel vehicles, which were retrofitted
to accept the biodiesel (City and County of San
Francisco, 2007). The use of restaurant wastes may
be less expensive than using new vegetable oil as the
feedstock to produce biodiesel if collection costs can
be minimizedcollection of small volumes from numerous locations can increase costs (Commonwealth
of Massachusetts, 2008).
Wood
waste. Wood waste includes mill residues from

primary timber processing at sawmills, paper manufacturing, and secondary wood products industries
such as furniture makers. It also includes construction
wood waste, yard waste, urban tree residue, and discarded consumer wood products that would otherwise
be sent to landfills (U.S. EPA, 2007a). Wood wastes
such as woodchips, shavings, and sawdust can be compressed into pellets, which offer a more compact and
uniform source of energy (Biomass Energy Resource
Center, 2007).
Mill residues.
Mill residues include bark, chips,

sander dust, edgings, sawdust, slabs, and black liquor
(a mixture of solvents and wood byproducts, usually
associated with the pulp and paper industry manufacturing process). They come from manufacturing
operations such as sawmills and pulp and paper companies that produce lumber, pulp, veneers, and other
composite wood fiber materials. Almost 98 percent of
mill residues generated in the United States are currently used as fuel or to produce wood pellets or fire
logs, or fiber products, such as hardboard, mediumdensity fiberboard, particle board, and other wood
composites (U.S. EPA, 2007a). The U.S. Department
of Agriculture (USDA) estimates that 2 to 3 percent
of mill residues are available as an additional fuel
resource because they are not being used for other
purposes. The largest concentrations of mill residues
are in the West and Southeast (U.S. EPA, 2007a).
Construction
(and demolition) wood waste.

Wood waste comprises about 26 percent of the total
construction and demolition waste stream; about
30 percent of that debris is uncontaminated by
chemical treatment and available for recovery (U.S.
EPA, 2007a).
Discarded
consumer wood products. These products

include discarded wood furniture, cabinets, pallets,
containers, and scrap lumber (U.S. EPA, 2007a).
Yard
trimmings. Yard trimmings can be generated

from residential landscaping and right-of-way trimming near roads, railways, and utility systems such
as power lines. Yard trimmings comprise about
14 percent of the MSW stream. Approximately 36
percent of yard trimmings are recoverable, and thus
about 5 percent of the total MSW waste stream is
yard trimmings that could be useable as a feedstock
(U.S. EPA, 2007a).
For more information about biomass feedstocks, see

EPAs CHP Biomass Catalog of Technologies at www.
epa.gov/chp/basic/catalog.html#biomasscat.
Wood Pellets
Wood pellets, briquettes, fire logs, and other compressed
wood products are made from byproducts of forest products
manufacturing, forest management, and recycled urban wood
waste. These products are held together by the lignin in the
wood when they are condensed through subjection to heat
and pressure. Pellets are manufactured in uniform sizes and
shapes (usually between 1-1 inches by approximately 1/45/16 inches in diameter) and have a higher energy content by
weight (roughly 7,750 Btu per pound at six percent moisture
content) than many other biomass feedstocks due to their
high density and low-moisture content. These characteristics
alleviate many of the potential issues associated with storing
biomass residues. Wood pellets are sold in different grades
based on the ash produced during combustion relative to the
amount of fuel fed into the wood pellet boiler (ranging from 1
to 3 percent). States regulate the disposal and/or subsequent
use of the ash.
Source: Biomass Energy Resource Center, 2007
2.2 Potential for Increased

Production and Use of Biomass
Feedstocks
Current Production and Use
In 2006, renewable energy accounted for 7 percent of
the nations energy supply; of that, biomass was the
source of 49 percent of renewable energy consumption
(see Figure 1-1). Wood (used as fuel wood), forest
residue, and wood waste feedstocks supplied the most
bioenergy in 2005 (64 percent), followed by other types
of wastes (e.g., MSW, LFG, agricultural residues, biosolids) (18 percent), and corn and soybean oil used to
produce biofuels and related coproducts (18 percent)
(EIA, 2008a; EIA, 2008b).
Future Production and Use
Significant potential exists to increase the production
and use of many different types of biomass feedstocks.
In 2005, U.S. DOE and USDA convened an expert panel to assess whether the land resources of the United
States could produce a sustainable supply of biomass
sufficient to displace 30 percent of the nations current
petroleum consumption (U.S. DOE, 2005). The panel
concluded that by the mid-21st century:
11
The
amount of wood, forest residue, and wood waste

feedstocks sustainably produced for bioenergy each
year could be increased nearly three times.
The
amount of agricultural feedstocks sustainably harvested while continuing to meet food, feed, and export
demands each year could be increased five times.
The panel believes the potential increases in all of these
biomass feedstocks can occur with relatively modest
changes in agricultural and forestry practices and land
use, including technological advances that increase
feedstock yields, adoption of certain sustainable crop
cultivation practices (e.g., no-till), and land use changes
that allow for large-scale production of perennial crops.
For more information on determining the potential
for increased use of feedstocks in a particular state,
refer to Chapter 4, How Can States Identify Bioenergy
Opportunities?
2.3 How Are Biomass Feedstocks

Converted into Bioenergy?
The processes, or conversion technologies, used to
convert biomass feedstocks from solids, liquids, or
gases into bioenergy are shown in the middle column
of Figure 2-2. This figure illustrates how different biomass feedstocks are converted into power, heat, fuels,
and products.
All of the technologies shown in Figure 2-2 can and
have been used for converting biomass; however, not
all are currently deployed on a commercial scale. Table
2-1 indicates the commercialization status of some of
the more commonly used conversion technologies for
bioenergy production.
The conversion technologies listed in Figure 2-2 and
Table 2-1 are described in Section 2.3.1.
Biorefineries
A biorefinery integrates biomass conversion technologies to
produce biopower, biofuels, and/or bioproducts. A biorefinery
is similar in concept to a petroleum refinery, producing
multiple fuels and products. Biorefineries may play a key role
in developing a domestic, bioenergy-based economy. Ideally, a
biorefinery would be highly flexible, capable of using a variety
of biomass feedstocks and changing its processes as needed,
based on product demands. Such flexibility will help make
biorefineries economically viable. Successful biorefineries
already exist in the forest products and agricultural industries,
producing food, feed, fiber, and/or chemicals (including
plastics), as well as on-site power generation or CHP for facility
operations (U.S. DOE, 2003).
Table 2-1. Commercialization Status of Common Bioenergy Conversion Technologies

Conversion Technology
Commercialization Status of Technology
Direct combustion
Commercially available
Cofiring
Landfill Gas systems
Anaerobic digestion
Gasification (thermochemical process)
Emerging technology
Pyrolysis (thermochemical process)
Emerging technology
Thermochemical conversion of sugars
Plant extraction (biochemical process)
Emerging technology
Transesterification
Fermentation (biochemical process)
Commercially available for conventional ethanol production and bioproducts

Emerging technology for cellulosic ethanol production
12
Figure 2-2. Biomass Conversion Technologies
13
2.3.1 Conversion Technologies for

Biopower and Bioheat
The three main types of conversion technologies used
for producing electricity and heat are direct combustion,
cofiring, and gasification systems. An important smaller
scale conversion technology is anaerobic digestion.
Direct Combustion
Solid Fuels to Electricity, Heat, or CHP. In direct
combustion systems used to produce electricity, a
solid biomass feedstock (e.g., agriculture residues,
forest residue, municipal solid waste, wood waste) is
combusted with excess oxygen (using fans) in a boiler
to produce steam that is used to create electricity. Direct combustion, commonly used in existing fossil-fuel
power plants, is a dependable and proven technology,
and is the conversion technology most often used for
bioenergy power plants. However, the typically small
size of bioenergy power plants (often due to high costs
of transporting feedstocks), coupled with the low efficiency rates associated with the direct combustion
process, can result in higher costs to produce electricity
than with conventional fossil-fueled power plants (U.S.
DOE, 2007). Some new combustion technologies are
using compressed hot air (either directly or indirectly
through a heat exchanger) to fire a combustion turbine.
In direct combustion systems used to produce heat,
biomass feedstock loaded into a boiler or furnace can
be used to create steam, hot water, or hot air which is
then used for thermal applications. Large open buildings can be heated very efficiently with wood-fired
furnaces or hydronic heating systems such as radiant
floors. Direct combustion technologies for producing
heat can utilize modern, computer-controlled systems
with automatic fuel feeders, high-efficiency boilers,
and add-on controls to reduce particulate matter (PM)
and toxics emissions to relatively low levels (provided
best available technologies are used). These systems are
typically less expensive to operate than systems that use
electricity, fuel oil, or propane but more expensive than
natural gas systems (U.S. EPA, 2007a). However, all
economic comparisons are site-specific.
CHP systems generate electricity and recapture waste
heat from the electricity generation process, resulting
in higher efficiency of fuel use. The electricity and heat
can be used by the entity producing them as on-site
power and heat, sold to others (such as an electric
utility company), or in some combination of the two
approaches. The forest products, chemical, and foodprocessing industries use on-site CHP systems widely.
14
Increased use of biomass in CHP systems at pulp and

paper mills has contributed to bioenergy surpassing
hydropower as the leading source of renewable energy
in the United States since 1999 (EIA, 2008a). Increasingly, on-site CHP (and to a limited degree, biomass
CHP) is also being used at ethanol production facilities
due to its increased efficiency and lower fuel costs (U.S.
EPA, 2007b).
For more detailed information on direct combustion
technologies used for combined heat and power from
biomass, see EPAs CHP Biomass Catalog of Technologies (U.S. EPA, 2007a) at www.epa.gov/chp/basic/
catalog.html#biomasscat.
Gaseous Fuels to Electricity, Heat, or CHP. As solid
waste decomposes in a landfill, a gas is created that
typically consists of about 50 percent methane and 50
percent CO2.2 The gas can either disperse into the air or
be extracted using a series of wells and a blower/flare
(or vacuum) system. This system directs the collected
gas to a central point where it can be processed and
treated. The gas can then be used to generate electricity, heat, or CHP via direct combustion; replace fossil
fuels in industrial and manufacturing operations; be
upgraded to pipeline quality gas, compressed natural
gas (CNG) or liquid natural gas (LNG) for vehicle
fuel; or be flared for disposal. As of December 2008,
approximately 490 LFG energy projects were operational in the United States. These 490 projects generate
approximately 11 million megawatt-hours (MWh) of
electricity per year and deliver more than 230 million
cubic feet per day of LFG to direct-use applications.
EPA estimates that approximately 520 additional
landfills present attractive opportunities for project
development (U.S. EPA, 2007a, U.S. EPA, 2009c).
For more information about LFG systems, see information on converting LFG to energy from EPAs
Landfill Methane Outreach Partnership at www.epa.
gov/landfill/overview.htm#converting.
Cofiring
Solid Fuels to Electricity. Cofiring to produce electricity involves substituting solid fuel biomass (e.g., wood
waste) for a portion of the fossil fuel (typically coal)
used in the combustion process. In most cases, the
existing power plant equipment can be used with only
minor modifications, making this the simplest and
2 The amount of methane generated by a landfill over its lifetime depends on
the composition of the waste, quantity and moisture content of the waste, and
design and management practices of the facility.
most economical option for biopower. Pulverized coal

boiler systems are the most widely used systems in
the United States; cofiring is also used in other types
of boilers, including coal-fired cyclones, stokers, and
fluidized bed boilers.
To evaluate the efficacy of biomass cofiring, a study by
U.S. DOE and the Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) modeled the performance of a pulverized coal
power plant using only coal and the same power plant
operating with biomass cofiring. The study identified
a 15 percent biomass cofiring rate as realistic given
biomass resource limitations and requirements to
maintain unit efficiency. Cofiring biomass for up to
15 percent of the fuel was demonstrated during preliminary testing to result in little or no loss in boiler
efficiency (EPRI and U.S. DOE, 1997).
For more information on cofiring, see EPAs CHP
Biomass Catalog of Technologies (U.S. EPA, 2007) at
www.epa.gov/chp/basic/catalog.html#biomasscat.
Gasification and Pyrolysis
Solid Fuels to Electricity, Heat, or CHP. Gasification,
plasma arc gasification, and pyrolysis are thermal
degradation processes that can convert solid biomass
feedstocks to a gas.
Gasification
is a chemical or heat process that converts

a solid fuel to a gas. To create bioenergy, solid biomass
feedstocks (e.g., wood waste) are heated above 700
degrees Celsius inside a gasifier with limited oxygen,
which converts the feedstock into a flammable, synthesis gas (syngas). Depending on the carbon and hydrogen content of the biomass and the gasifiers properties,
the heating value of the syngas can range from about
15 to 40 percent of natural gas. Syngas can be burned
in a boiler or engine to produce electricity and/or heat.
Syngas can also be converted thermochemically to a
liquid fuel (Kent, 2007).
Gasification has high efficiencies and great potential
for small-scale power plant applications. Because the
gas can be filtered to remove potential pollutants, the
process can produce very low levels of air emissions.
For more information on gasification, see EPAs CHP

Biomass Catalog of Technologies at www.epa.gov/
chp/basic/catalog.html#biomasscat or DOEs Biomass
primer at www.eere.energy.gov/de/biomass_power.html.
Plasma Arc Gasification is
a waste treatment technology that uses the high temperatures of an electrical
discharge (arc) to heat a gas, typically oxygen or

nitrogen, to temperatures potentially in excess of 3000
degrees Celsius. The gases heated by the plasma arc
come into contact with the waste in a device called
a plasma converter and vitrify or melt the inorganic
fraction of the waste and gasify the organic and hydrocarbon (e.g., plastic, rubber, etc.) fraction. The extreme
heat pulls apart the organic molecular structure of the
material to produce a simpler gaseous structure, primarily CO, H2, and CO2 (Beck, 2003).
Plasma arc gasification is intended to be a process for
generating electricity, depending upon the composition
of input wastes, and for reducing the volumes of waste
being sent to landfill sites (R. W. Beck, 2003). Most
plasma arc systems are cost effective at only very large
scales (1,000,000 tons of feedstock per year or more). A
number of companies are working on the development
and deployment of this emerging technology.
Pyrolysis also
uses high temperatures and pressure

in the absence of oxygen to decompose organic components in biomass into gas, liquid (bio-oil), and char
products (bio-char) (U.S. DOE, 2003). The process
occurs at lower temperatures than combustion or
gasification. Controlling the temperature and reaction
rate determines product composition (Southern States
Energy Board, 2006).
Bio-oil
is an acidic complex mixture of oxygenated

hydrocarbons with high water content. Most data
and research come from the pyrolysis of wood,
although it is possible to convert any biomass
feedstock into bio-oil through pyrolysis. Bio-oils
composition is influenced by several factors: feedstock properties, heat transfer rate, reaction time,
temperature history of vapors, efficiency of char removal, condensation equipment, water content, and
storage conditions. Bio-oil can be used for producing
thermal energy (e.g., for heating buildings, water,
and in industrial processes), for power generation
using slow-speed diesel engines or combustion turbines, and for cofiring in utility-scale boilers. Bio-oil
cannot be used as a transportation fuel without
further refining (Easterly, 2002) (see Section 2.2.2
Thermochemical and Biochemical Conversion, for a
discussion of bio-oil and transportation fuels).
The energy content of bio-oil ranges from 72,000 to
80,000 Btu per gallon whereas conventional heating
oil (No. 2) has an energy content of about 138,500
Btu per gallon. Thus, bio-oil contains about 52 to 58
percent as much energy and almost twice as much
bio-oil is required to produce the same amount of
15
heat as No. 2 heating oil. In addition, bio-oil weighs

about 40 percent more per gallon than heating oil
(Easterly, 2002).
A
coproduct of producing bio-oil is char or bio-char

(see Section 2.2.3 Biochemical).
Anaerobic Digestion
Solid Fuels to Gaseous Fuels for Electricity, Heat, or
CHP. Anaerobic digestion is the decomposition of
biological wastes (i.e., wastewater treatment sludge or
animal manure) by microorganisms in the absence
of oxygen, which produces biogas. Digestion occurs
under certain conditions (psychrophilic, mesophilic,
and thermophilic), which differ mainly based on
bacterial affinity for specific temperatures. This process
produces a gas that consists of 60 to 70 percent methane, 30 to 40 percent CO2, and trace amounts of other
gases (EPA, 2002). The methane can be captured (and
sometimes filtered or cleaned) and used to produce
electricity and/or heat, directly used to offset fossil
fuels, upgraded to pipeline quality gas, or used in
the production of liquid fuels. Anaerobic digestion is
commonly used at wastewater treatment facilities and
animal feeding operations.
Anaerobic digestion at wastewater treatment facilities
is used to process, stabilize, and reduce the volume of
biosolids (sludge) and reduce odors. It is often a twophase process: First, biosolids are heated and mixed
in a closed tank for about 15 days as digestion occurs.
The biosolids then go to a second tank for settling and
storage. Temperature, acidity, and other characteristics
must be monitored and controlled. Many wastewater
treatment plants that use anaerobic digesters burn the
gas for heat to maintain digester temperatures and heat
building space. The biogas can also be used to produce
electricity (e.g., in an engine-generator or fuel cell) or
flared for disposal.
Anaerobic digesters at animal feeding operations are
used to process, stabilize, and reduce the volume of
manure, reduce odors and pathogens, separate solids
and liquids for application to cropland as fertilizer or
irrigation water, and produce biogas. Farm-based anaerobic digesters consist of four basic components: the
digester, a gas-handling system, a gas-use device, and a
manure storage tank or pond to hold the treated effluent prior to land application. The biogas can be used to
generate heat, hot water, or electricity, directly used
to offset fossil fuels, upgraded to pipeline quality gas,
or used in the production of liquid fuels. The captured
biogas is typically used to generate electrical power,

with many farms recovering waste heat for on-farm
use. These systems generate about 244,000 MWh of
electricity per year in the United States. The biogas can
also be used in boilers, upgraded for injection into the
natural gas pipeline, or flared for odor control.
For more information about anaerobic digestion, see
EPAs Guide to Anaerobic Digesters at www.epa.gov/
agstar/operational.html.
Biofuels
Conversion of biomass into ethanol and biodiesel
liquid fuels has been increasing steadily over the past
decade. As of November 2008, there are 180 fuel
ethanol production facilities in operation or expansion and another 23 under construction (Renewable
Fuels Association [RFA], 2008). Total fuel ethanol
production in 2008 was 9 billion gallons (RFA, 2009).
In addition, as of January 2008, 171 companies have
invested in development of biodiesel manufacturing
plants and were actively marketing biodiesel. The annual production capacity from these biodiesel plants
is 2.24 billion gallons per year (National Biodiesel
Board, n.d.). This discussion focuses on ethanol and
biodiesel production; however, other biofuels can also
be produced, such as methanol, butanol, synfuels, and
algal fuel. Additional details about current and developing technologies for converting solid biomass into
liquid fuels are available from the Western Governors
2008 Association Strategic Assessment of Bioenergy
Development in the West, Bioenergy Conversion
Technology Characteristics (Western Governors Association, 2008).
Both ethanol and biodiesel can be produced using a
variety of feedstocks and processes. Their feedstocks
Ethanol and Biodiesel.

Both ethanol and biodiesel are registered as fuel and fuel
additives with the U.S. EPA.
As initially required under the Energy Policy Act of 2005
and subsequently revised in the Energy Independence and
Security Act (EISA) of 2007, Congress created a Renewable
Fuel Standard (RFS) to ensure that transportation fuel sold in
the United States contains minimum volumes of renewable
fuel, such as ethanol or biodiesel. The current RFS program will
increase the volume of renewable fuel required to be blended
into gasoline to 36 billion gallons by 2022.
Source: U.S. EPA, 2009
16
and conversion technologies are shown in Figure 2-2

and described below.
Thermochemical and Biochemical Conversion
Solid Fuels to Cellulosic Ethanol. Ethanol can be made
from cellulosic materials such as grasses, wood waste,
and crop residues. Cellulosic ethanol is made from
plant parts composed of cellulose, which makes up
much of the cell walls of plants, and hemicellulose, also
found in plant cell walls. Lignin, another plant part that
surrounds cellulose, can also be used to make ethanol.
Feedstocks that use both cellulose and lignin are sometimes referred to as lignocellulosic feedstocks; for
simplicity, this section uses the term cellulosic to refer
to both cellulosic and lignin-based ethanol production.
Breaking down the cellulose in cellulosic feedstocks
to release the sugars for fermentation is more difficult
than breaking down starch (e.g., in corn) to release
sugars; thus, cellulosic ethanol production is more
complex and more expensive than conventional ethanol production. Cellulosic biofuel production uses biochemical or thermochemical processes (NREL, 2007).
Distillation
to produce purer ethanol (as in conventional production).
Thermochemical conversion.
Thermochemical
conversion uses heat and chemicals to break down cellulosic feedstock into syngas. Depending upon the process being used, the gas can be converted to liquid fuels
such as ethanol, bio-butanol, methanol, mixed alcohols,
or bio-oil (through pyrolysis). Thermochemical conversion is particularly useful for lignin, which cannot
be easily converted to ethanol using the biochemical
process described above; up to one-third of cellulosic
feedstock can be composed of lignin. Forest and mill
residue feedstocks generally have high lignin contents,
and thus would be more suitable for thermochemical
ethanol conversion than biochemical conversion.
The thermochemical conversion process involves:
Drying
the cellulosic feedstock.
Gasification
(using heat to convert the feedstock to

a syngas) or pyrolysis (using heat and pressure to
produce an oil).
Contaminant
Ethanol
A type of alcohol that is used as an alternative energy

transportation fuel, can be made from crops such as
corn, sugarcane, sorghum, and switchgrass, as well as
opportunity/waste fuels such as agricultural and forest/
wood residue.
Conventional ethanol has been made from corn or sugarcane
for decades using processes that have evolved over time, but
are nonetheless considered conventional ethanol production.
Cellulosic ethanol is created from cellulosic feedstocks
using processes that have been developed more recently

and are not yet commercially deployed. Cellulosic ethanol is
considered advanced or second generation, using more
complex processes and potentially a wider variety of biomass
feedstocks.
Biochemical conversion.
Biochemical conversion for

ethanol production from cellulosic feedstocks involves:
Pretreatment
of the feedstock using high-temperature, high-pressure acid; enzymes; or other methods

to break down the lignin and hemicellulose that surround the cellulose.
Hydrolysis
using enzymes and acids to break down

the cellulose into sugars.
Fermentation
to convert the sugars into ethanol (as

in conventional production).
Conversion
products.
removal.
of the syngas to ethanol, bio-oil, or other
Distillation
to separate ethanol from water (if producing ethanol).
A number of researchers and organizations are

evaluating process changes and refinements to make
cellulosic ethanol production more commercially
viable and cost-competitive. For more information, see NRELs Research Advances: NREL Leads the
WayCellulosic Ethanol at www.nrel.gov/biomass/
pdfs/40742.pdf.
For more information on cellulosic ethanol production, see www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/ethanol/production_cellulosic.html.
Solid Fuels to Bio-Oil. Bio-oil has limited market presence and does not yet enjoy the popularity of other
biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel. Current research
and development in pyrolysis focuses on maximizing
liquid (bio-oil) yields because of the ability to transport
and store liquid fuels and the ability of bio-oil to be
further refined in existing petroleum refineries into
transportation fuels. In 2005, successful tests produced
syngas through gasification of bio-oil, which can be further processed into syndiesel. Syndiesel can be used in
17
all diesel end-use devices without modification (Dynamotive, 2005). Recent tests also show that it is possible
to take bio-oil and refine it into a green diesel product
using existing petroleum refineries. This technology
pathway effectively takes advantage of the infrastructure
associated with the existing petroleum industry (Holmgren et al., 2005). Beyond energy products, bio-oil can
be further refined into a range of specialty chemicals,
including flavor enhancers, and fuel additives.
Fermentation
Solid Fuels to Conventional Ethanol. In the United
States, all commercially established ethanol production
to date has been based on the biochemical process of
fermentation, which involves conversion of sugars in
starchy plants (such as corn or sugarcane) by microorganisms into alcohol. As of November 2008, 171 of the
180 operating ethanol biorefineries in the United States
used corn as the primary feedstock (RFA, 2008).
Ethanol from corn is produced in either dry mills or wet
mills. In dry mills, corn is ground into flour, water and
enzymes are added, the mixture is cooked, and yeast
is added for fermentation. The mixture is then distilled
and water is removed to produce ethanol. In wet mills,
corn is soaked in hot water to separate starch and protein, the corn is ground and the germ is separated, the
remaining slurry is ground, and some of the remaining
starch is further processed to produce sugars. The material is then fermented and distilled to produce ethanol.
In recent years, most new ethanol production facilities
have been dry mill plants. As of July 2008, approximately 95 percent of United States corn-ethanol facilities were dry mills, accounting for nearly 90 percent of
gallons produced. Dry mills typically produce ethanol,
animal feed, and sometimes CO2 (U.S. EPA, 2008d).
For more information on conventional corn-based
ethanol production, see www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/
ethanol/production_starch_sugar.html.
Transesterification
Oils to Biodiesel. Biodiesel production converts oils
or fats into biodiesel, which can be used to fuel diesel
vehicles (or stationary engines). In biodiesel production, fats and oils are converted into biodiesel through
a process known as transesterification. The oils and
fats are filtered and pretreated to remove water and
contaminants (e.g., free fatty acids), then mixed with
an alcohol (often methanol) and a catalyst (e.g., sodium
hydroxide) to produce compounds known as fatty acid
18
Biodiesel
Biodiesel is usually blended with petroleum diesel to create
either B20 (a 20 percent biodiesel blend) or B90 (a 90 percent
biodiesel blend), which can be used in diesel engines with little
or no modification and provides better engine performance
and lubrication than petroleum fuel (U.S. EPA, 2008e).
methyl esters and glycerin (U.S. DOE, 2008). The esters

are called biodiesel when they are intended for use as
fuel. Glycerin is used in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics,
and other markets. Often biodiesel and glycerin are
produced as coproducts.
In the United States, biodiesel is made primarily from
soybeans/soy oil or recycled restaurant grease; in
Europe, biodiesel is produced primarily from rapeseed
(EERE, 2008). About half of current biodiesel production facilities can use any fats or oils as a feedstock, including waste cooking oil; the other production facilities
require vegetable oil, often soy oil. Biodiesel production
facilities are often located in rural areas, near biodiesel
feedstock sources such as farms growing soybeans.
Farmers often use biodiesel in their farm equipment.
Increased demand for biodiesel feedstocks from
farms, as well as establishment of locally sited and/or
owned biodiesel production facilities, can help boost
rural economies.
For more information about biodiesel production,
see the U.S. DOE Web site at www.afdc.energy.gov/
afdc/fuels/biodiesel_production.html and the National
Biodiesel Boards Web site at www.biodiesel.org/
pdf_files/fuelfactsheets/Production.PDF.
Bioproducts
Biomass feedstocks are made of carbohydrates, and
thus contain the same basic elementscarbon and hydrogenas petroleum and natural gas. Many products,
such as adhesives, detergents, and some plastics, can
be made from either petroleum or biomass feedstocks.
Like biofuels, technologies for converting biomass
feedstocks into bioproducts use three main processes:
biochemical conversion, thermochemical conversion,
or transesterification.
Biochemical conversion for bioproducts includes
fermentation and plant extraction. Thermochemical
conversion technologies, such as direct combustion, gasification, and pyrolysis, use heat, chemicals,
catalysts, and pressure to break down biomass feedstocks. Transesterification uses alcohols to break down
vegetable oils for use in bioproducts.
As of 2003, use of biomass feedstocks provided more
than $400 billion of bioproducts annually in the United
States (U.S. DOE, 2003). Production of chemicals and
materials from bio-based products was approximately
12.5 billion pounds, or 5 percent of the current production of target U.S. chemical commodities (U.S.
DOE, 2005).
Bioproducts
Many industrial and consumer products, such as soap,
detergent, soy-based ink, solvents, and adhesives, are already
produced totally or partially from biomass feedstocks, primarily
corn, vegetable oils, and wood.
In addition, many products currently made from petroleum could
instead be made, in whole or part, from biomass feedstocks.
Also, new bioproducts and technologies are being developed
with the potential to increase production and use of bioproducts.
Current Bioproduct Applications
lactate, which can replace many petroleum-based

solvents; and
Polylactide (PLA), a plastic that can be used in packag-
ing and fiber applications, and can be melted and reused

or composted when it reaches the end of its useful life.
Ongoing research and pilot-scale applications of
bioproducts made from lactic acid derivatives show
great promise. Advances in fermentation technology
(e.g., new microorganisms and separation techniques)
may allow other sugars (e.g., pentose sugars such as
xylose) to be converted to bioproducts. These advances
would open up use of cellulosic biomass feedstocks
(e.g., corn stover, switchgrass, wheat straw) to make
bioproducts. Such advances may allow additional
bioproducts to be made through fermentation at costs
competitive with conventional petroleum-based products (U.S. DOE, 2003).
Plant Components to Bioproducts. Lumber, paper,
and cotton fiber are well-known examples of plants
used to make bioproducts. Tocopherols and sterols are
substances in plants that can be extracted and purified
for use in vitamins and cholesterol-lowering products.
A plant known as guayule produces nonallergenic rubber latex that can replace other types of rubber to which
many people have developed allergies (U.S. DOE, 2003).
Acrylic fibers
Pharmaceuticals
Adhesives
Polymers
Cosmetics
Resins
Detergents
Soaps
Lubricants
Solvents
Thermochemical
Paints
Textiles
Thermochemical conversion technologiessugar

conversion, gasification, and pyrolysisuse heat,
chemicals, catalysts (such as acids, metals, or both),
and pressure to break down biomass feedstocks, directly converting sugars into bioproducts or producing
intermediate materials that can be converted into final
bioproducts through other means.
Biochemical
Biochemical conversion for bioproducts includes fermentation and plant extraction.
Sugars and Starches to Bioproducts. Fermentation
with microorganisms or enzymes is commonly used to
convert starches and the sugar glucose into a variety of
organic acids and ethanol that are then used to create
bioproducts or intermediate materials used in manufacturing bioproducts. Food processing wastes are used
as biomass feedstocks in the fermentation process for
bioproducts (A.D. Little, Inc., 2001).
Specifically, fermentation can also be used to convert
sugars into:
Lactic
Ethyl
acid derivatives such as acrylic acid, which can

be used in coatings and adhesives;
Sugars to Bioproducts. Thermochemical conversion

has been used for more than 50 years to convert the
sugar glucose into sorbitol. Sorbitol derivativessuch
as propylene glycol, ethylene glycol, and glycerinare
important commercial products used in solvents,
coatings, pharmaceuticals, and other applications. Currently, propylene glycol and ethylene glycol are made
from petroleum; thermochemical conversion uses
biomass feedstocks (rather than petroleum) to produce
these sorbitol derivatives.
Thermochemical conversion can also convert sugars
other than glucose (e.g., xylose) to sorbitol. Thermochemical conversion is also used to convert sugar
to levulinic acid, which is then used to produce a
19
variety of bioproducts, such as methyl tetrahydrofuran

(MTHF), used in primaquine, an antimalarial drug,
and diphenoloic acid (DPA), used as an alternative to
bisphenol A (BPA) in polymers.
New catalysts and thermochemical technologies are
creating new opportunities for bioproducts, including
use of cellulosic feedstocks to create sorbitol-related
and other bioproducts (U.S. DOE, 2003).
Solid Fuels to Syngas. Gasification uses high temperatures and oxygen to convert solid carbonaceous material into syngas, which is a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen, and sometimes CO2. Syngas can
be converted into chemicals such as methanol, which is
then converted into other chemicals such as formaldehyde and acetic acid. Syngas can also be converted into
chemicals, such as paraffins and fatty acids, by using
catalysts (cobalt or iron) and high temperature and
pressure (known as the Fischer-Tropsch process) (U.S.
DOE, 2003).
Solid Fuels to Bioproducts. Pyrolysis uses high temperatures and pressure in the absence of oxygen to decompose organic components in biomass into liquids,
solids, and gases. The liquids, in particular, can contain
chemicals that can be used in bioproduct manufacturing, but isolating these chemicals via separation
technology can be difficult. The technology closest to
commercialization is pyrolysis of cellulosic feedstocks
containing high amounts of lignin. This technology can
produce a replacement for the toxic chemical phenol
in phenol-formaldehyde resins, used in plywood and
other wood composites (U.S. DOE, 2003).
Bio-char is another potential product from the pyrolysis process, which has multiple uses. One option is to
use the char as a soil amendment on agricultural lands.
Bio-char has been shown to improve soil organic matter, reduce fertilizer and water requirements, improve
nutrient delivery to the plant (through adsorption),
and sequester carbon (Cornell University, 2009).
Densification
Solid Fuels to Pellets or Briquettes. A robust market exists for solid biomass fuels such as pellets or
briquettes, which are a bioproduct formed from
compressed wood or agricultural residue feedstocks
that can be used as fuel for heating (see Section 2.2.1
Direct Combustion).
20
Pellets are typically 1/4 or 5/16 diameter and are the

most costly compressed biomass form. Bripells are the
same shape as pellets but 1-1/2 in diameter. They are so
named because they are between briquettes and pellets
in size. Briquettes are compressed biomass forms larger
than a pellet. Typically, briquettes are square or rectangular and can be the size of typical backyard barbeque fuel
up to the size of a building brick (NREL, Unpublished).
Pellets are a refined product and require the most expensive processing. The higher cost of pellets as a fuel
for heating is offset by the convenience of being able to
use fuel burning equipment that can be automated and
needs minimal attention (particularly when compared
to bulk biomass systems). This convenience is important because pellets typically compete for market share
against almost zero-maintenance natural gas, propane,
or electric heat. Briquettes require less energy to produce and are processed through simpler production
methods (NREL, Unpublished).
Transesterification
Oils to Bioproducts. Transesterification uses alcohols
to break down vegetable oils for use in bioproducts.
Vegetable oils are composed primarily of triglycerides,
which can be broken down using an alcohol (such as
methanol) into glycerin and fatty acids. The fatty acids
are then modified into intermediate products used to
make bioproducts. Vegetable oils from biomass feedstocks such as soybeans, sunflowers, and linseed are
used to manufacture bioproducts such as lubricants,
solvents, resins, plasticizers, inks, and adhesives (U.S.
DOE, 2003).
For more information on conversion technologies
used to manufacture bioproducts, see U.S. DOEs
report Industrial Bioproducts: Today and Tomorrow at
www.brdisolutions.com/pdfs/BioProductsOpportunitiesReportFinal.pdf.

Resource
Description
URL
Woody Biomass Utilization, U.S.

Forest Service and Bureau of Land
Management.
This U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management

Web site provides links to a variety of resources and reports
on woody biomass utilization, including tools and references
specifically targeted at state governments.
www.forestsandrangelands.gov/
Woody_Biomass/index.shtml
BioWeb, Sun Grant Initiative.
An online catalog of a broad range of resources on

bioenergy, including descriptions of biomass resources,
biofuels, and bioproducts; explanations of conversion
technologies; and summaries of relevant policies. The
resources are searchable by both topic and level of detail of
information provided. The catalog is a product of the Sun
Grant Initiative, a national network of land-grant universities
and federally funded laboratories working together to
further establish a bio-based economy.
http://bioweb.sungrant.org/
Biomass as Feedstock for a

Bioenergy and Bioproducts
Industry: The Technical
Feasibility of a Billion-Ton
Annual Supply, U.S. DOE, USDA,
2005.
Describes issues associated with reaching the goal of 1

billion tons of annual biomass production (see especially pp.
3437).
www.osti.gov/bridge
Biomass Energy Data Book, U.S.

DOE, September 2006.
Provides a compilation of biomass-related statistical data.
http://cta.ornl.gov/bedb/index.
shtml
Biomass Feedstock Composition

and Property Database, U.S. DOE.
Provides results on chemical composition and physical

properties from analyses of more than 150 samples of
potential bioenergy feedstocks, including corn stover; wheat
straw, bagasse, switchgrass, and other grasses; and poplars
and other fast-growing trees.
www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/
feedstock_databases.html
A Geographic Perspective on
the Current Biomass Resource
Availability in the United States,
Milbrandt, A., 2005.
Describes the availability of the various types of biomass on a

county-by-county basis.
www.nrel.gov/docs/
fy06osti/39181.pdf
Kent and Riegels Handbook

of Industrial Chemistry and
Biotechnology, Kent, 2007.
Detailed, comprehensive, fairly technical explanation of the

range of biomass conversion technologies.
Bioenergy
Biopower/Bioheat
Biomass Combined Heat and
Power Catalog of Technologies,
U.S. EPA, September 2007.
Detailed technology characterization of biomass CHP

systems, including technical and economic characterization
of biomass resources, biomass preparation, energy
conversion technologies, power production systems, and
complete integrated systems. Includes extensive discussion
of biomass feedstocks.
www.epa.gov/chp/documents/
biomass_chp_catalog.pdf
Combined Heat and Power

Market Potential for Opportunity
Fuels, U.S. DOE, Resource
Dynamics Corporation, August
2004.
Determines the best opportunity fuels for distributed

energy sources and CHP applications.
www.eere.energy.gov/de/pdfs/
chp_opportunityfuels.pdf
21
2.4 Resources for Detailed Information (cont.)

Resource
Description
URL
Biofuels/Bioproducts
Bioenergy Conversion
Technology Characteristics,
Western Governors Association,
September 2008.
Investigates the biofuel conversion technologies that are

currently available, as well as technologies currently under
development that are developed enough to be potentially
available on a commercial basis circa 2015.
A National Laboratory Market

and Technology Assessment of
the 30x30 Scenario, NREL, March
2007.
Draft assessment of the market drivers and technology needs

to achieve the goal of supplying 30 percent of 2004 motor
gasoline fuel demand with biofuels by 2030.
From Biomass to BioFuels: NREL

Leads the Way, NREL, August
2006.
Provides an overview of the world of biofuels, including the

maturity levels of various biofuels, how they are produced,
and the U.S. potential for biofuels.
www.nrel.gov/biomass/
pdfs/39436.pdf
Research Advances Cellulosic

Ethanol: NREL Leads the Way,
NREL, March 2007.
Highlights some of NRELs most recent advances in cellulosic

ethanol production.
pdfs/40742.pdf
2.5 References
A.D. Little, Inc.,
2001. Aggressive Use of Bioderived

Products and Materials in the U.S. by 2010. U.S. DOE.
Washington, DC, 2001. devafdc.nrel.gov/pdfs/6282.pdf.
Antares Group,
Inc., 2003. Assessment of Power Production at Rural Utilities Using Forest Thinnings and
Commercially Available Biomass Power Technologies.
Prepared for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S.
DOE, and NREL. As cited in U.S. EPA, 2007.
Beck,
2003, Beck, R. W. City Of Honolulu Review of

Plasma Arc Gasification and Vitrification Technology
for Waste Disposal. Honolulu, 2003. www.opala.org/
pdfs/solid_waste/arc/PlasmaArc.pdf.
Biomass Energy Resource Center,
2007. Wood Pellet

Heating: A Reference on Wood Pellet Fuels & Technology for Small Commercial & Institutional Systems.
Montpelier, VT, June, 2007. www.biomasscenter.org/
pdfs/DOER_Pellet_Guidebook.pdf.
Biomass Research and Development Board, 2008. Na-
tional Biofuels Action Plan. Washington, DC, October

2008. www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pdfs/nbap.pdf.
22
www.westgov.org/wga/initiatives/
transfuels/Task%202.pdf
Biomass Research and Development Initiative,
2008.
Increasing Feedstock Production for Biofuels: Economic Drivers, Environmental Implications, and the Role
of Research. Washington, DC, 2008. www1.eere.energy.
gov/biomass/pdfs/brdi_feedstock_wg2008.pdf.
City and County of San Francisco,
2007. Mayor
Newsom Launches SFGreasecycle - The Nations First
Citywide Program That Collects Waste Grease to Create Biofuel for Municipal Fleet. San Francisco, CA,
November, 20, 2007. www.sfgov.org/site/mayor_index.
asp?id=71394.
Commonwealth of Massachusetts,
2008. Advanced
Biofuels Task Force Report. Boston, 2008. www.mass.
gov/Eoeea/docs/eea/biofuels/biofuels_complete.pdf.
Cornell University,
2009. Biochar Soil Management.

Ithaca, NY. www.css.cornell.edu/faculty/lehmann/
research/biochar/biocharmain.html.
Dynamotive,
2005. Successful Conversion of Dynamotives Bio Oil to Synthetic Gas Demonstrates Potential
for Production of Synthetic Diesel and other Advanced
Fuels. Press Release, September 22, 2005. www.thefreelibrary.com/Successful+Conversion+of+DynaMoti
ves+BioOil+to+Synthetic+Gas...-a0136505108.
Easterly,
NREL (National Renewable Energy Laboratory),
EERE (Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable
NREL,
2002. Easterly, J. Assessment of Bio-Oil as

a Replacement for Heating Oil. Northeast Regional
Biomass Program. Washington, DC, November,
2002. www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/tmillett/course/
geog_304B/pub34.pdf.
Energy), 2008. Biofuels. U.S. DOE, Washington, DC,
2008. www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/.
2008a.
Renewable Energy Trends in Consumption and
Electricity 2006. EIA, Washington, DC, July, 2008.
www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/trends/
table1_5b.xls.
EIA,
2008b. Table 6. Biomass Energy Consumption

by Energy Source and Energy Use Sector 20012005.
Washington, DC, April 2008. www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/
solar.renewables/page/rea_data/table6.html.
EPRI (Electric Power Research Institute) and
U.S. DOE, 1997. Renewable Energy Technology

Characterizations. EPRI TR-109496. Washington, DC,
1997. www1.eere.energy.gov/ba/pba/tech_characterizations.html.
Holmgren,
2005. Holmgren, J., R. Marinangeli, T.

Markera, M. McCall, J. Petri, S. Czernik, D. Elliott, D.
Shonnard. Opportunities for Biorenewables in Petroleum Refineries. UOP, December 2005. www.pyne.
co.uk/Resources/user/PYNE%20Newsletters/001338_
Pyne%20p4-7.pdf.
Kent,
2007. Kent, James A., ed. Kent and Riegels

Handbook of Industrial Chemistry and Biotechnology.
11th ed., pp. 14991548. New York: Springer, 2007.
Mayfield,
2008. Algal Model Systems. The Scripps

Research Institute. Presented at the National Renewable Energy LaboratoryAir Force Office of Scientific
Research Workshop on Algal Oil for Jet Fuel Production. NREL, Golden, CO, February 2008. www.nrel.
gov/biomass/algal_oil_workshop.html.
Milbrandt,
A., 2005. Geographic Perspective on the

Current Biomass Resource Availability in the United
States. NREL/TP-560-39181. NREL, Golden, CO, December 2005. www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/39181.pdf.
National Biodiesel Board, n.d. Biodiesel Production.
National Biodiesel Board, Washington, DC, n.d. www.

biodiesel.org/pdf_files/fuelfactsheets/Production.pdf.
2006. From Biomass to Biofuels: NREL Leads the

Way. August 2006. NREL/BR-510-39436. NREL,
Golden, CO, August 2006. www.nrel.gov/biomass/
pdfs/39436.pdf.
2007. Research AdvancesCellulosic Ethanol:

NREL Leads the Way. NREL/BR-510-40742. NREL,
Golden, CO, March 2007. www.nrel.gov/biomass/
pdfs/40742.pdf.
NREL,
2008. Research Review 2007. NREL/MP-84042386. NREL, Golden, CO, August 2008. www.nrel.
gov/research_review/pdfs/2007/42386.pdf.
NREL,
Unpublished. Assessment of Biomass Pelletization Options for Greensburg, Kansas. Draft Technical
Report. NREL, Golden, CO.
RFA (Renewable Fuels Association),
2008. Ethanol
Biorefinery Locations. Renewable Fuels Association,
Washington, DC, 2008. www.ethanolrfa.org/
industry/locations.
RFA,
2009. Historic U.S. Fuel Ethanol Production.

Renewable Fuels Association, Washington, DC, 2009.
www.ethanolrfa.org/industry/statistics/#A.
Southern States Energy Board,
2006. American Energy Security: Building a Bridge to Energy Independence

and to a Sustainable Energy Future. Southern States
Energy Board. Norcross, Georgia, 2006. americanenergysecurity.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2009/02/
aes-report.pdf.
Ugarte et al.,
2006. Ugarte, D., B. English, K. Jensen, C.

Hellwinckel, J. Menard, B. Wilson, 2006. Economic and
Agricultural Impacts of Ethanol and Biodiesel Expansion. The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, 2006.
beag.ag.utk.edu/pp/Ethanolagimpacts.pdf.
2003. Industrial
Bioproducts: Today and Tomorrow. U.S. DOE, Washington, DC, July 2003.
U.S. DOE,
2004. Combined Heat and Power Market

Potential for Opportunity Fuels. Resource Dynamics
Corporation, Washington, DC, August 2004.
U.S. DOE,
2005. Biomass as Feedstock for a Bioenergy

and Bioproducts Industry: The Technical Feasibility of
a Billion-Ton Annual Supply. U.S. DOE, Washington,
DC, April 2005. DOE/DO-102995-2135. feedstockreview.ornl.gov/pdf/billion_ton_vision.pdf.
23
U.S. DOE,
U.S. EPA,
U.S. DOE,
U.S. EPA,
U.S. DOE, n.d.
U.S. EPA,
U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency),
U.S. EPA,
2007. ABCs of Biopower. U.S. DOE, Washington, DC, March 15, 2007. www1.eere.energy.gov/
biomass/abcs_biopower.html.
2008. Biodiesel Production. U.S. DOE,
Washington, DC, 2008. www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/
fuels/biodiesel_production.html.
The U.S. Dry-Mill Ethanol Industry.

U.S. DOE, Washington, DC, n.d. www.brdisolutions.
com/pdfs/drymill_ethanol_industry.pdf.
2002.
Managing Manure With Biogas Recovery Systems:
Improved Performance at Competitive Costs. U.S. EPA,
Washington, DC, 2002. www.epa.gov/agstar/pdf/manage.pdf.
U.S. EPA,
2007a. Biomass Combined Heat and Power

Catalog of Technologies. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC,
2007. www.epa.gov/chp/documents/biomass_chp_catalog.pdf.
U.S. EPA,
2007b. Utility-Ethanol Partnerships:

Emerging trend in district energy/CHP. U.S. EPA,
Washington, DC, 2007. www.epa.gov/chp/documents/
district_energy_article.pdf.
U.S. EPA,
2008a. Landfill Methane Outreach Program

(LMOP). U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, 2008. www.epa.
gov/lmop/overview.htm.
U.S. EPA,
2008b. Combustion. U.S. EPA, Washington,

DC, July 2008. www.epa.gov/osw/nonhaz/municipal/
combustion.htm.
U.S. EPA,
2008c. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in the

United States. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, 2008. www.
epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/msw99.htm.
U.S. EPA,
2008d, Ethanol Production Facilities Database. Combined Heat and Power Partnership. U.S.
EPA, Washington, DC, July 2008.
24
2008e. Biodiesel. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC,

2008. www.epa.gov/smartway/growandgo/documents/
factsheet-biodiesel.htm.
2009a. Renewable Fuel Standard Program.
U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, March 12, 2009. www.epa.
gov/OMS/renewablefuels/
2009b. Guide to Anaerobic Digesters. U.S.
EPA, Washington, DC, 2009. www.epa.gov/agstar/
operational.html.
2009c. Energy Projects and Candidate Landfills. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, 2009. www.epa.gov/
lmop/proj/index.htm.
2008. Strategic
Assessment of Bioenergy Development in the West, Bioenergy Conversion Technology Characteristics. Antares
Group, Inc. 2008. www.westgov.org/wga/initiatives/
transfuels/Task%202.pdf.
Chapter Three
Biomass is a low-cost, domestic

source of renewable energy with
potential for large-scale production.
U.S. DOE estimates that, with
aggressive action, bioenergy could
displace one-third of the current
demand for petroleum fuels
nationwide by the mid-21st century
(U.S. DOE, 2005).
According to the American Council on Renewable Energy (ACORE), biopower projects could see a 10-fold
increaseto 100 gigawatts (GW)by 2025 with coordinated federal and state policies to expand renewable
energy markets, promote and deploy new technology,
and provide opportunities to encourage renewable
energy use in multiple market sectors and applications
(ACORE, 2007).
Document Map
Benefits, Challenges,
and Considerations
of Bioenergy
Chapter One
Introduction
Chapter Two
What Is Bioenergy?
Chapter Three
Chapter Four
Chapter Five
Chapter Three Contents

3.1 Energy Security Benefits
3.2 Economic Benefits
3.3 Environmental Benefits, Challenges, and
Considerations
3.4 Feedstock Supply Challenges
3.5 Infrastructure Challenges
3.7 References
With the potential for increased production and use of

biomass and bioenergy comes the potential for states
to take advantage of benefits associated with bioenergy,
but also the need to guard against pitfalls. Some benefits and challenges will be of greater interest to states
in particular regions (e.g., arid vs. wet, nonattainment
vs. in attainment) or with particular characteristics
(e.g., urban vs. rural). States will want to weigh the
challenges and benefits when deciding whether and
how to pursue bioenergy development.
Chapter Three | State Bioenergy Primer
25
A brief overview of benefits and challenges is provided

below, followed by a more detailed discussion.
Benefits
Policy makers are looking to production and use of
biomass for power, heat, fuels, and products as an effective means of advancing energy security, economic,
and environmental goals.
For example, an analysis of the primary drivers cited
in legislation for state renewable fuel standards (RFSs)
found that state goals included (Brown et al., 2007):
Energy Security:
Increasing use of domestic fuels

to reduce dependence on foreign oil and its potential
disruptions, while keeping money for energy in
local communities.
Economic:
Improving the rural economy by generating jobs, income, and taxes through demand for local
biomass resources and construction of biomass conversion facilities.
Environmental:
Achieving air quality goals and improving public health by using bioenergy that reduces
GHGs and other air pollutants and by turning waste
products into bioenergy.
In addition, compared with some energy alternatives,
bioenergy may be one of the easier options to adopt in
the near term (e.g., coal-fired power plants can cofire
biomass and vehicle engines can use biofuels with few
if any modifications).
Challenges
At the same time, there are potential challenges associated with deployment of any bioenergy project.
While the benefits of using biomass instead of other
fuel sources to meet state energy needs are numerous,
states should be aware of several potential issues when
exploring bioenergy. These include:
Environment:
Potentially adverse environmental

impacts could result if increased production is not
handled sustainably, including air and water pollution, negative impacts of direct and indirect land use
changes, and increased water consumption.
Feedstock
Supply: For a variety of reasons, securing

a suitable and reliable feedstock supplyparticularly
one that will be available over the long term at a
reasonable costdoes not always prove easy. Many
26
State Bioenergy Primer | Chapter Three
feedstocks are seasonal and may only be harvested

once a year. In order to cover their fuel needs for
energy production over the course of a year, bioenergy
producers may need to utilize flexible conversion processes capable of using a variety of feedstocks available
in different seasons.
Infrastructure:
The location and nature of feedstock

inputs or bioenergy outputs produced at bioenergy
plants can make their delivery difficult. Additionally,
current infrastructure levels may not support market
demand or can be constrained by other economic factors despite demand.
These benefits and challenges are described in the following sections. Note that not all are relevant to every
type of bioenergy production or use.
3.1 Energy Security Benefits

3.1.1 Increased Energy Independence
through Biofuels
The United States currently imports 65 percent of the
petroleum it consumesthe majority for transportation fuels (U.S. Energy Information Agency, 2008).
Relying on foreign energy sources leaves the nation
vulnerable to price increases and supply limits that
foreign nations could impose. Reliance on foreign
petroleum also contributes significantly to the U.S.
trade deficit. Increasing the domestic energy supply by
expanding biofuels production could help reduce U.S.
dependence on foreign oil, thus increasing the nations
energy security.
3.1.2 Decreased Infrastructure
Vulnerability through Biopower
The vulnerability of our energy infrastructure to attacks is also an energy security concern. Increased use
of domestic bioenergy can help reduce this vulnerability because bioenergy involves a domestic, dispersed
energy infrastructure that may be less prone to attack.
When a reliable feedstock supply is available, biopower
can be a baseload renewable resource, compared to
other renewable resources such as wind and solar,
which may be available on an intermittent basis, and
compared to fossil fuels, supplies of which may become
increasingly limited and more expensive.
Ethanols Net Energy Balance

Net energy balance is the total amount of energy used over the
full life cycle of a fuel, from feedstock production to end use.
Technical debate is ongoing about the implications of some
forms of bioenergy, most notably ethanol as a transportation
fuel. In the 1980s, the net fossil fuel energy balance for corn
to ethanol was negative, meaning the fossil energy input to
create the ethanol was greater than the fossil energy displaced.
Technology improvements have changed this such that most
recent studies find that corn-based ethanol reduces petroleum
usage. However, some studies find a negative net fossil energy
balance for corn ethanol when all fossil energy sources (e.g.,
coal-fired electricity used to power the production plant) are
taken into account (U.S. DOE, 2006).
Study results vary due to differing assumptions about energy
sources, by-products, and system boundaries. For example,
ethanol plants that take full advantage of CHP opportunities
would have greater energy efficiency and a better energy
balance. Use of biomass or biogas as the production facilitys
fuel for power and heat also reduces fossil energy use (E3
Biofuels, 2007; U.S. DOE, 2006).
U.S. EPA studied the effect of CHP on energy use in the dry mill
conversion process used to produce ethanol from corn. The
Agency analyzed the impact of this technology on total energy
consumption (including power fuel use at the plant for ethanol
production and subsequent reductions in central station power
fuel use) for plants using natural gas, coal, or biomass as fuel.
In all cases where plants utilized CHP technology, total net fuel
consumption was reduced as electricity generated by the CHP
systems displaced less efficient central station power. Energy
use reductions of approximately 8 percent were modeled for
the plants utilizing biomass-fueled CHP (U.S. EPA, 2007a).
In contrast to the varying net fossil energy balance results
for corn-based ethanol, cellulose-based ethanol is found to
provide both lower petroleum usage and a positive net fossil
energy balance because less fossil fuel is required to acquire
cellulosic feedstocks (e.g., grasses, wood waste, etc.) than corn
(U.S. DOE, 2006).
U.S. DOEs Biomass Energy Databook (2006) provides
detailed comparisons of energy inputs and GHG emissions
for various ethanol scenarios compared to gasoline. For more
information, see http://cta.ornl.gov/bedb/pdf/Biomass_
Energy_Data_Book.pdf.
3.2 Economic Benefits

3.2.1 Price Stability from Biopower
A key economic benefit of bioenergy is its potential
to provide price stability in volatile energy markets.
For example, opportunity fuelswaste materials from
agricultural or industrial processescan generally be
obtained for no or very low cost, as is the case with
biogas collection and use at wastewater treatment
plants or animal feeding operations. In addition to
displacing purchased fossil fuels, using opportunity
fuels for biopower may also free up landfill space and
reduce tipping fees associated with waste disposal.
As bioenergy technologies continue to improve, the
potential for bioenergy to be a cost-competitive energy
choice increases.
Even when the cost of bioenergy is greater than fossil
fuels, in some cases bioenergy can help stabilize energy
prices by providing more diverse sources of energy
for the fuel supply. For example, biomass-fueled CHP
can provide a hedge against unstable energy prices
by allowing the end user to supply its own power
when prices for electricity are very high. In addition,
a CHP system can be configured to accept a variety of
feedstocks (e.g., biomass, biogas, natural gas) for fuel;
therefore, a facility could build in fuel-switching capabilities to hedge against high fuel prices.
Using a diversity of renewable resources can also
provide economic benefits. Two studies in the United
Kingdom compared electric systems that rely on wind
alone with systems that combine wind and biomass
on the same grid. In both cases, the need for ancillary
services and transmission line upgrades, and thus the
overall costs of the system, were significantly reduced
when wind was complemented with biomass generating capacity (IEA, 2005).
3.1.3 Reliable Baseload Power Source

Essex Junction Wastewater Treatment Facility
Essex Junction, Vermont
Essex Junctions wastewater treatment facility uses two 30
kilowatt (kW) microturbines to generate electricity and thermal
energy from the methane gas produced by its digester. Before
CHP was installed, the plant used only half of the methane it
produced. Now the plant uses 100 percent of the methane
produced to heat the anaerobic digester, saving 412,000 kWh
and $37,000 each year. These energy savings represent 36
percent of the facilitys electricity demand. The project has an
estimated payback of seven years.
Example
Biomass power is a reliable, cost-effective source of

baseload power. Unlike wind or solar, biomass feedstocks can be stored and used to generate power 24
hours a day, seven days a week. The ability to store
feedstocks is beneficial for utilities because it enables
them to consistently know when they will be available,
in what quantities, and at what cost.
Source: U.S. EPA, 2007f
27
3.2.1 Economic Development from

Feedstock Production and Bioenergy
Providing
A major driver for many states in considering bioenergy expansion is the potential for economic development benefits. It is prudent to keep in mind, however,
that the specifics of policy/program design and implementation, combined with the particular market forces
at work in a state, will impact the extent to which a
state will realize these benefits.
Eliminating,
Nonetheless, the bioenergy supply chain has the

potential to create jobs, income, and taxes associated
with growing and harvesting or collecting the resource,
facility construction, operation and maintenance, transportation, and feedstock processing. The funds retained
in communities from local feedstock production and
conversion create jobs and strengthen the local property
and income tax base. Because biomass resources are primarily agricultural or forestry-based, rural communities
have tended to benefit most from increased demand for
feedstocks; however, if urban communities begin to further develop their use of waste/ opportunity fuels, they
may also see localized benefits (U.S. DOE/SSEB, 2005).
Other potential economic benefits that can accrue from
use of biomass for power, fuels, or products include
(U.S. DOE/SSEB, 2005):
Creating
new uses and markets for traditional commodity crops.
Creating
opportunities to diversify rural income by

growing new crops for biomass markets.
Mitigating
land-clearing costs for development or

reforestation purposes.
markets and partially defraying costs for

removal of undergrowth for forest health initiatives.
mitigating, or transforming the need for
agricultural and forestry-related subsidies.
Increased bioenergy can create or expand domestic
industries nationally and regionally. The United States
is already experiencing economic benefits from biofuels, according to a study by RFA. In 2006, the ethanol
industry created more than 160,000 direct and indirect
jobs; generated nearly $5 billion in federal, state, and
local tax revenues; and reduced the federal trade
deficit by more than $11 billion (Urbanchuk, 2007).
Biomass power is a vital component of Americas green
economy. This $1 billion-a-year industry provides
14,00018,000 jobs nationwide and contributes millions of dollars to local tax revenues yearly (Cleaves,
Personal Communication, 2009).
Despite the potential economic benefits of biomass cultivation and bioenergy production, farmers may be reluctant to devote land to producing biomass feedstocks
due to uncertainty in demand for these crops and
up-front investment costs. To help communities and
domestic industries take advantage of the economic
benefits of biomass cultivation and bioenergy production, the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008
established the Biomass Crop Assistance Program to
provide financial incentives to farmers to grow biomass
feedstocks and connect with bioenergy producers (see
text box).
Economic Development Benefits From Bioenergy
Facilities
In 2005, RFA estimated that a typical ethanol plant producing
Producer Payments:
Biomass Crop Assistance Program
As part of the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008,
the Biomass Crop Assistance Program (BCAP) was created to
financially support the establishment and production of crops
for conversion to bioenergy and to assist with collection,
harvest, storage, and transportation of eligible material for use
in a biomass conversion facility. BCAP provides payments to
farmers while they establish and grow biomass crops in areas
around biomass facilities. To qualify for payments, potential
biomass crop producers must participate in and be approved
as part of a BCAP project area that is physically located within
an economically viable distance from a biomass conversion
facility. Contracts run for five years for annual and perennial
crops and 15 years for woody biomass. The program provides
three types of payments to producers: direct, annual and costshare (sometimes called delivery) payments.
Source: USDA, 2008; NASDA, 2008
28
40 million gallons per year would provide a one-time boost of

$142 million to the local economy during construction, expand
the local economic base by $110.2 million each year through
direct spending of $56 million, create 41 full-time jobs at the
plant and a total of 694 jobs throughout the entire economy,
and boost state and local sales tax receipts by $1.2 million for
every $209,000 invested (U.S. DOE/SSEB, 2005).
A 2002 study conducted in South Dakota estimated that
a 24-million-gallon-per-year biodiesel facility under

consideration would create 29 new jobs at the facility and
another 748 jobs in the community. The facility would have
a $22-million annual payroll and would generate $4.6 million
in state and local tax revenues and $6.4 million in federal tax
revenues (Leatherman and Nelson, 2002).
For each megawatt of biopower produced from forest residue,
U.S. DOE estimates that at least four jobs are created to procure
and harvest the residue. Additional jobs would be created to
transport the residue and construct, operate, and maintain the
biopower facility (U.S. DOE, 2005).
3.3 Environmental Benefits,

Challenges, and Considerations
can also increase certain air emissions relative to fossil

fuels. These issues are described below.
This section describes the potential environmental

benefits and challenges of bioenergy in terms of air
quality, land resources, waste, water resources, and
food supply. The environmental effects of bioenergy
can vary substantially because of the diversity in feedstock production, chemical content, and conversion
processes. As with many multifaceted issues, bioenergy
presents a complex set of environmental considerations
and potential tradeoffs, some of which require active
and attentive policy/program design and implementation to ensure the benefits outweigh the potential for
negative consequences of missteps.
Decreased GHG Emissions from Bioenergy
In such a complex area, policy makers can turn to

detailed state or locally specific evaluations of potential
environmental effects to ensure they are making informed decisions. A life-cycle assessment (LCA) can be
used to quantify these effects.
LCA is a technique to assess the environmental aspects
and potential impacts associated with a product, process, or service by (U.S. EPA, 2008a):
Compiling
an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases.
Evaluating
the potential environmental impacts associated with identified inputs and releases.
Interpreting
the results to help with more informed

decision making.
A number of LCAs have been completed on bioenergy
technologies and systems (see 3.6Resources for Detailed Information).
Biomass is generally considered to contribute nearly

zero net GHG emissions (U.S. EPA, 2007b; IPCC,
2006). The reason for this accounting is because conversion of biomass feedstocks (whether in the form of
biopower or biofuels) returns approximately the same
amount of CO2 to the atmosphere as was absorbed during growth of the biomass, resulting in little to no additional CO2 released to the air. In contrast, when fossil
fuels are burned, they release CO2 into the atmosphere
that was captured by photosynthesis and stored millions of years ago, thereby increasing the total amount
of carbon in the atmosphere today. Fuel sources such as
landfill gas and manure digester biogas actually reduce
GHG emissions while producing energy.
Some recent studies dispute whether land use changes
associated with biofuels (not biopower) production
and international agricultural commodity markets
counteract this benefit and actually increase GHG
emissions (Searchinger et al., 2008; Delucchi et al.,
2008; Wang and Haq, 2008). U.S. EPA is responsible for
studying this issue carefully as part of the rulemaking
process for the Federal Renewable Fuel Standard and
ultimately enforcing new GHG reduction standards
for renewable fuels as required by the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007.
Biofuels. The Argonne National Laboratory has estimated (excluding indirect land use) that when corn ethanol
displaces an energy-equivalent amount of gasoline,
GHG emissions are reduced by 1829 percent; cellulosic
ethanol yields an 8586 percent reduction (Wang, 2005).
3.3.1 Air Quality Benefits and

Challenges
Bioenergy can help improve air quality by reducing
GHG emissions as well as emissions of several key air
pollutants, depending on which biomass feedstocks
and bioenergy conversion technologies are used (see
Chapter 2 for descriptions of feedstocks and conversion technologies). These emission reductions can
provide economic and environmental benefits by lowering emission-related operating costs, such as allowance/ permit costs and emissions-control equipment
expenses (Hanson, 2005). At the same time (again
depending on feedstocks and technologies), bioenergy
Reducing GHG Emissions with Waste-to-Energy

An example of GHG savings from bioenergy can be illustrated
by the diversion of MSW from landfills to incinerators. MSW as
a biomass feedstock reduces landfill methane emissions and
substitutes for fossil-based power sources. EPAs life-cycle
models (WARM and MSW Decision Support Tool) estimate that
0.55 to 1.0 tons of GHG emissions can be saved per ton of MSW
combusted when incineration with energy recovery is selected
over landfilling. MSW includes a large biogenic component (50
to 66 percent), and this fraction of the total can be considered
carbon neutral from an energy generation perspective. Overall,
a significant net GHG emissions savings could be realized from
MSW combustion with energy recovery.
Source: U.S. EPA, 2008c
29
Biodiesel is regarded as having significant GHG reduction capabilities, depending on the source of the feedstock. USDA and U.S. DOE performed a comparative
life-cycle analysis (excluding indirect land use) of soybased biodiesel and petroleum diesel used in city buses
and estimated that B20 (a blend of 20 percent biodiesel
and 80 percent petroleum diesel) and B100 (100 percent
biodiesel) can reduce CO2 emissions by approximately
15 percent and 78 percent, respectively (NREL, 1998).
generated from biogas captured from landfills, wastewater treatment facilities, or animal feeding operations
can also reduce methane emissions. On a national
scale, if all wastewater treatment facilities that operate
anaerobic digesters and have sufficient influent flow
rates (greater than 5 million gallons per day) were to
install CHP, approximately 340 MW of clean electricity
could be generated, offsetting 2.3 million metric tons of
CO2 emissions annually (U.S. EPA, 2007c).
Biopower. A 2004 NREL study found that overall,

compared to coal-generated electricity, producing electricity with biomass feedstocks will substantially reduce
GHG emissions (20 to 200+ percent) and the fossil energy consumption per kilowatt-hour of electricity generated (Spath and Mann, 2004). In addition, emissions
of methane, a potent GHG, can be reduced by utilizing
biomass residues that would otherwise decompose in
landfills (e.g., urban and industrial residues). Biopower
Air Emissions Considerations with Feedstock

Production
Use of Biopower for Offsets

Entities (corporations, facilities, governments) interested in
reducing their CO2 emissions are advised to first strive for
cost-effective GHG reductions through internal projects, such
as energy efficiency and on-site renewable energy projects. As
cost-effective direct options are exhausted, entities may also
consider supporting GHG reduction projects that occur outside
their organizational boundaryknown as offsets.
Offsets represent GHG reductions that are quantified and
verified at one location, but whose emission reductions are
credited to another location or entity. Under all internationally
recognized GHG protocols, biopower projects (including
converting LFG to energy, capture and use of anaerobic digester
gas, and solid fuel biomass feedstocks) can qualify for offset
credits under certain circumstances due to their GHG benefits.
EPAs Climate Leaders program, for example, offers protocols
for measuring the GHG benefits from biogas and biomass
power projects that meet four key accounting principles:
Real. The quantified GHG reductions must represent actual
emission reductions that have already occurred.

Additional. The GHG reductions must be surplus to regulation
and beyond what would have happened in the absence of

the project or in a business-as-usual scenario based on a
performance standard methodology.
Permanent. The GHG reductions must be permanent or have
guarantees to ensure that any losses are replaced in the future.

Verifiable. The GHG reductions must result from projects
whose performance can be readily and accurately quantified,

monitored, and verified.
For more information on offsets and other environmental
revenue streams for which biomass might qualify, see www.
epa.gov/chp/documents/ers_program_details.pdf.
Source: U.S. EPA, 2009; U.S. EPA, 2007d
30
The application of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides

associated with agricultural feedstocks (e.g., corn, soybeans, crop residues) can result in air pollutant emissions, including emissions of particulate matter (PM),
nitrogen and sulfur compounds, heavy metals, and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) (U.S. DOE, 2003).
In general, crops grown for bioenergy require fewer
pesticides and fertilizers than crops grown for food;
nevertheless, mitigation of air pollutants from agriculture is important for all crop production, whether the
crop is used for food, feed, or bioenergy. Practices that
reduce the need for agricultural chemicals and fertilizers while retaining crop yields and quality contribute
to sustainability and increase the viability of biomass as
a feedstock resource (U.S. DOE, 2003).
Air Emission Considerations with Biopower
Air emissions associated with biopower vary by feedstock, technology, and the extent to which emission
controls are used.
SO2 and NOX. Using certain biomass feedstockssuch
as wood, wood waste, or crop residuesto produce biopower can reduce SO2 and NOX emissions because the
sulfur and nitrogen content is much lower than in coal.
Power
plants reduce SO2 and NOX emissions when

they cofire these biomass feedstocks with coal, compared to using coal alone (U.S. DOE, 2004; Mann and
Spath, 2001).
Biopower
facilities using biomass feedstocks in certain

types of direct combustion technologies (e.g., fluidized bed boilers) and gasification technologies (e.g.,
integrated gasification combined cycle, or IGCC) have
reduced SO2 and NOX emissions, compared to coalonly electricity production (U.S. DOE, 2004a; Mann
and Spath, 2001).
Controlled
burning of crop residues for power generation also can reduce SO2 and NOX emissions by up to
98 percent, compared to emissions from uncontrolled
open burning, which many farmers use to burn their
crop residues as waste (U.S. DOE, 2004).
must comply with federal and state permits for air

pollutants, which require controls for PM. As noted in
the text box on this page, permitting requirements for
small, non-residential boilers will also be in place in
2009.
Mercury. Mercury emissions from biopower facilities

are significantly lessnear zerothan those from
coal-burning power plants (NREL, 2003).
However, the burning of wood and wood waste in

traditional, residential wood stoves is a significant contributor to PM2.5 concentrations in some areas of the
country. Since 1988, all wood stoves manufactured in
the United States must be EPA-certified, which means
they use one-third less wood than older stoves to produce the same heat and emit 5070 percent less PM;
however, only 2030 percent of the 10 million wood
stoves in use are the newer, certified type.
Particulate matter. Biopowerand in particular,

bioheatcan contribute to PM2.5 emissions. Industrial- and utility-scale biomass combustion facilities
Relevant Federal Air Quality Standards

States must comply with federal air quality standards, including
the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) established
under the Clean Air Act for criteria pollutants, which include
CO, lead, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10),
ground-level ozone, and sulfur dioxide (SO2).
Most power generation facilities (both fossil fuel-based and
bioenergy), as well as burning of transportation fuels (both
gasoline and biofuels) in vehicles, emit some of these criteria
pollutants. States that do not meet one or more of the NAAQS
standards are considered nonattainment areas and are
required to develop and submit State Implementation Plans
(SIPs) that indicate how they will meet these standards.
To help meet federal NAAQS requirements for criteria
pollutants, EPA provides guidance to states for developing SIPs
that quantify and include emission reductions achieved from
energy efficiency and renewable energy measures, including
bioenergy. For more information, see www.epa.gov/ttn/oarpg/
t1/memoranda/ereseerem_gd.pdf.
Bioenergy (as well as most fossil fuel-based) facilities may
also be subject to additional federal standards for combustion
sources and air-permitting requirements for new sources,
including New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) and
National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
(NESHAP) for boilers, gas turbines, and internal combustion
engines. Existing combustion sources must obtain NESHAP
permits; new combustion sources must install maximum
available control technologies (MACT) and meet additional
requirements to qualify for both NSPS and NESHAP permits.
Meeting these permitting requirements can take significant
effort by project developers.
In 2009, EPA will be publishing a proposed area source rule
that will apply new emission requirements to all non-residential
small boilers. All bioenergy boilerstypically used to produce
heat or steaminstalled after that date will be subject to
emission regulations for new boilers. All bioenergy boilers in
place prior to that date will eventually be required to comply
with regulations for existing boilers. For more information, see
www.epa.gov/woodheaters/resources.htm.
States may also have their own permitting requirements
in addition to, or that are more stringent than, federal
requirements.
For more information, see www.epa.gov/woodstoves/

changeout.html.
Air Emission Considerations with Biofuels
Analyses by EPA and others have found that the effects
of biofuels on air pollutant emissions depend strongly
on the type of renewable fuel, the engine type and performance, and the vehicle emissions control system performance. In addition, biodiesel impacts on emissions
can vary depending on the type of biodiesel (soybean,
rapeseed, or animal fats) and type of conventional diesel
to which the biodiesel was added (U.S. EPA, 2002).
Ethanol
CO. Because ethanol contains oxygen, adding ethanol
to gasoline allows engines to burn fuel more completely, reducing emissions of unburned hydrocarbons;
CO emissions can be reduced by 2030 percent. States
with CO nonattainment areas require that fuel contain
oxygen and ethanol is blended into gasoline for this
reason (U.S. DOE, 2008).
NOX. Past tests have shown that ethanol-gasoline
blended fuels, such as E10 (a blend of 10 percent ethanol and 90 percent petroleum), increase NOX emissions
slightly. However, results on the use of E85 (a blend
of 85 percent ethanol and 15 percent petroleum; used
in flexible fuel vehicles [FFVs]) have shown that NOX
emissions do not increase (U.S. DOE, 2008).
VOCs. Certain VOCs that are present in gasoline, such
as benzene (a carcinogen), are not present in ethanol;
thus, adding ethanol to gasoline reduces emissions
of these and other exhaust-related VOCs (U.S. DOE,
2008). However, other air toxics (formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and 1,3-butadiene) are present in ethanol and
31
blending ethanol with petroleum can increase nonexhaust VOCs (U.E. EPA, 2007e).
Biodiesel
CO, PM, SO2. B20, a blend of 20 percent biodiesel and
80 percent petroleum diesel, helps reduce emissions of
PM, CO, and hydrocarbons, compared to conventional
diesel. These air emissions from biodiesel-diesel fuel
blends generally decrease as the concentration of
biodiesel increases. Biodiesel does not produce SO2
emissions (U.S. EPA, 2002).
NOX. The effect of biodiesel on NOx can vary with
engine design, calibration, and test cycle. At this time,
the data are insufficient to conclude anything about the
average effect of B20 on NOx; some studies indicate
emissions slightly increase while others indicate a
slight decrease or neutral response (U.S. EPA, 2002;
NREL, 2009).
Biodiesel vs. Conventional Diesel Emissions in
Heavy-Duty Engines
One of the most common blends of biodiesel, B20, contains 20
percent biodiesel and 80 percent petroleum diesel by volume.
When soy-based biodiesel at this concentration is burned
in heavy-duty highway engines, the emissions, relative to
conventional diesel, contain approximately:
11 percent less CO
10 percent less PM
21 percent less unburned hydrocarbons
2 percent more NO
X
Decreased Air Emissions from Bioproducts

Manufacturing
Compared to manufacturing that relies solely on
fossil fuels, manufacturing of bioproducts can help
reduce certain pollutant emissions, including VOCs
and GHGs. This is because many biomass feedstocks
used to manufacture bioproducts can also be used to
generate power and heat for these same manufacturing
processes, thus decreasing or eliminating the need for
fossil fuels and associated emissions. Also, bioproducts
are often manufactured using lower temperatures and
pressures than fossil fuel-based manufacturing; therefore, less combustion may be needed, which may result
in fewer air emissions (U.S. DOE, 2003).
32
Natural Disasters Can Generate a Substantial

Volume of Debris
U.S. EPAs Planning Guide for Disaster Debris highlights the
need for communities to plan for the cleanup of debris after
a major natural disaster. Based on lessons learned from
communities that have experienced such disasters, this guide
contains information to help communities prepare for and
recover more quickly from the increased solid waste generated
by a natural disaster. Major categories of disaster debris include
damaged buildings, sediments, green waste, personal property,
ash and charred woodmuch of which can be productively
utilized if plans are in place (e.g., through recycling, as fuel for
biopower production).
For more information, see www.epa.gov/osw/conserve/rrr/imr/
cdm/debris.htm.
3.3.2 Waste Reduction Benefits

Reduced Solid Waste from Biopower
The use of biomass residues can reduce the amount
of waste that must be disposed of in landfills. MSW is
sometimes used in bioenergy production, which diverts the MSW from the waste stream. Burning MSW
in boilers for heat or power can reduce the amount of
waste that would otherwise be disposed of in landfills
by up to 90 percent in volume and 75 percent in weight
(U.S. DOE, 2004a). With a range of 137 to 266 million
tons of MSW currently landfilled on an annual basis,
the potential for volume reduction is significant (U.S.
EPA, 2008c). Waste reduction not only saves increasingly limited landfill space, but also helps protect the
environment (e.g., water quality in rivers and oceans).
In addition, using agricultural and forest residues for
bioenergy production allows for these wastes to be disposed of through controlled combustion, rather than
burned in open-air slash piles, which helps control and
reduce potentially harmful emissions. Such pollution
reduction also provides public health benefits (e.g.,
maintaining or improving drinking water supplies and
reducing illnesses associated with air pollution) (U.S.
DOE, 2004a).
Reduced Hazardous and Toxic Wastes from
Bioproducts Manufacturing
Many bioproduct manufacturing processes use natural
catalysts (e.g., enzymes) and solvents (e.g., water) and
produce few or no toxic or hazardous by-products. (In
contrast, manufacturing of fossil fuel-based products
uses large amounts of aromatic solvents or strong inorganic acids and bases.) In most cases, solid wastes and
liquid effluents from biological processes used to make
bioproducts are biodegradable or can be recycled or
disposed of without extensive treatment. Even in cases

where bioproduct manufacturing does release wastes of
concern (e.g., production of cellophane produces VOC
emissions and high-acid wastewater), the pollution
generated is often less than that of similar fossil-based
products (e.g., cellophane produces two to three times
less pollution than polyurethane). In addition, some
chemicals used to make bioproducts could be replaced
with more environmentally friendly bio-based chemicals (U.S. DOE, 2003).
3.3.3 Land Resource Considerations
Soil Impacts. Naturally, using biomass to produce energy can have an impact on land resources. These impacts vary with feedstock and can be positive or negative. Biomass grown for feedstock purposes (in contrast
to waste/opportunity fuels) requires large areas of land
and can deplete the soil over time. For example, there
are long-term economic and environmental concerns
associated with removal of large quantities of residues
from cropland. Removing residue on some soils could
reduce soil quality, promote erosion, and lead to a loss
of soil carbon, which in turn lowers crop productivity
and profitability (U.S. DOE, 2005).
Ecosystem Impacts. When natural areas or otherwise
undeveloped land is converted to agricultural uses
to produce biofuel feedstocks, the potential exists for
damage to local ecosystems and displacement of species. To minimize land use impacts, fuel crops must be
EPAs Future Midwestern Landscapes Study

The rapid growth of the biofuels industry, which uses crops
and other biomass to make liquid fuel, is causing changes in
agricultural practices and land uses across the United States,
and most strikingly in the Midwest. EPA has initiated the Future
Midwestern Landscapes Study to examine projected changes
in landscapes and ecosystem services in the Midwest. Given its
immediate influence, biofuel production will be studied as a
primary driver of landscape change.
managed so they stabilize the soil, reduce erosion, and

protect wildlife habitat.
Forest Health. Significant opportunities may exist to
link forest health and bioenergy production. In many
forests throughout the western United States, natural
ecosystems have been significantly altered by fire suppression and logging practices, creating a high risk of
intense wildfire. The surplus biomass from thinning
unnaturally overgrown forest areas represents a potentially large renewable energy resource. Forest thinning
can be done in a sustainable manner to minimize soil
erosion and preserve wildlife habitat (Oregon Department of Energy, 2007). Development of forest biomass
harvesting guidelines (see box below) can help ensure
that thinning or residue removal is performed in line
with the many aspects of forest health.
Land Area. Biomass power plants, much like fossil fuel
power plants, require large areas of land for equipment
and fuel storage. For example, a small biopower facility
that processes 100 tons/day of woody biomass would
require approximately 12,500 square feet exclusively for
storing a 30-day supply of biomass (assuming average
storage height of 12 feet and average density of 40lb/
cubic foot). For a larger biopower facility that processes
680 tons/day of feedstock, more than 93,700 square feet
of storage space could be needed, which is equivalent
to more than two football fields (U.S. EPA, 2007d).
However, if biomass plants burn a waste source such
as construction wood waste or agricultural waste,
they can provide a benefit by freeing areas of land that
might otherwise have been used for landfills or waste
piles (U.S. EPA, 2008b).
States Develop Forest Biomass Harvesting Guidelines
can evaluate trade-offs affecting ecosystem services.
Biomass harvesting guidelines are designed to fill gaps where

existing best management practices may not be sufficient
to protect forest resources under new biomass harvesting
regimes. States that have developed biomass harvesting
guidelines or standards that cover biomass removals include:
Maine, Minnesota, Missouri, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin.
Existing guidelines cover topics such as dead wood, wildlife and
biodiversity, water quality and riparian zones, soli productivity,
silviculture, and disturbance. A Forest Guild (2009) report
provides an assessment of existing guidelines and provides
recommendations for future forestry guidelines focused on
woody biomass removal.
For more information, see www.epa.gov/ord/esrp/quick-finder/

mid-west.htm.
For more information, see www.forestguild.org/publications/

research/2009/biomass_guidelines.pdf.
By conducting this study, U.S. EPA aims to:

Understand how current and projected land uses affect the
ecosystem services provided by Midwestern landscapes.

Provide spatially explicit information that will enable EPA
to articulate sustainable approaches to environmental

management.
Develop web-based tools depicting alternative futures so users
33
Environmentally Sustainable Practices for Biomass

Feedstock Production
River and creates a hypoxic zone every summer that

damages many valuable fisheries.
Bioenergy production has the potential to be a low-input,

sustainable energy system. Practices that allow bioenergy to be
developed in an environmentally sustainable manner include
the following:
For more information, see www.epa.gov/owow/msbasin/hypoxia101.htm.
Improvements in crop production are increasing crop yields per
acre, thus requiring less land and fewer chemical inputs such
as fertilizers and pesticides. Minimizing the use of fertilizers and
pesticides for energy crops and crop residues can help protect
water quality, air quality, wildlife, and public health.
Degraded lands and abandoned and underutilized farmland can
be used to grow biomass feedstocks rather than using existing

farmland.
Agricultural and forest land on which biomass feedstocks are
grown can create new wildlife habitats and protect existing

ones (e.g., crop harvesting can be prohibited during bird
nesting seasons), while providing open spaces that enhance the
quality of life in communities.
Practices that reduce the need for these chemicals while

retaining crop yields and quality contribute to the sustainability and viability of bioenergy production (U.S.
DOE, 2003). One of the proposed solutions to the nutrient runoff problem has been to increase the acres of perennial crops (e.g., switchgrass) relative to annual crops
(e.g., corn). Perennial crops require fewer applications
of pesticides and fertilizers. When strategically placed,
they can absorb the runoff from annual crop plantings.
Other benefits of perennial crops include less erosion
and less soil compaction due to less soil disturbance
(U.S. DOE, 2005).
Continued adoption of reduced- and no-till field practices for
harvesting crop residues (e.g., corn stover, wheat straw) for

cellulosic biofuel production can maintain enough residues in
fields to control soil erosion and sustain soil quality.
Development and use of water-efficient crops will help
conserve the amount of water needed for both agricultural and

energy crops.
Transitioning from corn-based ethanol production to cellulosic
biofuels will contribute to the environmental benefits of

bioenergy because using waste/opportunity feedstocks means
less water and chemical use, along with ancillary benefits from
using waste productively.
Production of microalgae can be accomplished in tanks or on
degraded lands using brackish or saline water.
3.3.4 Water Resource Challenges

Water Quality Considerations from Feedstock
Production
Chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides associated with agricultural feedstocks pose a risk to water
quality if they enter surface waters. These chemicals
can contaminate surface water, groundwater, and
drinking water supplies.
Fertilizer Runoff. The influx of fertilizer nutrients into
water supplies can lead to eutrophic conditions where
algae growth becomes excessive. As this increased
plant matter dies, oxygen is consumed in the decomposition process, which can lead to hypoxiathe state of
extremely low dissolved oxygen that is deadly for many
aquatic species. In the Gulf of Mexico this problem
is particularly acute due to the high concentration of
farms in the Mississippi River watershed. Agricultural
runoff enters the Gulf of Mexico via the Mississippi
34
Another potential solution to the nutrient runoff problem is to preserve or plant riparian buffers (vegetated
regions adjacent to streams and wetlands). Based on
recent studies, riparian buffers of various types (grass,
forest, wetland, and combinations thereof) can be effective at reducing nitrogen in riparian zones, especially
nitrogen flowing in the subsurface, in areas where soil
type, hydrology, and biogeochemistry are conducive to
microbial denitrification and plant uptake. While some
narrow buffers (1 to 15 meters) may remove nitrogen,
wider buffers (>50 meters) more consistently remove
significant portions of nitrogen (U.S. EPA, 2005).
In contrast to potential adverse water quality impacts
from diverting previously uncultivated lands to energy
crops, redirecting large quantities of animal manure to
bioenergy uses can lessen nutrient runoff and reduce
contamination of surface water and groundwater resources (U.S. DOE, 2005).
Herbicides and Pesticides. Bioenergy crops such as
tree crops and switchgrass require herbicide application
prior to establishment and during the first year to minimize competition from weeds until the crops are well
established. However, tree crops and switchgrass need
only one-tenth the amounts of herbicides and pesticides
required on average by agricultural crops. Studies are
showing that herbicide migration into groundwater is
less likely to occur with application to biomass crops
(ORNL, 2005).
Temperature and Chemical Pollution. Water pollution
is also a potential concern with biomass power plants. As
is the case with fossil fuel power plants, pollutants can
build up in the water used in the biomass power plants

boiler and cooling system. In addition, the water used for
cooling is much warmer when it is returned to the lake
or river than when it was removed. Pollutants and higher
water temperatures can harm fish and plants in the lake
or river where the power plant water is discharged. This
discharge usually requires a permit and is monitored.
Water Use Changes from Feedstock Production
and Biofuels
Water use is another concern associated with feedstock
production and biomass processing. Most current agricultural feedstocks have irrigation requirements, and
biofuels plants currently use several gallons of water for
every gallon of fuel produced. Because these plants are
usually built close to where the feedstocks are grown to
minimize transportation costs, local water supplies are
drawn upon to serve both irrigation and production
needs. Water use is a particular concern in arid regions
and where water resources are already being depleted
(Oregon Environmental Council, 2007).
3.3.5 Food Supply Challenges
One concern regarding the expansion of bioenergy
is that crops grown for food, particularly corn, could
be diverted from the global food chain to the biofuels
supply chain. In the case of corn, only a small amount
of U.S. corn is currently exported to undernourished
populations. The 24 countries where at least one-third
of the population is undernourished import less than
0.1 percent of U.S. corn (Muller et al., 2007).
A more pressing concern may be the conversion of land
from agricultural crop production to biomass feedstock production in developing countries where food
shortages exist. The demand for biofuels from wealthy
countries could exacerbate this problem in developing
countries. International and national policies may be
needed to protect local food supplies. The issue of bioenergys relationship to agriculture also needs additional
analysis, along with further investigation of the many
other issues that affect world food, land use, hunger, and
poverty (Muller et al., 2007).
3.4 Feedstock Supply Challenges

3.4.1 Locating High-Quality Feedstocks
for Bioenergy
It is critical for bioenergy producers to have access to a
reliable, high-quality biomass feedstock supply. For both
biofuels and biopower, feedstocks should ideally

be available:
For
a relatively fixed cost over long periods of time (i.e.,

for the life of the bioenergy project).
From
a consistent source or sources in close proximity

to the bioenergy plant.
With
high-quality characteristics, such as high heating

value, low moisture and ash content, and consistent
particle size.
Obtaining biomass feedstocks with these qualities can
be challenging. Factors that can cause uncertainty in the
availability of a suitable feedstock over time include:
Transportation Constraints.
Transportation costs impose limits on the areas over which a biomass feedstock
can be obtained cost effectively.
Competition for Feedstocks.
Competition can include:
Alternative
end uses: If the feedstock has more than

one end use, a bioenergy producer might need to compete with other markets for the use of the resource.
Competing
land uses: Biomass producers may shift

production to other resources if they become more
profitable to grow than the original feedstock.
Storage Challenges
Once feedstocks are identified and transported to biorefineries,
they are accumulated in piles, pretreated and/or processed, and
then placed in buffer storage containers prior to use. Challenges
associated with storing feedstocks include:
Volume. Biomass feedstocks can have low bulk densities, and as
a result, prep-yards and storage facilities must be large enough
to accommodate the large volumes necessary for bioenergy
production. For example, a 30-day supply of woody biomass
(average density 40 pounds per cubic foot) for a biorefinery with
a 680 tons per day conversion system would cover an area larger
than two football fields, if piled to an average height of 12 feet.
Pile management. As feedstocks arrive at biorefineries they are
piled in prep-yards prior to treatment and processing, using
either front end loaders or a radial stacker (depending on the
volume required). Piles must be carefully managed to maintain
the quality of the feedstock, which may require a range of
precautions from dust control to combustion prevention.
Shelf life. Because biomass feedstocks consist of organic
material, they are susceptible to degradation and decomposition
over time. Feedstocks have a shelf life that is dependent on
their moisture content and the climate in which they are stored.
To ensure that feedstocks remain stable prior to use, storage
facilities may need to install environmental control technologies,
which can be costly.
Source: U.S. EPA, 2007d; U.S. DOE, 2004b
35
Competition
among bioenergy producers: Bioenergy

producers may have to compete with one another for
a scarce feedstock supply as an increasing number of
bioenergy projects are deployed.
Natural causes.
Weather, agricultural pests, and plant

disease can decrease the quantity and quality of the
desired supply available from a given agricultural or
energy crop source.
Seasonality of feedstocks.
Some feedstocks are seasonal and may have limited availability depending on the
time of year. Bioenergy producers may need to engage
with multiple suppliers and/or employ flexible conversion processes capable of using a variety of feedstocks
to ensure a steady supply of feedstock and consistent
levels of energy output throughout the year. Working
with multiple landowners to obtain feedstocks may
prove challenging since landowners may have competing objectives related to forest stewardship, forest management plans, financial concerns, and other priorities.
These factors contribute to uncertainty and/or
volatility in feedstock prices. The first two factors
transportation and competitionare critical, and can
be influenced by policy or program design.
Transportation
The cost of a biomass resource is influenced in large
part by transportation coststhe expenditure required
to bring the feedstock to the bioenergy plant. Because
biomass provides less energy per unit of weight or
volume than do fossil fuels, more feedstock is required
to generate a given output. Therefore, the resource
cannot be profitably transported as far as coal or oil, so
bioenergy facilities must be located within an area of
concentrated feedstock.
Competition for Feedstocks

In some situations, biomass producers might be reluctant to agree to long-term supply contracts, which can
also contribute to cost uncertainties. For example, biomass producers want the freedom to sell to whichever
market or end user is willing to pay the most, and may
therefore be hesitant to agree to long-term contracts if
the feedstock has multiple end uses. Biomass producers
may also be reluctant to enter into long-term contracts
when the potential exists for commodities other than
the feedstock to become more profitable during the
life of the contract (e.g., from soybeans to corn). As
producers shift production away from the original
feedstock to other resources, the cost of obtaining a
given quantity of the feedstock will increase.
Example
For example, as shown in Figure 3-1, the price of

corn has increased significantly in recent years and is
projected to remain high by historical standards for the
foreseeable future. Some studies have attributed these
trends to increased corn-based ethanol production,
although debate exists as to how much of this price increase can be attributed to other factors such as rising
energy prices. Nonetheless, if corn prices are predicted
to increase, farmers will be even more reluctant to enter into long-term contracts because they would often
prefer to hedge in hopes of higher prices later.
Biomass Commodity Exchange

Wisconsin is developing the Biomass Commodity Exchange
(BCEX) to help organize the way new businesses and
landowners connect to provide biomass for bioenergy
applications. The BCEX project has been charged with creating
an implementation plan for a commodity exchange as a means
to increase the efficiency of the supply chain providing biomass
to the existing biofuels industries and the emerging concept
of the forest biorefinery. The implementation plan will also
examines the future trade of closed-loop energy crops, such
as willow, poplar and switchgrass and as an approach to offset
CO2 emissions through synergies created with other regulated
exchanges such as the Chicago Climate Exchange.
For more information,
see www.biomasscommodityexchange.com.
36
The distance that biomass can be transported profitably

depends on numerous factors, including the cost of
transportation fuel and quality of the biomass, which
are subject to considerable variability by feedstock and
location. DOE estimates feedstock transportation costs
as usually in the range of $0.20 to $0.60 per dry ton per
mile (U.S. DOE, 2005). All transportation costs will
vary with local conditions, but one of the primary factors influencing transportation costs is the cost of diesel
fuel. Also, using barges and rail to transport feedstocks
is less expensive than trucking per unit of feedstock.
Feedstock availability and price will ultimately determine the feasibility of a proposed bioenergy plant.
Potential bioenergy investors will extend the capital
needed to finance proposed projects only if the projects
will generate an attractive return. Typically, investors
look to recover their initial capital outlays in just a
few years. Any variability in the availability or cost of
suitable biomass feedstocks could significantly reduce
the return on their investment. Therefore, investors are
unlikely to help finance a project unless both long-term
feedstock supply plans and purchase agreements for
the energy produced are in place.
Figure 3-1. U.S. Corn Prices, 2000 to 2018

Source: USDA Agricultural Projections to 2018, February 2008
Corn Prices are Projected to Peak in 2009/10

4.00
3.50
$/BUSHEL
2008 USDA Projections

3.00
2.50
2.00
20
00
/0
1
20
01
/0
2
20
02
/0
3
20
03
/0
4
20
04
/0
5
20
05
/0
6
20
06
/0
7
20
07
/0
8
20
08
/0
9
20
09
/1
20 0
10
/1
1
20
11
/1
2
20
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/1
3
20
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/1
4
20
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/1
5
20
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/1
6
20
16
/1
7
20
17
/1
8
1.50
CROP YEAR
Some states have enacted policies and other measures

to reduce the risk of investing in bioenergy. To learn
more about the actions that states can take to make the
investments more attractive, see Chapter 5, How Can
States Facilitate Financing of Bioenergy Projects?
3.5 Infrastructure Challenges

3.5.1 Product Delivery Challenges
for Ethanol
Pipeline Limitations
Unlike conventional refined motor fuels (e.g., gasoline,

diesel), which are routinely shipped via pipeline, the
distribution of ethanol through the nations pipeline
network poses challenges largely due to several properties of the biofuel:
Ethanol will easily absorb water that has accumulated in
pipelines, potentially rendering it useless as a motor fuel.
Because
it readily absorbs water, ethanol cannot be

separated from other products in a petroleum pipeline
Ethanol
is an effective solvent/cleansing agent and

therefore may be contaminated by residues of other
materials that have been shipped through the pipeline.
Ethanol
is corrosive and can damage pipeline parts and

storage tanks.
In addition, the current U.S. petroleum pipeline network
is not optimally sited for ethanol distribution, production of which is heavily concentrated in the Midwest.
Ethanol Pipeline in Central Florida

In September 2008, Kinder Morgan Energy Partners, L.P.
successfully performed test shipments of batches of denatured
ethanol in its 16-inch Central Florida Pipelineotherwise
used to transport gasoline between Tampa and Orlando.
Approximately $10 million in modifications were made to
the line in preparation for the ethanol shipments, including
chemically cleaning the pipeline, replacing equipment that was
incompatible with ethanol, and expanding storage capacity
at the Orlando terminal. As a direct result of the tests, Kinder
Morgan announced in December 2008 that the pipeline would
become the first in the United States to carry commercial
batches of ethanol. Kinder Morgan has also proposed creating
a dedicated 8-inch inter-terminal ethanol pipeline to supply
its Hookers Point terminal in Tampa.
Example
All motor fuels must be transported from refineries to

refueling stations as efficiently and cost effectively as
possible. When the fuel must be transported a great
distance, as is often the case, pipelines are typically the
least-cost option.
by the typical method of sending water between

batches of different petroleum products.
Source: Kinder Morgan, 2008a and 2008b
37
As a result of these factors, ethanol is typically not

transported in large quantities by pipeline, but instead
by barge, rail, or truck, which are all more costly and
less efficient than shipping via pipelines. In 2005, rail
was the primary transportation mode for ethanol,
shipping 60 percent of ethanol production, or approximately 2.9 billion gallons. Trucks shipped 30 percent
and barges 10 percent (USDA, 2007). It typically costs
roughly $0.17 to $0.20 per gallon to transport ethanol
by rail, whereas it would cost approximately $0.05 per
gallon to transport by pipeline (RFA, 2008). This added
expense hurts the competitiveness of ethanol relative to
conventional refined fuels.
Although it is possible to convert some existing
pipelines for ethanol shipment, the cost of doing so is
usually prohibitive and difficult to justify. Developing
a new, dedicated ethanol distribution infrastructure
would help to address many of these challenges; however, the high construction and capital costs and the
challenge of obtaining new rights-of-way make building a new pipeline distribution system unlikely unless
the need arises to ship very large quantities of ethanol.
The U. S. Department of Transportations Pipeline and
Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA)
is researching a variety of technologies that could make
large-quantity distribution of ethanol by pipeline more
feasible in the future.
For more information, see http://primis.phmsa.dot.
gov/comm/Ethanol.htm?nocache=406.
Example
Developing Infrastructure: Tennessees Biofuel

Green Island Corridor Network
In 2006, the state of Tennessee established a grant program
to facilitate development of the Biofuel Green Island Corridor
Network along Tennessees interstate system and major
highways. The goal of this program is to help establish readily
available green island refueling stations for B20 and E85 no
more than 100 miles apart along heavily traveled transportation
corridors. Ultimately, the state hopes to have at least one
B20 and one E85 station in 30 priority counties, and three of
each station type within all major urban areas. The state has
allocated $1.5 million in state funds and $480,000 in funds from
the federal Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement
(CMAQ) program to pay for up to 80 percent of fuel station
installation costs, offering grantees a maximum of $45,000 per
pump or $90,000 per location. The program has also focused
on installing visible and easily recognizable signage along the
corridors to indicate where B20 and E85 stations are located
and encourage their use. As of October 2008, there were 22
E85 stations and about 27 B20 stations in Tennessee.
Source: Tennessee Department of Transportation, 2009
38
Fueling System Limitations

A second major infrastructure challenge to increased
ethanol use is to ensure there are sufficient fueling
stations offering access to E-85 blends of ethanol to
support the increasing volumes of renewable fuels as
set forth in EISA.
As of 2008, there were more than 1,600 stations offering E85 in the United States. However, due to the distribution issues discussed above, most of these stations
are located in the Midwest, where most ethanol production currently occurs. The highest concentrations of
E85 stations are found in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Minnesota, and Wisconsin; although E85 is commercially
available in more than 40 states across the country.
TransAtlas Interactive Alternative Fuel Map

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the National Renewable Energy Lab (NREL) have developed a comprehensive
mapping tool to help industry and government planners
implement alternative fuels and advanced vehicles. The new
TransAtlas tool combines different types of geographic data to
identify areas with potential for developing advanced transportation projects. NREL employed user-friendly Google Maps to
display the locations of existing and planned alternative fueling
stations, concentrations of different vehicle types, alternative
fuel production facilities, roads, and political boundaries.
For more information, see www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/data/
geographic.html.
DOE estimates that 6.8 million light-duty FFVs are on

U.S. roadways, and this number is likely to grow. FFVs
are designed with specific modifications that allow
them to run on either traditional gasoline (which may
contain as much as 10 percent ethanol, depending on
state regulations) or E85.3 Unfortunately, many owners
of FFVs do not realize their vehicles can run on E85
and/or dont know where to find E85 stations. Many
more fueling stations offering E85 are needed, as is
greater market visibility, if states want to capitalize on
the existing potential market of FFV owners.
To locate E85 fueling stations, see www.afdc.energy.
gov/afdc/ethanol/ethanol_locations.html.
3 Vehicles that are not designated as E85-compatible should not use E85 fuel
because the high content of ethanol can damage the engine and fueling system.
http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/e85toolkit/eth_vehicles.html

Resource
Description
URL
Economic Impacts of Bioenergy

Production and Use, U.S. DOE,
SSEB Southeast Biomass State and
Regional Partnership, October
2005.
Summarizes the benefits of bioenergy production in the U.S.,

including job creation, reduced demand for fossil fuels, and
expanded tax bases.
www.vienergy.org/Economics.pdf
State Energy Alternatives

Web Site, U.S. DOE, National
Conference of State Legislatures.
Provides information on state-specific biomass resources,

policies, and status as well as current biofuels and biopower
technology information.
http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/
states/
An Assessment of Biomass
Harvesting Guidelines, Evans and
Perschel, Forest Guild, 2009.
Presents an assessment of existing biomass harvesting

guidelines and provides recommendations for the
development of future guidelines.
www.forestguild.org/
publications/research/2009/
biomass_guidelines.pdf
Planning for Disaster Debris, U.S.

EPA, 2008.
Provides information and examples for developing a disaster

debris plan that will help a community identify options for
collecting, recycling, and disposing of debris in the event of a
natural disaster.
www.epa.gov/osw/conserve/rrr/
imr/cdm/pubs/disaster.htm
Biomass Power and

Conventional Fossil Systems with
and without CO2 Sequestration
Comparing the Energy Balance,
Greenhouse Gas Emissions, and
Economics, NREL, January 2004.
Provides a comparative analysis of a number of different

biopower, natural gas, and coal technologies.
www.nrel.gov/docs/
fy04osti/32575.pdf
Economic Impacts Resulting

from Co-Firing Biomass
Feedstocks in Southeastern
U.S. Coal-Fired Power Plants,
Presentation by Burton English et
al., University of Tennessee.
Summarizes the economic impacts in eight southeastern

states from using biomass to co-fire power plants that
traditionally have only used coal for fuel.
www.farmfoundation.org/
projects/documents/englishcofire.pptprojects/documents/
english-cofire.ppt
Green Power Equivalency

Calculator, U.S. EPA.
Allows any bioenergy user to communicate to internal and

external audiences the environmental impact of purchasing
or directly using green power in place of fossil fuel derived
energy by calculating the avoided carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions. Results can be converted into an equivalent
number of passenger cars, gallons of gasoline, barrels of oil,
or American households electricity use.
www.epa.gov/grnpower/pubs/
calculator.htm
Job Jolt: The Economic Impacts

of Repowering the Midwest:
The Clean Energy Development
Plan for the Heartland, Regional
Economics Applications
Laboratory, November 2002.
Analyzes the economic and job creation benefits of

implementing a clean energy plan in the 10-state Midwest
region.
www.michigan.gov/
documents/nwlb/Job_Jolt_
RepoweringMidwest_235553_7.
pdf
Bioenergy
Biopower/Bioheat
39

Resource
Description
URL
40
Alternative Fueling Station

Locator, U.S. DOE.
Allows users to find alternative fuels stations near a specific

location on a route, obtain counts of alternative fuels stations
by state, view U.S. maps, and more. The following alternative
fuels are included in the mapping application: compressed
natural gas, E85, propane/liquefied petroleum gas, biodiesel,
electricity, hydrogen, and liquefied natural gas.
www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/data/
geographic.html
Biomass Energy Data Book,

ORNL, September 2008.
Describes a meta-analysis of energy balance analyses for

ethanol, revealing the sources of differences among the
different studies.
http://cta.ornl.gov/bedb/pdf/
Biomass_Energy_Data_Book.pdf
Changing the Climate: Ethanol

Industry Outlook 2008, Renewable
Fuels Association (RFA), 2008.
Forecasts that 4 billion gallons of ethanol production capacity

will come on line from 68 biorefineries being constructed in
2008 and beyond, increasing the 2007 figure by nearly 50%.
www.ethanolrfa.org/objects/pdf/
outlook/RFA_Outlook_2008.pdf
Contribution of the Ethanol

Industry to the Economy of the
United States, RFA, 2007.
Finds that the industry spent $12.5 billion on raw materials,

other inputs, and goods and services to produce about 6.5
billion gallons of ethanol in 2007. An additional $1.6 billion
was spent to transport grain and other inputs to production
facilities; ethanol from the plant to terminals where it is
blended with gasoline; and co-products to end-users.
www.ethanolrfa.org/objects/
documents/576/economic_
contribution_2006.pdf
Economic and Agricultural

Impacts of Ethanol and Biodiesel
Expansion, University of
Tennessee, 2006.
Finds that producing 60 billion gallons of ethanol and 1.6

billion gallons of biodiesel from renewable resources by 2030
would likely result in development of a new industrial complex
with nearly 35 million acres planted dedicated to energy crops.
http://beag.ag.utk.edu/pp/
Ethanolagimpacts.pdf
Ethanol and the Local

Community, RFA, 2002.
Summarizes possible effects of ethanol production on local

economic development.
documents/120/ethanol_local_
community.pdf
Greener Fuels, Greener Vehicles:

A State Resource Guide, National
Governors Association, 2008.
Discusses alternative transportation fuels and vehicle

technologies.
www.nga.org/Files/
pdf/0802GREENERFUELS.PDF
Greenhouse Gas Impacts of

Expanded Renewable and
Alternative Fuels Use, U.S. EPA,
April 2007.
Provides a summary of GHG emissions from a variety of

advanced fuel options.
www.epa.gov/oms/
renewablefuels/420f07035.htm
New Analysis Shows Oil-Savings

Potential of Ethanol Biofuels,
National Resources Defense
Council (NRDC), 2006.
Describes NRDCs meta-analysis of energy balance papers

and its standardized methods.
www.nrdc.org/media/
pressreleases/060209a.asp
A Rebuttal to Ethanol Fuels:

Energy, Economics and
Environmental Impacts, National
Corn Growers Association, 2002.
Refutes the contention in a previous article that more energy

goes into producing ethanol than ethanol itself can actually
provide, creating a negative energy balance.
www.ethanolrfa.org/
objects/documents/84/
ethanolffuelsrebuttal.pdf
Renewable Fuel Standard

Program, U.S. EPA.
Describes efforts undertaken by U.S. EPA toward a National

Renewable Fuels Standard under requirements of the Energy
Policy Act of 2005. While these requirements are superseded
by more recent legislation, links from this page provide
useful background. In particular, the discussion of estimated
costs summarizes the expected incremental costs of policies
advancing ethanol.
www.epa.gov/oms/
renewablefuels/

Resource
Description
URL
Regulatory Impact Analysis:

Program, U.S. EPA, 2007.
Examines proposed standards that would implement a

renewable fuel program as required by the Energy Policy Act
of 2005. It notes, however, that renewable fuel use is forecast
to exceed the standards due to market forces anyway.
www.epa.gov/OMS/
renewablefuels/420r07004sections.htm
SmartWay Grow & Go Factsheet

on Biodiesel, U.S. EPA, October
2006.
Describes how biodiesel is made, its benefits versus

vegetable oil, performance, availability, affordability, and
other characteristics.
www.epa.gov/smartway/
growandgo/documents/
factsheet-biodiesel.htm

on E85 and Flex Fuel Vehicles,
U.S. EPA, October 2006.
Describes E85-fuel and flex-fuel vehicles, including their

affordability and benefits.
factsheet-e85.htm
State-Level Workshops on
Ethanol for Transportation: Final
Report.
Summarizes a series of DOE-sponsored, state-level

workshops exploring and encouraging construction of
ethanol plants.
www.nrel.gov/docs/
fy04osti/35212.pdf
TransAtlas Interactive
Alternative Fuel Map, U.S. DOE.
Provides user-friendly Google Maps to display the locations

of existing and planned alternative fueling stations,
concentrations of different vehicle types, alternative fuel
production facilities, roads, and political boundaries.
geographic.html
Analysis of Potential Causes of

Consumer Food Price Inflation,
RFA, 2007.
Asserts that the marketing bill, not increased ethanol

production, is responsible for rising food prices.
www.ethanolrfa.org/resource/
facts/food/documents/Informa_
Renew_Fuels_Study_Dec_2007.
pdf
Ethanol Juggernaut Diverts

Corn from Food to Fuel, Raloff,
Janet, Science News, 2007.
Makes the case that ethanol is driving up food prices.
www.sciencenews.org/view/
generic/id/8179/title/Food_for_
Thought__Ethanol_Juggernaut_
Diverts_Corn_from_Food_to_
Fuel
Food versus Fuel in the United

States, Institute for Agriculture
and Trade Policy, 2007.
Finds that biofuel production is not diverting food from

tables in the U.S. or abroad.
www.iatp.org/iatp/publications.
cfm?accountID=258&refID=
100001
U.S. Corn Growers: Producing

Food and Fuel, National Corn
Growers Association, 2006.
Provides the corn growers perspective that producing food

and fuel from corn is working out well, without undue impact
on food prices.
www.ncga.com/files/pdf/
FoodandFuelPaper10-08.pdf
Aggressive Use of Bioderived

Products and Materials in the
U.S. by 2010, A.D. Little, Inc., 2001.
The presentation and report summarize near-term

opportunities to dramatically increase the use of biomass to
make nonfuel products.
www.p2pays.org/ref/40/39031.
pdf
Industrial Bioproducts: Today

and Tomorrow, U.S. DOE, July
2003.
The report finds that a bioindustry could harness the energy

and molecular building blocks of biomass (crops, trees,
grasses, crop residues, forest residues, animal waste, and
municipal solid waste) to create products now manufactured
from petroleum, making us far less dependent on fossil fuels.
www.brdisolutions.com/pdfs/
BioProductsOpportunitiesReportFinal.
pdf
Preliminary Screening Technical

and Economic Assessment
of Synthesis Gas to Fuels and
Chemicals with Emphasis on the
Potential for Biomass-Derived
Syngas, NREL, 2003.
Summarizes opportunities for biomass to be used to

manufacture a variety of products beyond fuels alone.
www.nrel.gov/docs/
fy04osti/34929.pdf
41
3.6 Resources for Detailed Information (cont.))

Resource
Description
URL
Environmental Life Cycle

Implications of Fuel Oxygenate
Production from California
Biomass Technical Report,
NREL, 1999.
Looks at the costs and benefits of biomass-derived ethanol,

ETBE, and E10 as fuel oxygenates across their life cycles.
www-erd.llnl.gov/
FuelsoftheFuture/pdf_files/
lifecyclecalif.pdf
Quantifying Cradle-to-Farm
Gate Life-Cycle Impacts
Associated with Fertilizer used
for Corn, Soybean, and Stover
Production, NREL, May 2005.
Documents the costs, such as eutrophication, and benefits of

nitrate and phosphate fertilizers used in production of three
crops.
pdfs/37500.pdf
Life Cycle Analysis of Ethanol

from Corn Stover, NREL, 2002.
This comprehensive accounting of ethanols flows to and

from the environment focuses on ethanol produced from
corn stover
www.nrel.gov/docs/gen/
fy02/31792.pdf
Life Cycle Inventory of Biodiesel

and Petroleum Diesel for Use
in an Urban Bus: Final Report,
NREL, 1998.
Examines the relative costs and benefits of using biodiesel

versus petroleum diesel in an urban bus.
www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/
fy98/24089.pdf
Life Cycle Assessment of

Biodiesel versus Petroleum
Diesel Fuel, Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers, 1996.
The proceedings of the 31st Intersociety Energy Conversion

Engineering Conference, held August 1116, 1996, in
Washington, DC.
Accessible by subscription only

Biomass-Derived Refinery
Feedstocks for Reducing CO2,
NREL, 1997.
Discusses the two processes for producing 1,4-butanediol.

The first process is the conventional hydrocarbon feedstockbased approach, utilizing methane to produce formaldehyde,
and acetylene with synthesis under conditions of heat and
pressure. The second is a biomass-based feedstock approach
where glucose derived from corn is fermented.
Not available online

Biomass Cofiring in a Coal-Fired
Power Plant, NREL, 2001.
Reports on a cradle-to-grave analysis of all processes

necessary for the operation of a coal-fired power plant that
co-fires wood residue, including raw material extraction, feed
preparation, transportation, and waste disposal and recycling.
Understanding Land Use

Change and U.S. Ethanol
Expansion, RFA, November 2008.
Discusses historical agricultural land use and crop utilization

trends, explores the role of increased productivity, looks at
the contributions of ethanol feed co-products, and examines
global agricultural land use projections obtained from
Informa Economics.
documents/2041/final_land_
use_1110_w_execsumm.pdf
National Biofuels Action

Plan, Biomass Research and
Development Board, October
2008.
Outlines areas where cooperation between federal agencies

will help to evolve bio-based fuel production technologies
into competitive solutions for meeting U.S. fuel demands.
Seven key areas for action are identified: feedstock
production; feedstock logistics; conversion of feedstock to
fuel; distribution; end Use; sustainability; and Environment,
Health, and Safety.
pdfs/nbap.pdf
This tool is used to support local air emission reductions

claims associated with alternative-fuel vehicles within the
State Implementation Planning process.
www.transportation.anl.gov/
modeling_simulation/AirCred/
index.html
Tools for Evaluating Benefits

AirCRED, Argonne National
Laboratory, August 2007.
42

Resource
Description
URL
Biomass Technology Analysis

Models and Tools.
Web sites of models and tools that demonstrate biomass

technologies and uses, and can be used in life-cycle
assessments. Most tools can be applied on a global, regional,
local, or project basis.
www.nrel.gov/analysis/analysis_
tools_tech_bio.html

and Property Database.
Provides data results from analysis of more than 150 samples

of potential biofuels feedstocks, including corn stover, wheat
straw, bagasse, switchgrass and other grasses, and poplars
CHP Emissions Calculator, U.S.

EPA.
Enables a quick and easy analysis of the criteria air pollutant

and GHG emission reductions from incorporating CHP
designs into plants and production facilities. It also translates
these reductions into cars and trees to convey their value
to a nontechnical audience.
www.epa.gov/chp/basic/
calculator.html
Clean Air Climate Protection

Software, ICLEI and NACAA.
Helps local governments create greenhouse gas inventories,

quantify the benefits of reduction measures, and formulate
local climate action plans.
www.cacpsoftware.org/
Emissions & Generation

Resource Integrated Database
(EGRID), U.S. EPA.
Provides a comprehensive database of electric-sector

emissions at the plant, state, and regional levels. These
can be compared to emissions from biopower to estimate
emissions effects.
www.epa.gov/cleanrgy/egrid/
index.htm
Greenhouse Gases, Regulated

Emissions, and Energy Use in
Transportation (GREET) Model,
Argonne National Laboratory,
August 2007.
Includes full fuel-cycle and vehicle-cycle emissions and

energy estimation capability. While not a full life-cycle
assessment tool, it allows estimation of upstream emissions
and energy effects. For some state policy questions, it may
provide sufficient analytic detail on its own. For decisions
with greater financial implications, it may be most appropriate
to use for initial screening to support development of a more
detailed study. States may wish to use GREET directly or to
consider analyses that have been done using this tool.
modeling_simulation/GREET/
Job and Economic Development

Impact (JEDI) Models.
Easy-to-use, spreadsheet-based tools that analyze the

economic impacts of constructing and operating power
generation and biofuel plants at the local and state levels.
www.nrel.gov/analysis/jedi
Power Profiler, U.S. EPA.
Provides a quick estimate of electricity emissions rates

by location, which could be compared to emissions from
biopower to estimate emissions effects.
www.epa.gov/grnpower/buygp/
powerprofiler.htm
Standard Biomass Analytical

Procedures.
Provides tested and accepted methods for performing

analyses commonly used in biofuels research.
analytical_procedures.html
Theoretical Ethanol Yield

Calculator.
Calculates the theoretical ethanol yield of a particular

biomass feedstock based on its sugar content.
ethanol_yield_calculator.html
Thermodynamic Data for

Biomass Conversion and Waste
Incineration, NREL, National
Bureau of Standards.
Provides heat of combustion and other useful data for

biopower and biofuels research on a wide range of biomass
and non-biomass materials.
pdfs/2839.pdf
43
3.7 References
ACORE (American Council on Renewable Energy),
2007. The Outlook on Renewable Energy in America

Volume II: Joint Summary Report. American Council
on Renewable Energy, Washington, DC, 2007. www.
acore.org/files/RECAP/docs/JointOutlookReport2007.
pdf.
Brown et al.,
2007. Brown, E., K. Kory, D. Arent.

Understanding and Informing the Policy Environment:
State-Level Renewable Fuel Standards. NREL/TP-64041075. http://dnr.louisiana.gov/sec/execdiv/techasmt/
energy_sources/renewable/UnderstandingandInformingPolicy-StateRFS.pdf.
Cleaves,
2007. Cleaves, R.. Executive Director of US

Biopower Association. Personal Communication. June
15, 2009.
Delucchi, et al.,
2008. Letter to Mary Nichols, Chairman, California Air Resources Board. University of
California, July 3, 2008. http://rael.berkeley.edu/files/
LUC-biofuels-Nichols_6-30-08.pdf.
E3 Biofuels,
2007. Closed Loop vs. Conventional Ethanol. E3 Biofuels, 2007. www.e3biofuels.com/technology/ethanol-methods.php.
2008.
Annual Energy Review 2007. Table 5.4. Petroleum
Imports by Country of Origin,1960-2007; Table 5.11,
Petroleum Products Supplied by Type; Tables 5.13a-d.
Estimated Petroleum Consumption (by Residential and
Commercial, Industrial, Transportation, and Electric
Power sectors), EIA, Washington, DC, posted June 23,
2008. www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/petro.html.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change), 2006. 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National

Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change, 2006. www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/
public/2006gl/index.html.
IEA (International Energy Agency),
2005. Variability
of Wind Power and Other Renewables: Management
Options and Strategies. International Energy Agency,
Paris, 2005. www.uwig.org/IEA_Report_on_variability.pdf.
Hanson,
2005. Hanson, C. The Business Case for Using

Renewable Energy, Corporate Guide to Green Power
Markets, Installment 7. World Resources Institute,
44
Washington, DC, 2005. www.thegreenpowergroup.org/

pdf/Installment7.pdf.
Kinder Morgan,
2008a. Florida Farm to Fuel Summit.

Kinder Morgan Energy Partners, L.P., Houston, TX, ,
July 31, 2008. www.floridafarmtofuel.com/ppt/2008/
lelio.ppt.
Kinder Morgan,
2008b. KMP Begins Commercial

Operations of Ethanol Transportation on Central
Florida Pipeline System. Kinder Morgan Energy
Partners, L.P., Houston, TX, December 2, 2008. http://
phx.corporate-ir.net/phoenix.zhtml?c=119776&p=irolnewsArticle&ID=1231520&highlight=.
Lacey,
2007. Lacey, S. The Economic Impact of Renewable Energy. Renewable Energy World.com. April
20, 2007. www.renewableenergyaccess.com/rea/news/
story?id=48201.
Leatherman and Nelson,
2002. Leatherman, J. and R.

Nelson. South Dakota Soybean-Based Biodiesel Macroeconomic Analysis: Estimating the Economic Impact
of a Soybean Processing Facility and Biodiesel Production Plant in Brown, Minnehaha and Turner Counties,
South Dakota Economic Impacts of Bioenergy Production and Use Factsheet, DOE/SSEB Southeast Biomass
State and Regional Partnership, June 2006. www.
vienergy.org/Economics.pdf.
Mann and Spath,
2001. Mann, M.K. and P.L. Spath.

Life Cycle Assessment of Biomass Cofiring in a CoalFired Power Plant: Clean Products and Processes.
NREL Report No. 29457. Vol. 3, pp. 81-91. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, 2001.
doi:10.1007/s100980100109.
Muller et al.,
2007. Muller, M., T. Yelden, H.

Schoonover. Food Versus Fuel in the United States.
Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, Minneapolis, MN, 2007. www.iatp.org/iatp/publications.
cfm?accountID=258&refID=100001.
NASDA (National Association of State Depart-
ments of Agriculture), 2008. Biomass Crop Assistance Program (Bcap) Established. NASDA,
Washington, DC, June 2008. www.nasda.org/
cms/7197/9060/16588/16614.aspx.
1998. An Overview of Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel

Life Cycles. National Renewable Energy Laboratory,
Golden, CO. www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/fy98/24772.
pdf.
NREL,
2003. Biopower Technical Assessment: State

of the Industry and Technology. National Renewable
Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO. www.nrel.gov/docs/
fy03osti/33123.pdf.
NREL,
2009. Biodiesel Handling and Use Guide (4th

ed.). National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden,
CO. www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/43672.pdf.
Oregon Department of Energy,
2007. Biomass Energy

and the Environment. Oregon Department of Energy,
Salem, OR, 2007. www.oregon.gov/ENERGY/RENEW/
Biomass/Environment.shtml.
Oregon Environmental Council,
2007. Fueling Oregon with Sustainable Biofuels. Oregon Environmental

Council, Portland, OR, October 2007. www.oeconline.org/resources/publications/reportsandstudies/
sustainablebiofuels.
ORNL (Oak Ridge National Laboratory),
2005.
Bioenergy Information Network: Biomass Frequently
Asked Questions. Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
2008. http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/faqs/index.html.
RFA (Renewable Fuels Association),
2008. Robert
White, Renewable Fuels Association. EPA Region 4
Biofuels Conference, November 18, 2008.
Searchinger et al.,
2008. Searchinger, T., R. Heimlich,

R.A. Houghton, F. Dong, A. Elobeid, J. Fabiosa, S.
Tokgoz, D. Hayes, T.H. Yu. Use of U.S. Croplands for
Biofuels Increases Greenhouse Gases through Emissions from Land-Use Change. Science, Vol. 319 No.
5867, pp. 12381240. www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
abstract/1151861.
Spath and Mann,
2004. Spath, P. and M. Mann. Biomass Power and Conventional Fossil Systems with and
without CO2 SequestrationComparing the Energy
Balance, Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Economics.
NREL Report No. TP-510-32575. NREL, Golden, CO,
2004. www.nrel.gov/docs/fy04osti/32575.pdf.
Tamarak Energy,
2007. National Biomass Expert

Confirms Watertown Renewable Power Jobs Forecast.
Tamarack Energy, Inc., Essex, CT, November 23, 2007.
Tennessee Department of Transportation.
2009. Biofuel Green Island Corridor Grant Project. Tennessee,

2009. www.tdot.state.tn.us/biofuel/application.htm.
Ugarte et al.,
2006. Ugarte, D., B. English, K. Jensen,

C. Hellwinckel, J. Menard, B. Wilson, 2006. Economic
and Agricultural Impacts of Ethanol and Biodiesel
Expansion. The University of Tennessee, Knoxville,

TN, 2006. http://beag.ag.utk.edu/pp/Ethanolagimpacts.pdf.
Urbanchuk,
2007. Urbanchuk, J.M. Contribution of the

Ethanol Industry to the Economy of the United States.
Prepared for the Renewable Fuels Association by
LECG Corporation, 2007. www.ethanolrfa.org/objects/
documents/576/economic_contribution_2006.pdf.
USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture),
2007. Ethanol Transportation Backgrounder: Expansion of U.S.

Corn-based Ethanol from the Agricultural Transportation Perspective. USDA, Washington, DC, September
2007. www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName
=STELPRDC5063605&acct=atpub.
USDA,
2008. Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of

2008. USDA, Washington, DC, June 2008. www.fsa.
usda.gov/Internet/FSA_File/2008fbbcapsummary.pdf.
2003. Industrial
Bioproducts: Today and Tomorrow. U.S. DOE, Washington, DC, July 2003. www.brdisolutions.com/pdfs/
BioProductsOpportunitiesReportFinal.pdf.
U.S. DOE,
2004a. Combined Heat and Power Market

Potential for Opportunity Fuels. Prepared by Resource
Dynamics Corporation. Vienna, VA, August 2004.
www.eere.energy.gov/de/pdfs/chp_opportunityfuels.pdf.
U.S. DOE,
2004b. Biomass Bulk Processing and Storage. U.S. DOE, Washington, DC, September, 2004.
www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/fy04/bulk_processing_storage.pdf.
U.S. DOE,
2005. Biomass as Feedstock for a Bioenergy

and Bioproducts Industry: The Technical Feasibility of
a Billion-Ton Annual Supply. DOE/DO-102995-2135.
U.S. DOE, Washington, DC, April 2005. http://feedstockreview.ornl.gov/pdf/billion_ton_vision.pdf.
U.S. DOE,
2006. Biomass Energy Data Book: Edition

1. ORNL/TM-2006/571. U.S. DOE, Washington, DC,
September 2006. http://cta.ornl.gov/bedb/pdf/Biomass_Energy_Data_Book.pdf.
U.S. DOE,
2008. Flexible Fuel Vehicle Emissions; E10

Emissions. U.S. DOE, Washington, DC, 2008. http://
afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/flexible_fuel_emissions.
html; www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/emissions_
e10.html.
U.S. DOE/SSEB,
2005. Economic Impacts of Bioenergy

Production and Use. Draft Fact Sheet. U.S. DOE/SSEB
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Southeast State and Regional Biomass Partnership,

October 26, 2005. www.vienergy.org/Economics.pdf.
2002.
A Comprehensive Analysis of Biodiesel Impacts on Exhaust Emissions. EPA420-P-02-001. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, 2002. www.epa.gov/otaq/models/analysis/
biodsl/p02001.pdf.
U.S. EPA,
2005. Riparian Buffer Width, Vegetative Cover, and Nitrogen Removal Effectiveness: A
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EPA, Washington, DC, 2005. www.epa.gov/nrmrl/
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U.S. EPA.
2007a. Impact of Combined Heat and

Power on Energy Use and Carbon Emissions in the
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U.S. EPA.
2007b. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas

Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2005. EPA 430-R-07-002.
U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, 2007. www.epa.gov/
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U.S. EPA.
2007c. Wastewater Fact Sheet. U.S. EPA,

Washington, DC, September 25, 2007. www.epa.gov/
chp/markets/wastewater_fs.html.
U.S. EPA,
2007d. Biomass Combined Heat and Power

Catalog of Technologies, Appendix A. U.S. EPA,
Washington, DC, September 2007. www.epa.gov/chp/
documents/biomass_chp_catalog_part8.pdf.
U.S. EPA,
2007e. Regulatory Impact Analysis: Renewable Fuel Standard Program. EPA420-R-07-004. U.S.
EPA, Washington, DC, April 2007. www.epa.gov/otaq/
renewablefuels/420r07004.pdf.
46
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2007f. Municipalities Fact Sheet. U.S. EPA,

Washington, DC, October, 11, 2007. www.epa.gov/chp/
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U.S. EPA,
2008a, Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA). National Risk Management Research Laboratory Web site.
U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, last updated October 17,
2008. www.epa.gov/nrmrl/lcaccess/.
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2008b. Land Resource Use. Clean Energy

Program Web site. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, last
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U.S. EPA,
2008c. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in the

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2009. Climate Leaders Greenhouse

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2005. Wang, M. Updated Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Results of Fuel Ethanol. 15th
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Chapter Four
How Can States Identify

Bioenergy Opportunities?
Document Map
After learning about the benefits and

challenges of bioenergy (Chapter 3),
state decision makers can consider
whether they want to use bioenergy
to meet state energy, environmental,
Chapter One
Introduction
Chapter Two
What Is Bioenergy?
Chapter Three
Chapter Four
Chapter Five
and economic goals.

If states decide they want to promote bioenergy, they
should consider the three steps shown below. Following these steps will help ensure that states (1) fully understand the most appropriate bioenergy activities for
them, and (2) design policies and programs tailored to
the market conditions and resource availability unique
to each state.
Chapter Four Contents

4.1 Step 1: Determine Availability of Biomass Feedstocks
4.2 Step 2: Assess Potential Markets for Identified
Biomass Feedstocks and Bioenergy
4.3 Step 3: Identify Opportunities for Action
4.5 References
Step 1
Determine Availability of
Biomass Feedstocks
Step 2
Assess Potential Markets for
Identied Biomass Feedstocks
Step 3
Identify Opportunities
for Action
Note: The order in which Steps 1 and 2 are completed is

not critical as both steps are equally important to develop a
rational approach.
Chapter Four | State Bioenergy Primer
47
Example
Floridas Farm to Fuel Initiative

In September 2005, inspired by the 25x25 initiativea group
of stakeholders promoting expansion of biomass from farms,
forests, and ranches to provide 25 percent of the total energy
consumed in the United States by 2025the state of Florida
looked closely at its energy profile and resource base to
determine how more biomass could be used sustainably in
the state.
Through an assessment of market conditions Florida
determined that the state was one of the nations largest
consumers of both petroleum gasoline and nonrenewable
electricity in the United States. Florida also identified more
than a dozen types of produce for which it is ranked first or
second in production and sales value in the United States (i.e.,
determined potential feedstocks and markets). The Florida
Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services held its first
stakeholder meeting in January 2006 to develop a proposal to
match the states needs with available resources, and identified
opportunities for action.
As a result, the Farm to Fuel Initiative was enacted in June
2006 as a comprehensive strategy for promoting renewable
energy within the state. The main objective of the program
is to enhance the market for and promote production and
distribution of renewable energy from Florida-grown crops,
agricultural wastes and residues, and other biomass to enhance
the value of agricultural products and expand agribusiness in
the state. The program offers competitive renewable energy
matching grants for research and development, demonstration,
and commercialization projects relating to bioenergy based on
Florida-specific criteria. The program awarded $25 million to 12
projects across the state in 2008.
For more information, see: www.floridafarmtofuel.com/.
Source: Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services,
2008 and 2007
4.1 Step 1: Determine Availability

of Biomass Feedstocks
A complete inventory of its biomass feedstocks will
allow a state to fully assess the range of options for
bioenergy development. Biomass feedstocks are available across the United States, especially in the Midwest
and Southeast (see Figure 4-1). However, each state
possesses its own unique blend of bioenergy feedstocks. State-specific information is necessary to ensure
pursuit of the most technically and economically viable
bioenergy activities for a state.
When assessing the availability of potential biomass
feedstocks, it is important for decision makers to consider all types, including waste/opportunity fuels and
energy crops, as discussed in Chapter 2. States should
pay particular attention to obtaining accurate estimates
48
State Bioenergy Primer | Chapter Four
of biomass feedstock availability because miscalculations can greatly impact the economic viability and
successful operation of bioenergy projects.
The key question each state must answer while assessing its available feedstocks and completing Step 1 is:
What is the total fuel potential of all biomass feedstocks, by location, in the state?
To develop an assessment of biomass resource availability, states should first see whether they can use existing
data sources (see Section 4.1.1). If existing sources
prove insufficient, states may want to consider conducting a biomass assessment (see Section 4.1.2). Nothing
takes the place of a detailed, on-the-ground biomass
resource assessment when considering a project.
Regional Biomass Feedstock Availability
Locations in all regions of the country have opportunities to
take advantage of waste and opportunity fuels for biopower
and bioheat generation. With respect to advanced biofuels
production, regionally, cellulosic ethanol production from corn
and wheat residues would probably occur most in the Midwest;
dedicated crop production would most likely occur in the
South/Southeast; and cellulosic ethanol production from wood
and forest residues would occur in the West, Southeast, and
Northeast (assuming relatively short transportation distances
from feedstock to production facility) (Ugarte et al., 2006).
4.1.1 Use Existing Resources to

Determine Biomass Feedstock
Availability
Numerous existing resources provide data on potential
biomass feedstocks by state and information on how
to conduct a biomass assessment (as discussed later
in this chapter). For example, key state agencies (e.g.,
the state Department of Agriculture) are often valuable sources of information about potential biomass
feedstocks. In-state expertise can also be found among
local USDA rural development representatives (www.
rurdev.usda.gov/recd_map.html), as well as local
academic and business experts in agriculture, forestry,
and waste.
The following resources provide information about
potential biomass feedstocks and/or data on feedstock
availability by geographic location. Each specializes in
particular types of data, as described below:
Biomass Resource Assessment Tool.
This online
biomass mapping tool, developed by NREL for the U.S.
Figure 4-1. Total Biomass Resources Available

in the United States per Square Kilometer by County
Source: Milbrandt, 2005
Biomass Resources Available in the united States

Normalized by County Area
Tonnes/sq km/Year
Above 250
200-250
150-200
100-150
50-100
Hawaii
Less than 50
Alaska
This study estimates the technical biomass resources currently available in the United
States by county. It includes the following feedstock categories:
Agricultural residues (crop and animal manure);

Wood residues (forest, primary mill, secondary mill, and urban wood);
Municipal discards (methane emissions from landfills and domestic water treatment);
Dedicated energy crops (on Conservation Reserve Program and Abandoned Mine Lands).
EPA Blue Skyways program, allows users to select a location on the map, quantify the biomass resources available within a user-defined radius, and then estimate the
total thermal energy or power that could be generated
by recovering a portion of that biomass. The tool acts as
a preliminary source of biomass feedstock information;
however, it will not take the place of an on-the-ground
feedstock assessment. The tool also contains numerous
layers including landfills, waste water treatment plants,
anaerobic digesters on animal feeding operations, EPA
brownfields, biopower plants, fossil power plants, ethanol manufacturing facilities, and alternative fuel filling
stations. The tool can be found at http://rpm.nrel.gov/
biopower/biopower/launch.
Biomass Feedstocks.
The U.S. DOE Biomass Program

works with industry, academia, and national laboratory
partners on a balanced portfolio of research in biomass
feedstocks and conversion technologies. The Web site
provides a gateway to a wealth of biomass information, including feedstock availability. In particular, the
programs site lists several U.S. DOE reports on the
potential of different feedstocks, including corn stover,
woody biomass, and switchgrass, which states across
the nation may find useful.
To locate these publications, visit www1.eere.energy.
gov/biomass/publications.html#feed. The U.S. DOE
Biomass Program homepage can be accessed at www1.
eere.energy.gov/biomass/biomass_feedstocks.html.
49
State Assessment for Biomass Resources.
Produced
by the U.S. DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy (EERE) Alternative Fuels and
Advanced Vehicles Data Center, this tool provides detailed information on biomass resources and utilization
throughout the United States. It features state-specific
information on conventional fuel and biofuel use,
ethanol and biodiesel stations and production plants,
and biofuel production capacities. In addition, it offers
state-by-state snapshots of available feedstocks, data on
potential production capacities, and projections on the
future use of biofuels. The site is particularly useful for
states interested in evaluating biomass resource potential for producing biofuels.
This resource can be found at www.afdc.energy.gov/
afdc/sabre/index.php.
Dynamic Maps, GIS Data, and Analysis Tools.
This NREL Web siteprovides county-levelbiomass

resource maps, which are useful for states interested
in their feedstock potential in the following categories:
crop residues, forest residues, primary mill residues,
secondary mill residues, urban wood waste, methane
emissions from landfills, methane emissions from
manure management, methane emissions from wastewater treatment plants, and dedicated energy crops.
The maps are derived from data contained in a report,
Geographic Perspective on the Current Biomass Resource
Availability in the United States (described below).
The NREL Biomass Web site is www.nrel.gov/gis/
biomass.html. Note that these maps present technical
biomass resource data. The economic biomass resource
availability will most likely be somewhat less than what
is presented here.
Geographic Perspective on the Current Biomass
Resource Availability in the United States. This NREL

report provides the basis for the maps and data presented in NRELs Dynamic Maps, GIS Data, and Analysis Tools Web site described above. The report provides
a geographic analysis of biomass resource potential at
the county level, and can give officials a sense of the
major biomass resources available within their state
and their technical potential relative to other states.
The report is available at www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/39181.pdf.
USFS Forest Inventory Data Online (FIDO).
This
online tool provides access to the National Forest
Inventory and Analysis databases. It can be used to
generate tables and maps of forest statistics (including
50
tree biomass) by running standard reports for a specific

state or county and survey year, or customized reports
based on criteria selected by the user.
This tool can be accessed at http://199.128.173.26/fido/
index.html.
Market Opportunities for Biogas Recovery Systems.
This report published by U.S. EPAs AgStar program

assesses the market potential for biogas energy projects
at swine and dairy farms in the United States. For the
top ten swine and dairy states, the guide characterizes
the sizes and types of operations where biogas projects
are technically feasible, along with estimates of potential methane production, electricity generation, and
greenhouse gas emission reductions.
The report is available at www.epa.gov/agstar/pdf/
biogas%20recovery%20systems_screenres.pdf.
U.S. EPAs Landfill Methane Outreach Program
(LMOP) Landfill Database. This online database

provides a nationwide listing of operational and under
construction LFG energy projects; candidate municipal
solid waste landfills having LFG energy potential; and
information on additional landfills that could represent
LFG energy opportunities. The database can be accessed as a series of downloadable Excel spreadsheets,
which are updated and posted to the Web site each
month. The information contained in the LMOP database is compiled from a variety of sources, including
annual voluntary submissions by LMOP Partners and
industry publications.
The database can be accessed at www.epa.gov/lmop/
proj/index.htm.
Coordinated Resource Offering Protocol (CROP)
Evaluations. This U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of

Land Management Web page provides the results of ten
CROP evaluations that have been conducted for more
than 30 million acres of public forestlands potentially
vulnerable to wildfires. The evaluations contain detailed
resource-offering maps that illustrate the growing fuel
load problem within major forest systems and quantify
the biomass available for removal within five years.
The evaluations can be accessed at www.forestsandrangelands.gov/Woody_Biomass/supply/CROP/
index.shtml.
State Assessment for Biomass Resources (SABRE).
This comprehensive U.S. DOE tool provides detailed

information on biomass resources and utilization
throughout the United States. It features state-specific

information on conventional fuel and biofuel use,
future use of biofuels.
This tool can be accessed at www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/
sabre/index.php.
4.1.2 Conduct a Biomass Assessment if
More Information Is Needed
If more information is needed about biomass feedstock
availability after tapping into the resources discussed
above, a state can consider conducting its own biomass
feedstock assessment. The advantages of a state conducting its own assessment include the ability to tailor
the study to meet specific state goals for bioenergy use
(i.e., focus on resources that the state knows it wants
to tap) and determine the level of data specificity (i.e.,
state level, county level, within 50 miles of existing energy and industrial infrastructure, etc.). Disadvantages
of a state conducting its own assessment are the time
and cost of doing so.
Some considerations for determining whether to conduct a state-specific biomass assessment include:
Identify priorities.
First, consider using existing

information to decide generally what priorities are of
greatest interest, for example feedstock types (e.g., forest residues, energy crops), geography (e.g., economic
development in southeast portion of the state), or
output (e.g., biopower, biofuels) based on the states
resources and goals.
Look closely to analyze data gaps in existing infor-
mation. Based on the scope of interest, a state can

decide whether existing data meet its needs or information gaps need to be addressed by completing its
own assessment. In addition to general data availability,
some considerations will include how recent the information is (i.e., to determine whether it is out of date),
and the degree of data specificity (e.g., an estimate for
the whole state, or detailed county-level data).
Determine resource availability.
Once a state knows

its data needs, it will need to determine whether it has
the resources to perform any needed assessment itself
(i.e., using state staff) or whether it needs to hire a
contractor or tap into the expertise at state universities.
Costs to do so will need to be considered, as they will

impact the extent of the analysis that can be completed.
Some states have already conducted assessments or related studies of renewable energy (including biomass)
potential and can provide examples and guidance.
Examples include:
Guide to Estimates of State Renewable Energy
Potential. This guidebook lists existing studies of renewable energy potential and describes how to conduct
these studies.
State Biomass Resource Assessments

California:
An Assessment of Biomass Resources in

California, 2007
Provides an updated biomass inventory for the state
along with an assessment of potential growth in
biomass resources and power generation that could
help to satisfy the state renewable portfolio standard (RPS). http://biomass.ucdavis.edu/materials/
reports%20and%20publications/2008/CBC_Biomass_Resources_2007.pdf
Georgia:
Biomass Wood Resource Assessment on a

County-by-County Basis for the State of Georgia, 2005
Provides a biomass wood resource assessment at
the county level for Georgia. www.gfc.state.ga.us/
ForestMarketing/documents/BiomassWRACountybyCountyGA05.pdf
Hawaii:
Biomass and Bioenergy Resource Assessment:

State of Hawaii, 2002
Provides an assessment of current and potential biomass and bioenergy resources for Hawaii. Includes
animal wastes, forest product residues, agricultural
residues, and urban wastes. www.hawaii.gov/dbedt/
info/energy/publications/biomass-assessment.pdf
Mississippi:
Mississippi Institute for Forest Inventory

Dynamic Report Generator
Provides a continuous, statewide forest resource
inventory necessary for the sustainable forest-based
economy. The inventory information is derived from
sampling estimation techniques with a presumed
precision of +/- 15 percent sampling error with 95
percent confidence. www.mifi.ms.gov/
South
Carolina: Biomass Energy Potential in South

Carolina: A Conspectus of Relevant Information, 2007
51
Summary of Biomass Resources and their Degree

of Utilization in the State of Hawaii by County
Hawaiis 2002 Biomass and Bioenergy Resource Assessment was developed through five tasks:
1. Collecting and reviewing relevant prior studies.
2. Collecting current bioenergy data from public and private sector sources.
3. Compiling, reducing, and analyzing data and information collected in Task 2.
4. Summarizing economic and other considerations related to development
and operation of bioenergy facilities.
5. Inventorying public and private sector bioenergy facilities in the state.
The results of these activities are summarized below; the full report is available at
www.hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/energy/publications/biomass-assessment.pdf.
tons yr1
52
Hawaii
Maui
Kauai
Honolulu
Swine Manure
dry
Dairy Manure
dry
Poultry
dry
Bagasse Fiber
dry
275,000
(275,000)2
74,000
(56,000)2
Molasses
as-received
80,000
15,000
Cane Trash
dry
137,000
37,000
Pineapple Processing
Water
dry
7,500
(7500)2
Macademia Nut Shells
dry
19,000
(18,000)2
Municipal Solid Waste
as-received
110,000
96,000
56,000
668,000
(6000,000)2,3
Food Waste4,5
as-received
24,000
15,000
5,800
90,000
Sewage Sludge5
dry
183
3,352
(3,352)2,3
246
16,576
(891)2,3
Fats/Oil/Grease6
dry
1,850
1,850
800
10,000
410
180
1,560
8,300
4,830
1,5201
combined poultry waste estimate for Hawaii, Maui, and Kauai
amount currently used
tipping fee associated with utilization
amount entering landfills
included in municipal solid waste value
processed grease, contains minimal moisture
540
Summarizes studies conducted on various actual

and potential feedstock resources in South Carolina
and the Southeast, as well as relevant nonregional
studies and other information. The report describes
the existing information base, as well as information
gaps. www.energy.sc.gov/publications/Biomass%20
Conspectus%204-10-07.pdf
Oregon:
Biomass Energy and Biofuels from Oregons

Forests, 2006
Regional Biomass Resource Assessments

Northeastern
states (CT, DE, ME, MD, MA, NH, NJ,

NY, PA, RI, VT): Securing a Place for Biomass in the
Northeast United States: A Review of Renewable Energy
and Related Policies, 2003
Provides a biomass feedstock assessment for northeastern states. www.nrbp.org/pdfs/nrbp_final_report.pdf
states (AK, AZ, CA, CO, HI, ID, KS, MT,
NE, NV, NM, ND, OR, SD, TX, UT, WA, WY): Biomass Task Force Report, 2006
Western
states (WA, OR, ID, MT, WY, CO, NM, AZ,

UT, NV, CA, TX, OK, ND, SD, NE, KS, AK and HI):
Transportation Fuels for the Future Initiative Working
Group Reports and Final Report, 2008
Analyzes the potential for the development of
alternative fuels and vehicle fuel efficiency member
states of the Western Governors Association. www.
westgov.org/wga/initiatives/transfuels/index.html
Western Renewable Energy Zones

WGA and U.S. DOE launched the Western Renewable
EnergyZones Project (WREZ) in May2008. The central goal
of the WREZ project is to utilize areas of the West with vast
renewable resources to expedite development and delivery of
clean and renewable energy, including wind, solar, and biomass
resources. The project will generate:
Example
Assesses the statewide potential for production of

electricity and biofuels from woody biomass, including the available wood supply and the environmental,
energy, forest health, and economic effects. Reviews
and summarizes efforts underway to promote electric
energy and biofuels from woody biomass, and identifies gaps in existing efforts. Assesses constraints and
challenges to the development of biomass energy and
biofuels from Oregon forests, including economic,
environmental, legal, policy, infrastructure, and other
barriers and develops recommendations on how to
overcome these barriers. www.oregonforests.org/assets/uploads//Biomass_Full_Report.pdf
and potential policy interactions. www.westgov.org/

wga/initiatives/transfuels/index.html
Reliable information for use by decision makers that supports

cost-effective and environmentally sensitive development of
renewable energy in specified zones.
Conceptual transmission plans for delivering that energy to
load centers within the Western Interconnection.
The project also will evaluate all feasible renewable resource
technologies that are likely to contribute to the realization
of WGAs goal for development of 30,000 MW of clean and
diversified energy by 2015. For the latest information and
geographic information system (GIS) maps of the proposed
WREZ, see www.westgov.org/wga/initiatives/wrez/index.htm.
Source: Western Governors Association and U.S. DOE, 2009
Western
Focuses on use of biomass resources for production of electricity as part of an overall effort of the
Western Governors Association (WGA) to increase
the contribution of clean and renewable energy in
the region. www.westgov.org/wga/initiatives/cdeac/
Biomass-full.pdf
Western
states (WA, OR, ID, MT, WY, CO, NM, AZ,

UT, NV, CA, TX, OK, ND, SD, NE, KS, AK and HI):
Western Bioenergy Assessment, 2008
Includes a series of technical reports produced for the
Western Governors Association. These reports extensively evaluate biomass resources in the western states,
biofuel conversion technologies, spatial analysis and
supply curve development, and deployment scenarios
4.2 Step 2: Assess Potential

Markets for Identified Biomass
Feedstocks and Bioenergy
Once a state understands the availability of potential
biomass feedstocks, the next step is to evaluate how
the feedstocks can be employed by the market. In this
step, analysis is conducted to determine the viability
of using a states feedstocks, as identified in Step 1, to
produce bioenergy. To develop an evaluation that can
withstand the scrutiny required to justify state policy,
it is important to examine potential markets quantitatively and under a number of scenarios given different
economic or market activities. The following sets of
questions can be useful in assessing potential markets
for biomass feedstocks:
53
1. At what cost can the feedstocks reasonably be used?

Are
crop and waste feedstocks available at competitive prices?
What
is the relative proximity of feedstocks, processing facilities, and markets?
How
cost-competitive is the bioenergy with fossilbased resources?
What
are the economics of using bioenergy?
2. Who might use biomass feedstocks?

What
industries can use the available feedstocks?
What
is the current and potential competition for

feedstocks in the region?
Does
the state have policies in place that could create

a market for bioenergy?
3. What does the states energy and environmental

profile look like?
What
are the states anticipated energy demands?
What
environmental issues should be considered?
4.2.1 At What Cost Can the Feedstocks

Reasonably Be Used?
Are Crop and Waste Feedstocks Available at
Competitive Prices?
The economics of bioenergy production are highly
dependent on feedstock prices, and it is important that
state officials considering actions to promote bioenergy
explore whether a sufficient supply of competitively
priced feedstocks exists to support a profitable bioenergy industry. This undertaking is typically challenging, in part because the prices of biomass feedstocks
are subject to considerable uncertainty.
Many of the factors that influence the availability of
feedstocks over time, such as weather, plant disease,
feedstock demand, and transportation costs, will also
affect feedstock prices (see Chapter 3, Benefits and
Challenges of Bioenergy, for a more in-depth discussion of these factors). Other factors, such as fossil
fuel prices, can also significantly impact the price of
feedstocks if their harvest requires the use of fertilizer
and other chemicals (the prices of which are highly
dependent on the cost of fossil fuels), if they need to be
transported any significant distance, and if higher fossil
fuel prices are passed through and impact the biofuels
supply chain. Financial speculation by commodities
54
traders will also affect the price of energy crop

feedstocks.
When evaluating the cost-effectiveness of a given feedstock supply, it is important to consider how changes
in these factors could affect feedstock prices; volatility,
uncertainty, and or/changes in any of these factors will
be reflected in the price of feedstocks. With all these
factors in mind, some of the questions that should be
considered when evaluating the cost effectiveness of
a given biomass feedstock supply over the long term
include:
Will
bioenergy producers likely have to compete with

other industries for access to the resource?
What
are projected fossil fuel prices?
How
might financial speculators influence prices, if

at all?
Could
a feedstock supply that is currently ample become easily exhausted?
How
much will feedstock prices change as the bioenergy industry grows?

What Is the Proximity of Feedstocks,
Processing Facilities, and Markets?
In addition to understanding the industries or potential industries that can utilize a states biomass
feedstocks, it is important to know the limitations that
might impede cost-effective bioenergy use. Foremost
among these is whether biomass feedstocks, processing
facilities, and markets exist in close enough proximity
to deliver a competitive product. Proximity considerations are discussed below.
How far can each biomass feedstock be transported
cost effectively? One critical factor that affects the
financial viability of using a biomass feedstock is the
proximity of the feedstock to where it would be used.
The most cost-effective bioenergy applications often
site the conversion facility as close as possible to the
feedstock source (and to the end user). For wood
feedstocks, a general rule of thumb is that 50 to 100
miles is the maximum distance that feedstocks can be
transported at competitive cost; however, this depends
on the cost of competing sources (e.g., of power/heat)
and on the specific type of bioenergy feedstock. EIA
(2006) uses the following assumptions in its National
Energy Modeling System (NEMS):
Urban
wood waste and mill residues transportation

cost: $0.24/ton-mile, maximum supply distance 100mile radius.
Forest
residues, agricultural residues, energy crops

transportation cost: $10 to $12/ton-mile, within a
maximum supply distance of 50 miles.
Another question that needs to be answered is who,
specifically, will collect and transport the biomass to
the end-use facility? There are different answers to this
question depending upon whether one is using urban
wood waste, forest residues, or crop residues. What
contractual requirements for feedstock delivery need
to be developed? What is the quality and quantity of
feedstock to be supplied?
Are sufficient biomass resources available within
the distance identified to support a processing facility? Sufficient feedstocks must be close enough to the
potential processing facility to support its long-term
operation. For example, it would not make financial
sense to invest substantial capital for a plant that relies
on feedstock that will be exhausted within a few years.
Proposed projects may need long-term contracts for
feedstock supplies. Because bioenergy costs are frequently highly dependent on feedstock transportation
costs, detailed scenario building and certainty analyses
will be needed to answer this question with confidence.
As an example, one analysis of biomass-fueled boiler
power generation systems and CHP configurations
showed that 100 tons/day of dry biomass fuel (assuming 8,500 Btu of energy per pound) could be used to
generate 500 kW to 4 MW of electricity depending on
the conversion technology used, plus thermal energy
for process steam. (A 100 tons/day system would require about four to five standard semi-trailer trucks for
feedstock delivery each day.) A system receiving 900
tons/day of dry biomass fuel could produce roughly 8
MW to 24 MW of electricity depending on the conversion technology and how much thermal energy was
desired (U.S. EPA, 2007d Chapter 7).
Are markets for fuel, heat, and/or power readily
accessible? Available markets require critical infrastructure to be in place and may require contractual arrangements. For example, biofuels require access to populations of consumers who need fuel. Bioenergy for heat
and power, especially if not used primarily or exclusively
for on-site demand, may require long-term contracts
with the electric utility (as discussed with interconnection standards in Section 4.3.2). Markets for renewable
energy, such as green power or renewable energy credits

(RECs), may or may not be open to biopower.
How Cost-Competitive Is Bioenergy with
Fossil-Based Resources?
The most promising markets for bioenergy will typically share several characteristics. Perhaps most importantly, the cost of bioenergy will be competitive (in
some cases without government support; in other cases
with direct or indirect support) with energy that is generated from other sources, including fossil fuels. High
or volatile energy prices will generally help to improve
the cost effectiveness of bioenergy.
The increase in gasoline prices over the last several
years, for example, has helped to make ethanol a more
attractive alternative motor fuel economically. Similarly, volatility in electricity prices over this same period
has generally increased the appeal of biomass power
as facilities look for ways to stabilize energy prices or
hedge fuel costs. It is important, therefore, that any
assessment of the market for bioenergy take prevailing
and forecasted energy prices into account.
Data on gasoline and electricity prices are available
on EIAs Web site at www.eia.doe.gov.
For information on prevailing energy prices by state,
see http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/SEP_MorePrices.cfm.
Forecasts of projected energy prices through 2030 are
available in EIAs Annual Energy Outlook reports.
The 2008 version of the report is accessible on the
Web site at www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/index.html.
Energy prices and forecasts are also important to consider in later evaluations if a state decides to develop
incentives or policy measures to support bioenergy.
A state will want to understand the level of support
necessary to achieve its objectives given prevailing and
projected cost effectivenessto decrease the likelihood
that states offer too many or too few incentives for
Price Volatility
Noteworthy, of course, is that petroleum prices spiked and
crashed in 2008from a high of more than $100/barrel
to a low of less than $40/barrelmaking biofuels in many
parts of the country uneconomical after a period of cost
competitiveness. This extreme type of volatility is difficult to
predict; having flexible policies that are robust to different price
trajectories can buffer the effects of volatile prices.
55
bioenergy development and are therefore inefficient or

ineffective in the long run.
Using biomass to produce heat is currently one of the
most cost effective applications for biomass energy.
This is especially true if one is replacing propane or
fuel oil, which are typically more expensive than biomass on a $/Million Btu basis. Depending on the price,
it may also be possible to compete with natural gas.
feedstock.
can use their waste streams as biomass
Existing
energy production facilities can initiate or

increase their use of biomass.
New
industries that use biomass feedstocks can be

encouraged to locate in the state.
Example
Understanding the relationships between feedstocks,

conversion technologies, products, and markets, and
their implications for industry, commerce, and end users within a states borders, is essential.
Cost-Competitive Wood Chip Boiler

In the winter of 2009, the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL) installed a central, wood chip fired boiler to
provide thermal energy for its main campus. NREL estimates
that wood can be obtained for less than $3/million Btu,
compared to natural gas costs of $6-$10/million Btu. The
system is expected to meet up to 80% of NRELs heating load
with biomass energy.
Source: NREL, 2008
What are the Economics of Using Bioenergy?

Once information on availability, proximity, and cost
competitiveness of feedstocks and other considerations
has been gathered, it is important to conduct an economic analysis of the various options for sourcing and
using biomass to produce bioenergy. At the minimum,
a 20-year pro-forma analysis should be developed to
evaluate various options. Bioenergy options should
be compared with other options such as fossil fuels
(e.g., if looking at using biomass to offset natural gas
in a school, what are the life-cycle costs of the biomass
technology vs. the natural gas technology?)
4.2.2 Who Might Use Biomass Feedstocks?
What Industries Can Use the Available
Feedstocks?
An understanding of the key market factors that will
allow potential feedstocks to become actual bioenergy
projects is essential. Foremost among these factors is
knowing what drives demand for biomass resources in
the state, that is, which industries can use the available
feedstocks.
Industries in a state can make greater use of bioenergy
in several ways:
Existing
industries can expand their facilities or construct new facilities.
56
Industries
Figure 2-2 in Chapter 2 illustrates the conversion

pathways of different biomass feedstocks into various
final forms of bioenergy. As the diagram shows, states
with abundant waste or opportunity fuels may have an
advantage if they focus support toward industries that
can generate on-site heat or power or utilities that can
provide heat and power. However, states with abundant
energy crops are in a better position to support biofuel
development using current technologies.
Although a wide variety of industrial, commercial, and
institutional facilities could potentially benefit from the
use of biomass as an energy source, there are several
types of facilities for which biomass could be a particularly attractive and economical source of energy. Some
examples of these facilities include (DOE, 2004):
Schools, prisons, hospitals, and municipal WWTPs.
Facilities with large, fairly constant electricity and

heating requirements are good candidates for on-site
biopower/bioheat production. In 2008, four prisons
and one high school in the United States were using
biomass CHP systems to produce energy (ICF, 2008).
For facilities with potentially sensitive populations
(i.e., schools and hospitals) it is especially important
to utilize best available pollution control technologies to reduce the risk of exposure to air emissions.
Fuels for Schools
The Fuels for Schools program is an innovative venture between

public schools and state and regional foresters of the northern
and intermountain regions of the U.S. Forest Service. This
program helps public schools retrofit their current fuel or gas
heating systems to biomass-based systems through knowledge
sharing, information dissemination, identifying potential
financing opportunities, supply assessment, and overall support
and assistance as needed. As of 2008, Fuels for Schools had
initiated projects in Idaho, Montana, Nevada, and North Dakota.
For more information on Fuels for Schools, see: www.
fuelsforschools.info/.
There are dozens of schools in the United States that

are heating their buildings with automated wood chip
boilers. These facilities may also be capable of generating anaerobic digester gas for use as a fuel by treating
wastewater in on-site treatment plants (DOE, 2004).
Landfills.
Landfills can capture the gas that is produced as a byproduct of the decomposition of solid
waste for use as an energy source. This LFG can be
used to generate electricity and/or heat for the landfill
itself or other nearby facilities.
For more information, tools, and links to landfill and

LFG databases, visit EPAs LMOP Web site, www.epa.
gov/lmop.
Lumber yards and pulp and paper mills.
Food and beverage processing facilities.
Food and
beverage processing facilities can use the food processing waste (FPW) they generate as a fuel source. A 2004
study found that even though FPW could significantly
reduce fuel costs for these facilities, its use as a fuel is
minimal. The facilities are also good candidates for
anaerobic digestion of wastewater to produce biogas
for on-site use (DOE, 2004).
The presence of related industries, including oil and gas

refining, blending, terminals, transportation corridors,
and distribution networks, can create more demand for
bioenergy. Transportation infrastructure limitations
(discussed below) may place constraints on building
centralized conversion facilities while creating opportunities for distributed ones.
Brewery Bioenergy Production

Anheuser-Busch, a member of EPAs Climate Leaders
partnership program, utilizes Bio-Energy Recovery Systems
(BERS) at nine of its 12 breweries. These systems feature
anaerobic digesters that break down nutrients in the
wastewater from the brewing process, creating biogas. The
biogas is captured and used by CHP systems to fuel boilers that
provide heat and power for the breweries. Where they are in
use, BERS meet 15 percent of Anheuser-Busch facilities on-site
fuel needs. In 2007, the nine systems generated enough energy
to heat more than 25,000 homes.
Example
Both the
lumber processing and pulp and paper industries
produce wood residues and black liquor that can be
used as a source of energy to generate electricity and/
or heat, typically for on-site use. Pulp and paper mills
also produce large quantities of wastewater that can be
treated with anaerobic digesters to create biogas.
One source of information to help states identify

industries that are in a position to initiate or increase
their use of biomass is the U.S. Bureau of Economic
Analysis. The bureau provides information on stateby-state output (gross domestic product) of industries, such as those described above, that might be
poised to incorporate bioenergy feedstocks into their
operations. This information is accessible online at
www.bea.gov/regional/gdpmap/.
For more information, see: www.abenvironment.com/

Environment/BioEnergyRecovery.html and www.epa.gov/
stateply/partners/partners/anheuserbuschcompaniesinc.html.
Petroleum refineries.
There are opportunities to integrate biomass feedstocks into existing fossil fuels industries. For example, petroleum refineries can take bio-oil
and process it within existing refineries, blending the
renewable diesel product into petroleum diesel and using existing pipeline infrastructure for distribution.
This alternative to biodiesel (sometimes called green
diesel) overcomes the distribution infrastructure challenge described in Chapter 3. The same approach can
apply to bio-produced gasolinegreen gasoline.
Power plants and other large energy users.
Power
plants, typically coal fired, can substitute biomass for a
portion of the fossil fuel used in the combustion process, in most cases with only minor equipment modifications. As of 2006, 52 coal-burning power plants in the
United States were utilizing cofiring technology (EIA
2008). Other large energy users, such as cement plants,
may also be good candidates for biomass cofiring.
What is the current and potential competition

for feedstocks in the region?
When doing a market assessment, it is very important
to consider whether there are any current users of
biomass and what the future competition for feedstocks
will be in the region. For example, a 50 MW biomass
power plant or ethanol plant could be sourcing feedstocks from within a 100-mile radius. Other plants
located within this radius will likely compete with it for
feedstocks, and competition will increase as the distance
between plants decreases. So when planning new bioenergy facilities, it is crucial to examine how siting plants
will create and/or affect competition. Additionally,
there are other competitors for feedstocks that need to
be taken into consideration, such as composters, wood
recyclers, and landscape mulch companies. All current
and potential users of biomass need to be assessed.
57
Does the State Have Policies that

Could Create a Market for Bioenergy?
States with promising markets for bioenergy may also
have enacted policies and incentives to encourage and/
or require use of renewable energy, including biomass.
Renewable portfolio standards (RPS), RFS, production
and tax incentives, low-interest loans, rebates, environmental revenue streams, grants, and standardized utility
interconnection standards are examples of the measures
states have enacted to improve bioenergy markets.
In addition, policies that are not specifically intended
to promote renewable energy can also enable a market for industrial or commercial entities that might
become users of bioenergy, such as rural economic
development policies, designations of industrial development zones with environmental restrictions, waste
reduction or processing requirements, etc. Chapter 5
provides information about evaluating state policies
and incentives.
4.2.3 What Is the States Energy and
Environmental Profile?
What Are the States Anticipated
Energy Demands?
Besides evaluating existing markets in a state that can
utilize available biomass feedstocks, state officials can
assess anticipated rates of increase in electricity demand, renewable electricity demand, and biofuels demand. Rapid increases in these demands could create a
promising market environment for biomass feedstocks
and bioenergy. EIA, the state public utilities commission, state energy plan, or regional economic modeling
results are likely sources of energy demand forecasts.
Voluntary markets for renewable electricity and green
power can also spur demand.
For more information about green power, states can
refer to the Green Power Network at www.eere.energy.
gov/greenpower/. This online resource created by U.S.
DOE provides information about utility green pricing,
green power marketing, and renewable energy credits.
Interested states can also join U.S. EPAs Green Power
Partnership, a voluntary program that supports organizational procurement of green power by offering expert
advice, technical support, tools, and resources.
For more information about the Green Power
Partnership, see www.epa.gov/greenpower/.
58
Green Power Marketing

The Green Power Network publishes a report series, Green
Power Marketing in the United States: A Status Report, which
identifies market trends. The report covering 2007 notes that
in that year, total retail sales of renewable energy in voluntary
purchase markets exceeded 18 billion kWh, a capacity
equivalent of 5,100 MW of renewable energy, including 4,300
MW from new renewable energy sources. Biomass energy
sources (including LFG) provided 28 percent of total green
power sales.
For more information, see
www.nrel.gov/docs/fy09osti/44094.pdf.
What Environmental Issues

Should Be Considered?
Due to the complexity of the interaction between bioenergy and the environment, some types of bioenergy
production can be more beneficial to the environment
than others. In addition, some types of biomass are
more appropriate for certain climates or areas with
particular resources. For example, ethanol production
typically requires access to significant and reliable
water resources and is therefore less likely to have positive environmental effects in a drought-prone area. In
contrast, some evidence suggests that biomass CHP
requires less water than traditional natural gas-fired
electricity generation, making it a regionally appropriate bioenergy option in a drier climate.
It is important for decision makers to understand the
net environmental effects of growing, collecting, and
processing biomass feedstocks into bioenergy in the
context of their states environmental features and
challenges.
Examples of some environmental considerations that
could be important to a state when considering bioenergy opportunities include:
Lower
GHG emissions from biofuels and biopower

compared to fossil fuels can contribute to achieving
goals of state and local climate action plans.
Reduced
air emissions (e.g., lower SO2, NOx, and

PM emissions) from cofiring biomass with coal can
make bioenergy more attractive to regulated facilities
in a nonattainment area by lowering emissionsrelated operating costs. However, if gas or oil fueled
operations are converted to woody biomass, PM
emissions will increase.
When
large areas of undeveloped land are converted to

agricultural uses to produce biofuel feedstocks, the po-
tential exists for damage to local ecosystems (e.g., from

pesticide and fertilizer use) and displacement of species.
Unregulated
biomass boilers and furnaces can increase

PM emissions, contributing to air quality problems.
As discussed in Chapter 3, Benefits and Challenges of
Bioenergy, LCAs can help identify strategies to maximize the environmental benefits of biomass because
they reveal the environmental effects of alternative
approaches to biomass production, transportation,
and conversion. Because of the level of detail involved,
LCAs are not often tailored to specific geographic regions; however, state-specific analysis of policy options
can draw on LCA results. This type of analysis can support major state decisions about policies and incentives.
Section 4.4.2 Bioenergy and State Planning, describes the inclusion of bioenergy in comprehensive
state environmental planning. Additional resources for
evaluating environmental effects of bioenergy, including LCAs, are presented in Chapter 3.
the next step is to assess current policies that present

barriers to bioenergy development and those that can
remove barriers.
Because states have primary jurisdiction over many
areas related to bioenergy, including electricity generation, agricultural development, and land use, state
policies are particularly important in advancing or
impeding bioenergy. The key to successful advancement is a policy environment that is flexible enough to
support diverse and changing utilization of different
biomass resources and conversion technologies, and
that can adapt as the industry grows, markets change,
and technology advances.
Policy areas that can impact the use of bioenergy
include regulatory requirements and market-based incentives. Policies that remove barriers to bioenergy development can include favorable utility rate structures,
interconnection standards, state RPS, public benefits
funds, and financial incentives.
Policy Barriers to Biopower/Bioheat
4.3 Step 3: Identify

Opportunities for Action
Working through Steps 1 and 2 should provide a state
with a solid foundation for understanding the basics
about biomass feedstock availability and potential
markets for expanded bioenergy production. Before
identifying specific actions to promote bioenergy, a
state should have also considered the economic and
environmental benefits and challenges outlined in
Chapter 3. Once these considerations are weighed, a
state can decide whether to move ahead with policies
and initiatives that will promote bioenergy.
One final step before developing a bioenergy promotion plan is to identify some key opportunities for
action. States have found success by examining their
policy and regulatory situations for typical barriers (see
Section 4.3.1); considering including bioenergy issues
in the content of state planning processes to enable
cohesive approaches with all stakeholders (see Section
4.3.2); and reviewing policy, regulatory, and financial
opportunities for further action.
4.3.1 Typical Barriers to Bioenergy
Development
After developing an understanding of the processes,
products, and markets that are relevant to a state,
Some policies create barriers to biopower development, such as unfavorable utility rate structures, lack
of interconnection standards, and difficulties securing
environmental permits. Listed below are some key
policy barriers to biopower development and ways that
states have overcome them to enable a healthy market
for biopower:
Utility Rate Structures.
Unfavorable utility rate structures have perennially been a barrier to increased deployment of renewable energy technologies, including
those that use bioenergy. Unless carefully monitored to
encourage development of distributed generation (DG)
bioenergy resources, rate structures can increase the
cost of DG (with biomass or other fuels) or completely
disallow connection to the electrical grid.
Decoupling
or Lost Revenue Adjustment Mechanisms. Traditional electric and gas utility ratemaking mechanisms unintentionally include financial
disincentives for utilities to support energy efficiency and DG. This misalignment can be remedied
through lost revenue adjustment mechanisms
(LRAMs) or mechanisms that decouple utility
revenues from sales.
LRAMs allow a utility to directly recoup the lost revenue associated with not selling additional units of
energy because of the success of energy efficiency or
DG programs in reducing electricity consumption.
59
The amount of lost revenue is typically estimated by

multiplying the fixed portion of the utilitys prices by
the energy savings from energy efficiency programs
or the energy generated from DG. The lost revenue is
then directly returned to the utility.
Revised
Standby Rate Structures. Facilities that use

bioenergy usually need to contract with the utility for
standby power when the biopower system is unavailable due to equipment failure, during maintenance,
or in other planned outages. Electric utilities often
assess standby charges on on-site generation to cover
the additional costs they incur as they continue to
provide adequate generating, transmission, or distribution capacity (depending on the structure of the
utility) to supply on-site generators when requested
(sometimes on short notice). The utilitys concern is
that the facility will require power when electricity is
scarce or at a premium cost, and that it must be prepared to serve load during such extreme conditions.
The probability that any one generator will require
standby service at the exact peak demand period
is low, and the probability that all interconnected
small-scale DG will need it at the same time is even
lower. Consequently, some states are exploring alternatives to standby rates that may more accurately
reflect these conditions. These states are looking
for ways to account for the normal diversity within
a load class and consider the probability that the
demand for standby service will coincide with peak
(high-cost) hours versus the benefits that renewables
provide to the system.
Exit
Fee Exemptions. When facilities reduce or end

their use of electricity from the grid, they reduce the
utilitys revenues that cover fixed costs on the system.
The remaining customers may eventually bear these
costs. This can be a problem if a large customer
leaves a small electric system. Exit (or stranded asset
recovery) fees are typically used only in states that
have restructured their electric utilities.
To avoid potential rate increases due to load loss,
utilities sometimes assess exit fees on departing load
to keep the utility whole without shifting the responsibility for those costs to the remaining customers.
States can exempt renewable projects from these exit
fees to recognize the economic value of the projects,
including their grid congestion relief and reliability
enhancement benefits.
60
Lack of Interconnection Standards for Clean Distrib-
uted Generation. The absence of standard interconnection rules, or uniform procedures and technical
requirements for connecting DG systems to the electric
utilitys grid, can make it difficult, if not impossible,
for DG systems to connect to the grid. This barrier can
hinder biomass CHP in particular.
Standardized
Interconnection Rules and Net Metering. A lack of interconnection standards can make it
difficult, if not impossible, for renewable energy DG
systems, including those using biopower, to connect
to the electric grid. Once established, however, these
statewide standards reduce uncertainty and delays
that bioenergy systems can encounter when connecting to the grid.
Standard interconnection rules establish uniform processes and technical requirements that apply to utilities within a state; in some states, municipally owned
systems or electric cooperatives may be exempt from
rules approved by state regulators. Standard interconnection rules typically address the application process
and technical interconnection requirements for small
DG projects of a specified type and size.
Net metering provisions are a subset of interconnection standards for small-scale projects. When DG
output exceeds the sites electrical needs, the utility
can pay the customer for excess power supplied to
the grid or have the net surplus carry over to the next
months bill. Some states allow the surplus account
to be reset periodically, meaning that customers
might provide some generation to the utility for free.
Net metering provisions streamline interconnection
standards but are often limited to specified sizes and
types of technologies, as well as fuel types.
Several groups are actively working to provide
information about and/or follow and facilitate
development of improved net metering standards.
These include:
Database
of State Incentives for Renewable Energy,

which includes a summary table and summary database on interconnection standards. www.dsireusa.org/ (click on Summary Tables, and then Rules,
Regulations, and Policies [Renewable Energy]).
The
Interstate Renewable Energy Council, which

publishes a newsletter, Connecting to the Grid.
www.irecusa.org/index.php
Clean Energy-Environment Guide to Action

provides information about interconnection and
EPAs
net metering benefits, design elements, interaction

with state and federal programs, implementation
and evaluation, and case studies. www.epa.gov/
cleanenergy/energy-programs/state-and-local/
state-best-practices.html
Environmental Permitting.
Major new industrial facilities that produce and/or use bioenergy must obtain
a number of different permits from state agencies including construction permits from state environmental
officials to ensure that plans meet environmental
standards; operating permits for air emissions during
operation; and stormwater and/or wastewater discharge permits. New bioenergy facilities and projects
are subject to federal and state emission standards for
combustion sources and to air permitting requirements
for new sources.
4.3.2 Bioenergy and State Planning

One way to facilitate creation of a policy environment
conducive to bioenergy is to include bioenergy considerations during comprehensive state energy, environmental, or climate change planning.
Energy Plans
Energy planning involves a strategic effort to develop
energy-related goals and objectives and formulate
related policies and programs. As the nexus for a
variety of state concerns, energy planning can serve as
an umbrella mechanism for simultaneously addressing
energy, environmental, economic, and other issues.
Energy planning can be undertaken at both state and
regional levels.
Many states have used their energy plans to support
development and use of cost-effective clean energy,
including bioenergy, and to help address multiple
challenges, including energy supply and reliability
(e.g., concerns with availability, independence, and
security), energy prices, air quality and public health,
and job development. States can also develop strategies
completely devoted to bioenergy. For example, in 2006
Environmental Plans
Opportunities also exist to consider biomass in environmental planning. States facing nonattainment under NAAQS are required to develop and submit SIPs.
EPA provides guidance to state and local governments
on quantifying and including emission reductions
from energy efficiency and renewable energy measures
in SIPs. (A guidance document is available at www.epa.
gov/ttn/oarpg/t1/memoranda/ereseerem_gd.pdf.)
Climate Change Plans
In addition, many states have completed climate action
plans to encourage clean energy as a way to decrease
carbon emissions. Given that biomass is carbonneutral, it does and can play an important role in state
climate plans.
Biomass and the Massachusetts

Climate Protection Plan
In 2004, Massachusetts published the Massachusetts Climate
Protection Plan as an initial step in a coordinated effort to reduce
GHG emissions and improve energy efficiency throughout the
state. The plan entails a set of near-term actions, including
development of a comprehensive state biomass policy to ensure:
Example
The federal standards that could apply to biomass combustion units are the New Source Performance Standards and National Emission Standards for Hazardous
Air Pollutants for boilers, gas turbines, and internal
combustion engines. The process of obtaining multiple
permits from different entities within state agencies
particularly for newer technologies/processescan add
significant uncertainty to construction timing and the
cost of emission controls that will be required.
California released the Bioenergy Action Plan for California, which provides specific actions and timelines to
advance bioenergy in the state (Bioenergy Interagency
Working Group, 2006).
Biomass material is grown and harvested in an environmentally
sound manner.
Strong air quality standards are maintained.
Low emissions and advanced biomass conversion technologies,
as defined by the Massachusetts RPS, are utilized for both heat

and electricity.
State agencies provide incentives and work together to
implement pilot biomass projects in various sectors (public and

private applications) in rural regions.
For more information, see masstech.org/renewableenergy/public_
policy/DG/resources/2004_MA_Climate_Protection_Plan.pdf.
4.3.3 Review Policy Options

Whether a state explores bioenergy through a comprehensive energy strategy, a SIP, or a climate change
action plan, several policies should be developed
simultaneously to enhance the likelihood that biomass
usage increases, as discussed in Chapter 5.
61

Resource
Description
URL
Bioenergy
62
Biomass Resource Assessment

Tool, U.S. EPA and NREL.
Online mapping tool that takes various biomass resource

datasets and maps them, allowing user queries and
analysis. For example, users can select a point on the map
and determine the quantity of feedstock within a certain
radius, and the quantity of energy that could potentially be
produced from that biomass.
http://rpm.nrel.gov/biopower/
biopower/launch
Coordinated Resource Offering

Protocol (CROP) Evaluations,
U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of
Land Management.
Provides the results of ten CROP evaluations that have been

conducted for over 30 million acres of public forestlands
potentially vulnerable to wildfires. The evaluations contain
detailed resource-offering maps that illustrate the growing
fuel load problem within major forest systems and quantify
Woody_Biomass/supply/CROP/
index.shtml
USFS Forest Inventory Data

Online (FIDO).
Provides access to the National Forest Inventory and Analysis

databases. It can be used to generate tables and maps of
forest statistics (including tree biomass) by running standard
reports for specific states or counties and survey year, or
customized reports based on criteria selected by the user.
http://fiatools.fs.fed.us/fido/index.
html
Biomass Feedstocks, U.S. DOE.
U.S. DOE Biomass Program Web site
biomass_feedstocks.html
Dynamic Maps, GIS Data, and

Analysis Tools, NREL.
Provides county-levelbiomass resource maps. The feedstock

categories include crop residues, forest residues, primary
mill residues, secondary mill residues, urban wood waste,
methane emissions from landfills, methane emissions from
manure management, methane emissions from wastewater
treatment plants, and dedicated energy crops. The maps
are derived from data contained in a report, Geographic
Perspective on the Current Biomass Resource Availability in
the United States (described below). Note that these maps
present technical biomass resource data. The economic
biomass resource availability will most likely be somewhat
less than what is presented in the maps.
www.nrel.gov/gis/biomass.html
Geographic Perspective on
NREL, 2006.
Provides the basis for the maps and data presented in

NRELs Dynamic Maps, GIS Data, and Analysis Tools Web site
described above. The report provides a geographic analysis
of biomass resource potential at the county level, and can
give state officials a sense of the major biomass resources
available within their state and their technical potential
relative to other states.
www.nrel.gov/docs/
fy06osti/39181.pdf
State Assessment for Biomass

Resources (SABRE), U.S. DOE.
Provides detailed information on biomass resources and

utilization throughout the United States. It features statespecific information on conventional fuel and biofuel use,
www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/sabre/
index.php

Resource
Description
URL
State Woody Biomass

Utilization Policies,
University of Minnesota,
Department of Forest
Resources, Staff Paper 199. Becker,
D.R., and C. Lee. 2008.
Documents information on state policies to facilitate

comparison of the types of approaches used in certain
areas, policy structures and incentives employed, program
administration, and relationships to complementary local and
federal actions.
www.forestry.umn.edu/
publications/staffpapers/
Staffpaper199.pdf
Initial Market Assessment for

Small-Scale Biomass-Based CHP.
National Renewable Energy
Laboratory, NREL, January 2008.
Examines the energy generation market opportunities

for biomass CHP applications smaller than 20 MW. Using
relevant literature and expert opinion, the paper provides
an overview of the benefits of and challenges for biomass
CHP in terms of policy and economic drivers, and identifies
primary characteristics of potential markets.
www.nrel.gov/docs/
fy08osti/42046.pdf
Green Power Marketing in the

United States: A Status Report,
NREL.
Documents green power marketing activities and trends in

voluntary markets in the United States.
http://apps3.eere.energy.
gov/greenpower/resources/
pdfs/38994.pdf
U.S. EPA's Landfill Methane

Outreach Program (LMOP).
Promotes the use of landfill gas as a renewable, green energy

source. Its Web site contains general information, tools, and
links to databases containing specific landfill data.
www.epa.gov/lmop/
U.S. EPAs Landfill Methane

Outreach Program (LMOP)
Landfill Database.
Provides a nationwide listing of operational and underconstruction LFG energy projects; candidate municipal solid
waste landfills having LFG energy potential; and information
on additional landfills that could represent LFG energy
opportunities. The database can be accessed as a series
of downloadable Excel spreadsheets, which are updated
and posted to the Web site each month. The information
contained in the LMOP database is compiled from a variety
of sources, including annual voluntary submissions by LMOP
partners and industry publications.
www.epa.gov/lmop/proj/index.
htm
Landfill Gas Energy Project

Development Handbook, U.S.
EPA Landfill Methane Outreach
Program.
Provides landfill gas energy project development guidance,

with individual chapters on the basics of landfill gas energy,
gas modeling, technology options, economic analysis and
financing, contract and permitting considerations, and
selection of project partners.
www.epa.gov/lmop/res/
handbook.htm
Market Opportunities for Biogas

Recovery Systems, U.S. EPA
AgStar.
Assesses the market potential for biogas energy projects at

swine and dairy farms in the United States. For the top ten
swine and dairy states, the guide characterizes the sizes and
types of operations where biogas projects are technically
feasible, along with estimates of potential methane
production, electricity generation, and greenhouse gas
emission reductions.
www.epa.gov/agstar/pdf/
biogas%20recovery%20systems_
screenres.pdf
U.S. EPAs Combined Heat and

Power (CHP) Partnership.
Promotes the use of biomass-fueled CHP and the use of

biogas at wastewater treatment facilities.
www.epa.gov/chp
Biopower/Bioheat
63

Resource
Description
URL

Resources, U.S. DOE.

and biofuel production capacities. It offers state-bystate snapshots of available feedstocks, data on potential
production capacities, and projections on the future use of
biofuels. The site is particularly useful for states interested in
evaluating resource potential for producing biofuels.
index.php
Environmental Laws Applicable

to Construction and Operation
of Ethanol Plants, U.S. EPA.
This compliance assistance manual, issued by EPA Region 7,

serves as a road map of information on federal environmental
programs and federal and state agency roles applicable to the
construction, modification, and operation of ethanol plants.
www.epa.gov/region07/priorities/
agriculture/ethanol_plants_
manual.pdf

of Biodiesel Production
Facilities, U.S. EPA.

programs and federal, state, and local agency roles
applicable to designing, building, and operating biodiesel
manufacturing facilities.
agriculture/biodiesel_manual.pdf
California
An Assessment of Biomass Resources in California, 2007,

provides an updated biomass inventory for the state along
with an assessment of potential growth in biomass resources
and power generation that could help to satisfy the state
renewable portfolio standard (RPS).
http://biomass.ucdavis.edu/
materials/reports%20and%20
publications/2008/CBC_Biomass_
Resources_2007.pdf
Georgia
Biomass Wood Resource Assessment on a Countyby-County Basis for the State of Georgia provides a
biomass wood resource assessment on a county-level
basis for Georgia.
www.gfc.state.ga.us/
ForestMarketing/documents/
BiomassWRACountybyCountyGA05.
pdf
Hawaii
Biomass and Bioenergy Resource Assessment: State of

Hawaii provides an assessment of current and potential
biomass and bioenergy resources for the state. Includes
animal wastes, forest products residues, agricultural residues,
and urban wastes.
www.hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/
energy/publications/biomassassessment.pdf
Mississippi
Mississippi Institute for Forest Inventory Dynamic Report

Generator provides a continuous, statewide forest resource
sampling estimation techniques with a presumed precision of
+/- 15% sampling error with 95 percent confidence.
www.mifi.ms.gov/
South Carolina
Potential for Biomass Energy Development in South Carolina

quantifies the amount of forestry and agricultural biomass
available for energy production on a sustainable basis in
South Carolina. Also includes an analysis of the economic
impacts of transferring out-of-state costs for coal to in-state
family forest landowners and biomass processors.
www.scbiomass.org/Publications/
Potential%20Biomass%20
Energy%20in%20SC.pdf
State Examples
64

Resource
Description
URL
Oregon
Biomass Energy and Biofuels from Oregons Forests assesses

the statewide potential for production of electricity and
biofuels from woody biomass, including the available
wood supply and the environmental, energy, forest health,
and economic effects. Reviews and summarizes efforts
underway to promote electric energy and biofuels from
woody biomass, and identifies gaps in existing efforts.
Assesses constraints and challenges to the development of
biomass energy and biofuels from Oregon forests, including
economic, environmental, legal, policy, infrastructure, and
other barriers and develops recommendations on how to
overcome these barriers.
www.oregonforests.org/assets/
uploads/Biomass_Full_Report.pdf
Northeastern states (CT, DE, ME,

MD, MA, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, VT)
Securing a Place for Biomass in the Northeast United States:

A Review of Renewable Energy and Related Policies provides
a biomass feedstock assessment for northeastern states.
www.nrbp.org/pdfs/nrbp_final_
report.pdf
Western states (WA, OR, ID, MT,

WY, CO, NM, AZ, UT, NV, CA, TX,
OK, ND, SD, NE, KS, AK, HI)
The Western Bioenergy Assessment includes a series of

technical reports produced for the Western Governors
Association. These reports extensively evaluate biomass
resources in the western states, biofuel conversion
technologies, spatial analysis and supply curve development,
and deployment scenarios and potential policy interactions.
transfuels/index.html

The Western Governors Association Transportation Fuels for

the Future Initiative provides seven working group reports
and a final report analyzing the potential for the development
of alternative fuels and vehicle fuel efficiency in the West.

ND, SD, NE, KS, AK, HI)
Biomass Task Force Report focuses on the use of biomass

resources for the production of electricity as part of an
overall effort of the Western Governors Association to
increase the contribution of clean and renewable energy in
the region.
cdeac/Biomass-full.pdf
4.5 References
Bioenergy Interagency Working Group,
2006. Bioenergy Action Plan for California CEC-600-2006-010,

California Energy Commission, Sacramento, CA, 2006.
www.energy.ca.gov/bioenergy_action_plan/.
EIA, 2006. Model Documentation: Renewable Fuels
Module of the National Energy Modeling System. Office

of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting. DOE/EIAM069. U.S. DOE, Washington, DC, March 2006. http://
tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/modeldoc/m069(2006).
pdf.
EIA,
2008. Net Summer Capacity of Plants Cofiring

Biomass and Coal. Energy Information Administration, July 2008. www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/trends/table9.html.
Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer
Services, 2008. Matthew D. Curran, Ph.D. Bureau of

Petroleum Inspection. EPA Region 4 Biofuels Conference, November 18, 2008.
Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer
Services, 2007. Florida Farm to Fuel. Tallahassee, FL,

2007. www.floridafarmtofuel.com/.
65
Milbrandt,
U.S. DOE,
U.S. DOE (Department of Energy).
Western Governors Association and U.S. DOE,
2005. Milbrandt, A. A Geographic Perspective on the Current Biomass Resource Availability

in the United States. NREL, Golden, CO, December
2005. NREL/TP-560-39181. www.nrel.gov/docs/
fy06osti/39181.pdf.
2008. Facility Heating with Biomass. Scott Haase.

National Renewable Energy Laboratory. GovEnergy
2008, August 5, 2008. www.govenergy.com/2008/pdfs/
renewables/HaaseRenewables4.pdf.
Biomass Feedstocks. Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, U.S. DOE, Washington, DC. www1.eere.energy.
gov/biomass/biomass_feedstocks.html.
66
2004. Combined Heat and Power Market

Potential for Opportunity Fuels. Prepared by Resource
Dynamics Corporation for U.S. DOE, Washington,
DC, August 2004. www.eere.energy.gov/de/pdfs/
chp_opportunityfuels.pdf.
2007.
Opportunities for and Benefits of Combined Heat and
Power at Wastewater Treatment Facilities. U.S. EPA,
Washington, DC, April 2007. www.epa.gov/chp/documents/wwtf_opportunities.pdf.
2009.
Western Renewable Energy Zones project. Washington, DC, 2009. www.westgov.org/wga/initiatives/wrez/
index.htm.
Chapter FIVE
Options for
States to Advance
Bioenergy Goals
Document Map
States interested in promoting

bioenergy can take active roles
in removing financial, policy,
regulatory, technology, and
informational barriers hindering
Chapter One
Introduction
Chapter Two
What Is Bioenergy?
Chapter Three
Chapter Four
Chapter Five
development of biomass projects.

As diverse as these approaches
Chapter Five Contents
are, they are all aimed at reducing
5.1 Favorable Policy Development
investor risk in order to increase
5.2 Favorable Regulatory Development

5.3 Environmental Revenue Streams
the likelihood of bioenergy projects
5.4 Direct Investment/Financing and Incentives
moving forward to completion.
5.5 Research, Development, and Demonstration

5.6 Information Sharing
Bioenergy developers often need to raise capital to

cover significant project expenses, such as construction
costs, the cost of equipment, installation fees, and any
costs incurred during the regulatory and permitting
process. The terms under which investors and lenders
provide this capitalshould they agree to provide any
at allcan significantly impact the cost of producing
bioenergy, and therefore its competitiveness with other
energy sources. All else constant, the greater the investors and lenders perception of risks related to a particular project, the greater the cost of capital. States can
help reduce the cost of financing for many bioenergy
developers by enacting policies and other measures
that reduce lending and investment risks.
5.8 References
Chapter Five | State Bioenergy Primer
67
States can promote bioenergy by facilitating:

Favorable
policy development
Favorable
regulatory development
Environmental
Direct
revenue streams
investment/financing
Incentives
Research,
development, and demonstration
Information
sharing
Although not a comprehensive list, these options have

been implemented in many states and provide numerous lessons.
The following sections provide details on how states
can implement each of these options to promote investment in bioenergy.
5.1 Favorable Policy

Development
Many states have promoted bioenergy by seeking to
create new or expanded markets for biopower, biofuels,
or bioproducts. Enacting policies that encourage or require use of bioenergy does not necessarily financially
support development, but does provide certainty for
producers that a market will exist for their products,
which in turn reduces investor risk.
State policies that require use of renewable energy, such
as RPS and renewable fuels standards, have proven
to stimulate growth in renewable energy markets and
reduce investor risk by ensuring each year that a given
amount of electricity or motor fuel is supplied from
renewable sources, including biomass.
Typical state policies that create markets for bioenergyincluding detailed information about program
benefits, design elements, interactions with state and
federal programs, implementation and evaluation, and
case studiesare discussed in EPAs Clean Energy-Environment Guide to Action at www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/
energy-programs/state-and-local/state-best-practices.
html. Best practices in design and implementation have
a significant impact on policy effectiveness.
Several policy options that states can implement to
remove barriers to bioenergy development are presented below. Although not a comprehensive list, these
68
State Bioenergy Primer | Chapter Five
options have been implemented in many states and

provide numerous lessons.
State Lead by Example Initiatives.
State and local

governments are implementing a range of programs
and policies that advance clean energy, including bioenergy within their own facilities, fleets, and operations.
These lead by example (LBE) initiatives help state and
local governments achieve energy cost savings while
promoting adoption of clean energy technologies by the
public and private sectors. States are leveraging their
purchasing power, control of significant energy-using
resources, and high visibility of their public facilities to
demonstrate clean energy technologies and approaches
that lower their energy costs and reduce emissions.
State LBE initiatives that can support development of
bioenergy include:
Purchasing
and using renewable energy and clean

energy generation in public facilities.
Implementing
green fleet programs that require

state vehicles to use biomass-based renewable fuels.
Implementing
procurement rules that require state

agencies to purchase biomass-based products.
For more information, see EPAs Clean Energy Lead

by Example Guide at www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/documents/epa_lbe.pdf.
Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS).
An RPS requires utilities and other retail electricity providers to

supply a specified minimum percentage (or absolute
amount) of customer load with eligible sources of
renewable electricity. These laws create a new market
for renewable energy and DG projects by outlining
the specific minimum amount or percentage of clean
energy that must be produced by a specified date (e.g.,
25 percent of in-state electricity production must come
from renewable resources by January 1, 2050). As of
November 2008, 35 states, including the District of Columbia, have adopted RPS laws or goals. All state RPSs
include bioenergy as an eligible resource.
Fostering Voluntary Green Power Markets.
Voluntary
green power programs are a relatively small but growing market that provides electricity customers the opportunity to make environmental choices about their
electricity consumption. Green power can be offered in
both vertically integrated (i.e., regulated) and competitive (i.e., deregulated) retail markets as bundled renewable energy that consumers can purchase voluntarily,
either through green pricing programs or green power

marketing. States can play key roles in shaping green
power markets:
For
regulated markets, states can play important

roles in increasing voluntary participation rates in
green pricing programs by requiring utilities to offer them to consumers as an option and/or conduct
outreach, education, or marketing campaigns about
green pricing programs to consumers.
Under
deregulated markets, states can mandate

green power marketers access to electricity customers, which would otherwise involve high transaction
costs to the marketers.
In addition to fostering green power programs, states

can ensure that they complement other policies already
in place, such as public benefits funds (PBFs) or RPSs.
Green power programs have existed for approximately
10 years and have contributed to development of
more than 2,200 megawatts (MW) of new renewable
capacity. Biomass has been the second most popular
resource, after wind, to serve renewable demand.
Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS). U.S. EPA, under
EISA, is responsible for revising and implementing

regulations to ensure that a certain percentage of transportation fuel be renewable. The federal Renewable Fuel
Standard program will increase the volume of renewable
fuel required to be blended into gasoline from 9 billion
gallons in 2008 to 36 billion gallons by 2022.4 States
may also enact their own RFSs in addition to the federal
program. As of August 2008, 12 states had an RFS in
place (Pew Center on Global Climate Change, 2008).
per unit of fuel energy sold). By 2020 the standard

would reduce the carbon intensity of Californias passenger vehicle fuels by at least 10 percent and reduce
GHG emissions from the transportation sector by
about 16 million metric tons (almost 10 percent of the
total GHG emission reductions needed to achieve the
States mandate of reducing GHG emissions to 1990
levels by 2020). The proposed standard is designed to
be compatible with market-based compliance mechanisms (U.S. EPA, 2008b and California Environmental
Protection Agency, 2009).
For more information on Californias pending LCFS,
see www.energy.ca.gov/low_carbon_fuel_standard/.
High Tipping Fees.
The availability of urban wood

residues is largely governed by the size of tipping fees.
Where such fees are high (partly due to the lack of land
for landfills), recycling is often higher. Also, high tipping fees provide economic incentives to utilize these
resources (U.S. DOE, 2005).
5.2 Favorable Regulatory

Development
In some circumstances, bioenergy developers will
experience time delays as they go through the process
of obtaining required utility interconnection, environmental compliance, and construction permits. The
prospect of significant time delays for some projects
can contribute to investor risk. States can help reduce
this risk by streamlining and standardizing regulatory
and permitting processes for bioenergy producers.
Low Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS). An LCFS for trans-
In 2007, the Governor of California signed an executive order directing the states Secretary of Environmental Protection to coordinate the development of
an LCFS, which will be the first and only in the United
States. The California Air Resources Board released a
draft of the standard in March 2009, which if implemented would start in 2011 and require fuel providers
to ensure that the mix of fuel they sell into the California market meets, on average, a declining standard for
GHG emissions (measured in CO2-equivalent grams
4 The new RFS program regulations are being developed in collaboration
with refiners, renewable fuel producers, and many other stakeholders (see
www.epa.gov/oms/renewablefuels/index.htm).
Bioenergy One Stop Shops

The Georgia Center for Innovation in Agribusiness is working to
promote production and use of renewable energy and biofuels
in Georgia by conducting One Stop Shops that bring together
prescreened businesses and representatives from more than
20 state and federal agencies. These working meetings give
companies the opportunity to present and discuss ideas for
bioenergy projects and obtain the permitting and contact
information they need to get their ideas off the ground. The
center aims to help businesses through the permitting process
in 90 days while creating networks connecting business,
industry, research, and government. To date, 14 One Stop Shop
meetings have been conducted, with 85 companies presenting
ideas. As a result of these meetings, 23 bioenergy projects have
been launched or planned for implementation by 2015.
Example
portation fuels is a policy to encourage utilization of

low-carbon fuels (measured on a full life-cycle basis) to
reduce GHG emissions from the transportation sector.
For more information, visit

http://energy.georgiainnovation.org/services.
69
EPAs Environmental Technology Verification program provides emissions verification for various
technologies, including biomass cofiring and other
new clean energy technologies. Use of emissions data
from verification studies can help speed the permitting process for new facilities.
Visit www.epa.gov/etv/ to see what verification reports are available.
For biofuels producers and distributors, one step that
states can take is to adopt ASTM standards for blending.
There is no federal requirement in this area, so states
have often had different standards. A more consistent
market allowing preblended fuels to be sold across
states could reduce distribution costs (Schultz, 2008).
Example
State Grant Programs: Pennsylvania Energy

Development Authority
Several states provide funding and financial incentives, such
as grants, loans, and loan guarantees, to drive investment in
renewable energy, including bioenergy. These offerings are not
only stimulating the nations renewable energy markets, but are
helping to reduce air and water pollution, promote economic
development and job creation, and improve energy security.
Pennsylvania is among the states now offering grant funding
for bioenergy research and production.
Every year, the Pennsylvania Energy Development Authority
(PEDA) competitively awards millions of dollars in grants to
help finance clean, advanced energy projects. Energy projects
eligible to receive funding include biomass, wind, solar, fuel
cells, and other energy sources. For-profit businesses, local
governments, and nonprofit organizations, as well as businesses
interested in locating their advanced energy operations in
Pennsylvania, have been invited to apply for funding in the
past. Applications to receive funding are evaluated based
on numerous factors, such as a projects cost-effectiveness,
technical feasibility, and economic and environmental benefits.
The extent to which the project promotes use and development
of the states indigenous energy resources, such as biomass,
and improves energy diversity and security are also considered
in the evaluation process.
From 2004 to 2007, Pennsylvania awarded $6 million in grants
to 13 different bioenergy projects. Among the recipients of
funding were a school district using biomass to heat school
buildings, several biodiesel producers, a major university
conducting applied research, and several LFG energy projects.
To learn more about the grant program, visit PEDAs Web
site at www.depweb.state.pa.us/enintech/cwp/view.
asp?a=1415&q=504241.
Source: DSIRE
70
5.3 Environmental
Revenue Streams
Bioenergy has a number of potential environmental
benefits over other forms of energy, which in some
cases can be monetized (for more information on these
potential benefits, see Chapter 3, Benefits and Challenges of Bioenergy). States can offer environmental revenue
streams (ERS), such as renewable energy certificates
(RECs) or emission allowance guarantees that reward
biomass technologies for their environmental attributes.
Some states, for example, allow renewable energy producers to participate in the emissions allowance market
for NOx. The sale of these allowances can provide bioenergy producers with an additional source of revenue.
Further, if CO2 is regulated through a cap-and-trade
system, biopower and other bioenergy sources might
obtain cash flow through the associated carbon market.
These additional sources of revenue can significantly
reduce risk for potential lenders and improve potential
investment returns.
For more information on environmental revenue
streams, see EPAs CHP Partnership paper Environmental Revenue Streams for Combined Heat and Power at
www.epa.gov/chp/documents/ers_program_details.pdf.
CO2 Offsets: Environmental Revenue Streams for
Bioenergy Projects
Separate from CO2 cap-and-trade programs, several states
regulate CO2 emissions from particular sources. To help
regulated sources comply cost effectively, these states allow sale
of CO2 emission offset credits. Projects that reduce CO2 or other
GHG emissions at one location generate CO2 credits that can
be sold to offset emissions at another location. In states such as
Massachusetts, Oregon, and Washington, biomass CHP projects
can be used to create offsets.
5.4 Direct Investment/

Financing and Incentives
States can substantially reduce investor risk by providing
funding and financial incentives for bioenergy production. These offerings increase the likelihood of a market
for bioenergy by reducing energy costsand, therefore,
the competitiveness of bioenergy with other energy
sourcesand improving returns for potential investors.
For more information, see www.nrel.gov/applying_technologies/scepa.html.

For municipal projectsincluding municipal use of
urban wood waste and methane capture and use at
municipal landfills and wastewater treatment plants
municipal bonds, bank loans, and/or lease purchase
agreements may be available.
Public Benefit Funds (PBFs).
PBFs, also known as

system benefits charges (SBC) or clean energy funds,
are typically created by levying a small fee or surcharge
on electricity rates paid by customers (e.g., for renewable energy PBFs, this fee is approximately 0.01 to 0.10
mills per kWh). To date, PBFs have been used primarily to fund energy efficiency and low-income assistance
programs; more recently they have supported clean
energy supply (i.e., renewable energy, including bioenergy, and CHP).
For more information about PBF benefits, design elements, interaction with state and federal programs,
implementation and evaluation, and case studies, see
EPAs Clean Energy-Environment Guide to Action at
www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-programs/state-andlocal/state-best-practices.html.
Financial Incentives.
Financial incentives, including

tax incentives, grants, and loans, can play a key role
in reducing investor risks and promoting bioenergy
development.
State
tax incentives for renewable energy can take

the form of personal or corporate income tax credits,
tax reductions or exemptions, and tax deductions
(e.g., for construction programs). Tax incentives aim
to spur innovation by the private sector. State tax
incentives for renewable energy are a fairly common
policy tool. While state tax incentives tend to be
The state of Oregon has developed a suite of financial

incentives to promote the use of biomass for bioenergy
production. Two of these include:
Business Energy Tax Credit. Offers a 50 percent tax credit
on eligible project costs up to $20 million for a variety of
projects, including two categories that may apply to biomass
projectshigh efficiency combined heat and power (CHP) and
renewable energy generation. The credit can be taken as 10
percent annually over five years, or a project owner can transfer
the credit to a pass-through partner in return for a lump sum
payment at the completion of the project. For more information,
visit: www.oregon.gov/ENERGY/CONS/BUS/BETC.shtml.
Energy Trust of Oregon Grants. Charged by the Oregon Public
Utility Commission with investing in cost-effective energy
conservation, renewable energy resources, and energy market
transformation in Oregon, the Energy Trust offers millions
of dollars annually in grants for innovative commercial
applications of renewable energy technology. Incentive
levels are based on a projects above-market costs. For more
information, visit: www.energytrust.org/grants/up/index.html.
Biofuel Tax Incentives in Indiana

The state of Indiana has developed a comprehensive set of
incentives to promote biofuels within its borders. Between
2005 and 2009, $16 million in tax incentives were used to
kick-start the ethanol industryresulting in 10 new ethanol
production facilities in the state along with several biodiesel
plants to make soybean-based fuel. These incentives target
different aspects of biofuel production and distribution, and
include tax credits for:
Example
Some common state approaches to providing incentives include:
Incentives for Biomass in Oregon
Example
Numerous states offer direct incentives to bioenergy

project developers in various forms; more incentives
are available for biopower production than for biofuels
(see Tables 5-1 and 5-2). Low interest rate loans, bond
programs, rebates, grants, production incentives, and
tax incentives (deductions, exemptions, and credits)
are among the different types of incentives states have
made available for bioenergy production. The effectiveness of incentive programs varies greatly, as tracked by
NRELs State Clean Energy Policies Analysis Project.
Ethanol production. Ethanol producers are entitled to a credit
of $0.125 per gallon of ethanol produced, including cellulosic

ethanol. The maximum credit that may be claimed by a single
producer depends on the volume of grain ethanol produced.
Ethanol retail. E85 retailers are allowed to deduct $0.18 from
the required state gross retail tax for every gallon of E85 sold
during reporting periods ending before July 1, 2020.
Biodiesel production. Biodiesel producers are entitled to a
credit of $1.00 per gallon of biodiesel produced. The total

amount of credits granted to a single taxpayer may not
exceed $3 million for all taxable years, but may be increased
to $5 million with prior approval by the Indiana Economic
Development Corporation.*
Biodiesel blending. Biodiesel blenders are entitled to a credit
of $0.02 per gallon of blended biodiesel produced at a facility

located in Indiana. The total amount of credits granted to a
single taxpayer may not exceed $3 million for all taxable years.*
Biodiesel retail. Through December 31, 2010, a taxpayer that
is a fuel retailer and distributes blended biodiesel for retail

purposes is entitled to a credit of $0.01 per gallon of blended
biodiesel distributed.*
*This tax credit is contingent on funding, which as of July 2009
was not available.
Source: U.S. DOE, 2009
71
Table 5-1. Summary of State Financial Incentives for Biomass Technologies
INCENTIVE TYPE
NUMBER OF
INCENTIVES
AVAILABLE
STATES OFFERING INCENTIVES
State Grant Program
25
Alabama, Alaska, Connecticut (x2), Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa,
Maine, Massachusetts (x2), Michigan (x3), New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania (x2),
Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont, Wisconsin
State Loan Program
28
Alabama, Alaska, California, Connecticut, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa (x2), Maine, Massachusetts,
Minnesota (x3), Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New York (x2), North
Carolina, Oklahoma (x2), Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont
Property Tax Exemption
21
Arizona, Colorado, Connecticut, Iowa, Kansas, Maryland, Michigan, Montana (x3), Nevada (x3),
New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Texas, Vermont
Sales Tax Exemption
10
Georgia, Idaho, Kentucky, Maryland, New Mexico, Ohio, Utah, Vermont, Washington, Wyoming
Corporate Tax Credit
13
Florida, Georgia, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, Montana, New Mexico, North Carolina,
North Dakota, Oregon, South Carolina, Utah
Production Incentive
California, Connecticut, Minnesota, New York, North Carolina, South Carolina, Vermont, Washington
Personal Tax Credit
Iowa, Maryland, Montana (x2), New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oregon, Utah
Personal Deduction
Alabama, Arizona, Idaho, Massachusetts
State Rebate Program
New Jersey, Wisconsin
Industry Recruitment
14
Colorado, Connecticut, Hawaii, Illinois, Massachusetts (x2), Michigan (x2), Montana (x2), New
Mexico, Oregon, Wisconsin (x2)
Corporate Tax Exemption
Ohio
Corporate Deduction
Massachusetts
Excise Tax Incentive
Iowa
State Bond Program
Idaho, New Mexico
TOTAL INCENTIVES
139
Source: DSIRE, January 26, 2009
smaller than federal incentives, they are often additive and can become significant considerations when
making purchase and investment decisions.
Grants, buy-downs, and generation incentives
support development of energy efficiency and clean

generation technologies. For renewable energy, state
grants cover a broad range of activities and frequently
address issues beyond system installation costs.
To stimulate market activity, state grants can cover
research and development, business and infrastructure development, system demonstration, feasibility
72
studies, and system rebates. In contrast to incentives

that help finance initial capital costs (e.g., rebates
and state sales tax exemptions), states also provide
generation incentives on the basis of actual electricity
generated. In their most straightforward form, generation incentives are paid on a kilowatt-hour basis.
State
loan programs provide low-interest loans to

promote development of clean energy. One common
approach is a revolving loan fund. This type of fund
is designed to be self-supporting. States create a pool
of capital when the program is launched. This capital
Table 5-2. Summary of State Incentives for Alternative Fuels/Alternative-Fuel Vehicles
INCENTIVE TYPE
NUMBER OF
INCENTIVES
AVAILABLE
STATES OFFERING INCENTIVES
State Grant Program
42
Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut (x2), Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois (x3),
Indiana (x3), Iowa (x3), Louisiana, Michigan (x2) Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North
Carolina (x3), Ohio (x3), Pennsylvania (x2), Tennessee (x3), Texas (x4), Utah, Virginia, Washington
State Loan Program
16
California, Iowa (x3), Maine, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma (x2), Oregon, Rhode
Island, Tennessee, Utah, Virginia, Washington
Property Tax Exemption
Montana
State Bond Program

Exemption
North Carolina
Production Incentive
15
California, Colorado, Florida, Hawaii, Kansas, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri (x2), Montana (x2),
North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Tennessee
Retail Incentive
South Carolina
Use Incentive
Indiana
Excise Tax Incentive
Arkansas, California, Georgia, North Dakota
Rebate
Illinois, Michigan, New Jersey (x2)
Tax Credit
60
Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Indiana (x6), Iowa (x4), Kansas (x2), Kentucky (x4),
Louisiana, Maine (x2), Maryland (x2), Michigan (x2), Missouri, Montana (x3), Nebraska, New Mexico
(x2), New York (x2), North Carolina (x4), North Dakota (x3), Ohio, Oklahoma (x3), Oregon (x3),
Pennsylvania, South Carolina (x5), South Dakota, Vermont, Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming
Tax Deduction
Idaho, Washington
Tax Exemption
25
Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida (x2), Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois (x2), Indiana, Louisiana,
Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Carolina (x2), North Dakota,
Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, Texas, Washington (x2), Wisconsin
Tax Reduction
11
Alaska, Arizona, Hawaii, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, New York,
South Dakota
Tax Refund
Kentucky, Montana, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Wisconsin
TOTAL INCENTIVES
188
Source: U.S. DOE, 2008
then revolves over a multiyear period, as payments

from borrowers are returned to the pool and lent
anew to other borrowers. Revolving loan funds can
be created from several sources, including PBFs, utility program funds, state general revenues, or federal
programs. Loan funds are typically created by state
legislatures and administered by state energy offices.
Biofuels Incentives.
Many states have incentives to

help promote development of biofuels. These incentives can include exemptions from state gasoline excise
taxes, direct production payments, state RFSs, and
price supports. A current list of state ethanol incentives
can be found on the RFA Web site at www.ethanolrfa.
org/policy/actions/state/.
73
5.5 Research, Development,

and Demonstration
Lack of confidence in the less common biomass
conversion technologies, such as gasification,
generally will discourage lending and investment in
bioenergy. Research, development, and demonstration
projects will help not only to advance the capabilities
of emerging technologies, but will increase investor
confidence and therefore facilitate bioenergy developers access to capital.
Example
Floridas Renewable Energy and Energy-Efficient

Technologies Grants Program
Since 2006, Floridas Renewable Energy and Energy-Efficient
Technologies Grants Program has provided more than $27
million in matching grants to support a variety of renewable
energy projects. Nonprofit organizations, as well as Florida
municipalities and county governments, state agencies, forprofit businesses, universities and colleges, and utilities, are
eligible to receive funding. Numerous bioenergy projects have
benefited from the program in recent years.
One of these projects includes a field demonstration of a
power, refrigeration, heat, and a fresh water plant that is
capable of running on a variety of biomass-derived fuels
including crop and forest wastes, energy crops, and municipal
wastes, in addition to hydrogen and conventional fuels.
Located at the University of Florida Energy Research Park,
the plant uses the universitys patented PoWER technology
and is designed to provide essentials such as fresh water,
refrigeration, and electricity even during grid outages that can
occur due to hurricanes and other emergencies.
To learn more about the program, as well as the renewable
energy projects that have received funding under this program,
visit www.floridaenergy.org/energy/energyact/grants.htm.
Sources: DSIRE
5.6 Information Sharing

Potential lenders and investors will not necessarily be
aware of the financial incentives offered in each state
for bioenergy development. States can facilitate financing of bioenergy projects by providing information
about financing sources. This information will help
developers, investors, and lenders take advantage of
revenue streams as well as any federal and municipal
financing options.
In addition, states can develop their own outreach programs that educate consumers, potential markets, and
74
regulators about the benefits of bioenergy and how it

will meet state goals. Additional options are described
in Section 5.7Resources for Detailed Information.
Some examples of outreach efforts that can be used by
states include:
Wood
Stove Changeout Campaign. U.S. EPA offers

resources to assist states and local governments with
successful implementation of a Wood Stove Changeout Campaign, including how to identify potential
partners, identify sources of funding, develop a
project plan, implement the campaign, and measure
success. States provide information and incentives
(e.g., rebates or discounts) to encourage residents to
replace their old, conventional wood stoves with EPAcertified wood-burning appliances that burn more
cleanly and efficiently. See www.epa.gov/woodstoves/
how-to-guide.html.
Southern
Forest Research Partnership materials. The

Southern Forest Research Partnership offers numerous
publications, presentations, links, images, case studies,
activities, videos, and other educational tools that can
be used to share woody biomass information with natural resource management and extension professionals
as well as community planning and development
professionals. The Sustainable Forestry for Bioenergy
and Bio-based Products Training Curriculum Notebook
is a comprehensive training resource, which includes
a trainers introduction, seven modules, fact sheets, a
glossary, evaluation resources, example activities, and
a supplemental materials list. See www.forestbioenergy.
net/training-materials.
It
All Adds Up To Cleaner Air Resources Toolkit.

While not explicitly designed for bioenergy, this U.S.
Department of Transportation step-by-step guide to
implementing a public outreach program provides
many tips that would be appropriate for any outreach
campaign. See http://www.italladdsup.gov/tools/
how_to.asp.
5.6.1 National Biomass State and
Regional Partnerships
States can also participate in regional partnerships
to share best practices. U.S. DOEs Biomass Program
works with the National Biomass State and Regional
Partnerships, listed below. Each organization provides
leadership in its region with regard to policies and
technical issues to advance the use of biomass. Contact
information is provided on the program Web sites.
Great Lakes Regional Biomass Energy Program

(Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio,
Wisconsin) www.cglg.org/biomass
Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas,

Virginia, West Virginia, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands) www.sseb.org/
Northeast Regional Biomass Energy Program

(Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont) www.nrbp.org/
Southeast Regional Biomass Energy Program

(Alabama, Arkansas, D.C., Florida, Georgia, Kentucky,
Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina,
Puerto Rico, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virgin Islands,
Virginia, West Virginia) www.serbep.org/
Pacific Regional Biomass Energy Program

(Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Oregon, Montana, Washington) www.pacificbiomass.org
Southern State Energy Board
(Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky,
Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri, North
Western Regional Energy Program

(Arizona, California, Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska,
Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South
Dakota, Texas, Utah, Wyoming) www.westgov.org/
wga/initiatives/biomass/

Resource
Description
URL
Capturing the Full Potential of

Bioenergy: A Model for Regional
Bioenergy Initiatives, GEN
Publishing, Inc., 2007.
Advances a step-by-step approach for advancing bioenergy.
www.liebertonline.com/doi/
abs/10.1089/ind.2007.3.120
Clean Energy-Environment
Guide to Action: Policies, Best
Practices, and Action Steps for
States, U.S. EPA, 2006.
This Web site and guide present 16 policies that states use to
advance clean energy.
www.epa.gov/cleanrgy/
stateandlocal/guidetoaction.htm
Clean Energy Lead by Example

Guide, U.S. EPA, 2009.
Describes proven strategies, resources, and tools to help

states save money and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by
adopting clean energy practices in their facilities, operations,
and vehicle fleets.
www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/
documents/epa_lbe.pdf
Database of State Incentives for

Renewable Energy (DSIRE).
Searchable database of incentives relevant to bioenergy, by

state. Select a renewable energy search, by technology, for
biomass, CHP, and/or landfill gas. The database is updated
routinely.
www.dsireusa.org/
State Policies for Promoting the

Next Generation of Biomass
Technologies, Great Plains
Institute, November 22, 2006.
Summarizes recommendations on state policies to advance

biomass.
www.ef.org/documents/BWG_
State_Policy_Menu_Final_v3.pdf
State Incentives and Resources

Search, U.S. DOE.
This Web page includes state energy information for

biomass, other renewable energy, and fossil energy.
www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/
about/state_activities/incentive_
search.asp
Bioenergy
75

Resource
Description
URL
Developing State Policies

Supportive of Bioenergy
Development, Southern States
Energy Board, 2002.
Analyzes policy options to advance bioenergy, based on

regional experiences in the Southeast.
www.osti.gov/bridge/
servlets/purl/828971-Pbx12e/
native/828971.pdf
Environment and Energy Study

Institute (EESI).
This Web site includes information on bioenergy and federal

and state incentives.
www.eesi.org/Sustainable_
Biomass_Energy_Program
It All Adds Up to Cleaner

Air Resources Toolkit, U.S.
Department of Transportation.
While not explicitly designed for bioenergy, this step-by-step

guide to implementing a public outreach program provides
many tips that would be appropriate to any outreach
campaign.
www.italladdsup.gov/tools/
how_to.asp
Southern Forest Research

Partnership.
Offers numerous publications, presentations, links, images,

case studies, activities, videos, and other educational tools
that can be used to share woody biomass information with
natural resource management and extension professionals as
well as community planning and development professionals.
www.forestbioenergy.net/
training-materials
State Woody Biomass Utilization

Policies, University of Minnesota,
Department of Forest Resources,
Staff Paper 199. Becker, D.R., and
C. Lee. 2008.
A comprehensive database of woody biomass legislation for

each state in the United States.
Staffpaper199.pdf
A voluntary market for renewable energy certificates exists,

and some kinds of biopower generation are eligible for
Green-e certification. Eligible sources must go through the
certification process to be able to sell certified products.
www.green-e.org/docs/
Appendix_D-Green-e_National_
Standard.pdf
State Energy Program.
This collaboration of DOE and the states provides joint

funding for state formula grant projects and local energy
efficiency and renewable energy projects.
state_energy_program/
State Technologies
Advancement Collaborative
Program, U.S. DOE, National
Association of State Energy
Officials, Association of State
Energy Research and Technology
Transfer Institutions.
This collaboration provides funding for state energy

www.stacenergy.org
Alternative Fuels Data Center:

All State Incentives and Laws,
U.S. DOE, NREL.
The data center is a comprehensive clearinghouse of data,

publications, tools, and information related to advanced
transportation technologies.
methodology.html
Funding Database Biomass/

Biogas, U.S. EPA.
This database of financial and regulatory incentives at the

state level is updated monthly.
www.epa.gov/chp/funding/bio.
html
Understanding and Informing

the Policy Environment:
State-Level Renewable Fuels
Standards, NREL, January 2007.
Summary and analysis of state actions on renewable fuels

standards.
www.nrel.gov/docs/
fy07osti/41075.pdf
Biopower/Bioheat
Green-e Certification Process.
and www.green-e.org/getcert_
re_6steps.shtml#rec
76

Resource
Funding Landfill Gas Energy
Projects: State, Federal, and
Foundation Resources, U.S. EPA.
Description
URL
This guide from the Landfill Methane Outreach Program

details potential sources of funding for landfill gas projects.
www.epa.gov/lmop/res/guide/
index.htm
Arkansas
State-Specific Financing Information
http://arkansasenergy.org/solarwind-bioenergy/bioenergy.aspx
Florida
www.floridafarmtofuel.com/
Downloads/FTF%20Grant%20
Agreement%20Contract%20
092507.pdf
Michigan
http://michigan.gov/documents/
cis/CIS_EO_Funding_
Opportunities_192768_7.pdf
Montana
www.deq.state.mt.us/Energy/
bioenergy/Biodiesel_Production_
Educ_Presentations/Combined_
Biodiesel_Ethanol_Govt_
Incentives_Montana_Jan07_
bshh.pdf
Washington
http://agr.wa.gov/Bioenergy/
State Examples
5.8 References
California Environmental Protection Agency,
2009.
Proposed Regulation to Implement the Low Carbon
Fuel Standard (Vol. 1). Sacramento, CA, March 5,
2009. www.arb.ca.gov/fuels/lcfs/lcfs.htm.
DSIRE (Database of State Incentives for Renewables
& Efficiency). North Carolina Solar Center, Raleigh,

NC. www.dsireusa.org.
Pew Center on Global Climate Change,
2008. Mandates and Incentives Promoting Biofuels. Pew Center

on Global Climate Change, Arlington, Virginia, August
5, 2008. http://pewclimate.org/what_s_being_done/
in_the_states/map_ethanol.cfm.
2008. Alternative Fuels Data Center. Washington, DC, December

29, 2008. http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/incentives_laws.html.
U.S. DOE,
2009. Alternative Fuels and Advanced

Vehicles Data Center. Washington, DC, 2009. www.
indystar.com/article/20081116/BUSINESS/811160391;
www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/progs/view_all.php/IN/0;
www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/progs/ind_state.php/IN/
E85; www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/progs/ind_state.php/
IN/BD.
2008a.
Environmental Revenue Streams for Combined Heat
and Power. Combined Heat and Power Partnership.
U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, December 2008. www.epa.
gov/chp/documents/ers_program_details.pdf.
U.S. EPA,
2008b. State and Regional Climate Policy

Maps. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, May, 2008. http://
epa.gov/climatechange/wycd/stateandlocalgov/
state_actionslist.html.
77
78
Appendix A
Resources and Tools for States

The resources for detailed information that are included at the end of each chapter are also compiled here
to serve as a comprehensive snapshot of key reports,
tools, and guidance documents.
Appendix A Contents
A.1 Biomass Feedstocks and Conversion
Technologies
A.2 Benefits of Bioenergy (Environmental,
Economic, Energy)
A.3 Assessing Potential Markets for Biomass
A.4 Tools to Help Estimate Economic, Energy,
and/or Environmental Benefits
A.5 Financing Bioenergy Projects
Appendix A | State Bioenergy Primer
79
A.1 Biomass Feedstocks and Conversion Technologies

Resource
Description
URL
Woody Biomass Utilization, U.S.

Forest Service and Bureau of Land
Management.
This U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management

Web site provides links to a variety of resources and reports
on woody biomass utilization, including tools and references
specifically targeted at state governments.
Woody_Biomass/index.shtml
BioWeb, Sun Grant Initiative.
An online catalog of a broad range of resources on

bioenergy, including descriptions of biomass resources,
biofuels, and bioproducts; explanations of conversion
technologies; and summaries of relevant policies. The
resources are searchable by both topic and level of detail of
information provided. The catalog is a product of the Sun
Grant Initiative, a national network of land-grant universities
and federally funded laboratories working together to
further establish a bio-based economy.
http://bioweb.sungrant.org/
Biomass as Feedstock for a

Bioenergy and Bioproducts
Industry: The Technical
Feasibility of a Billion-Ton
Annual Supply, U.S. DOE, USDA,
2005.
Describes issues associated with reaching the goal of 1

billion tons of annual biomass production (see especially pp.
3437).
www.osti.gov/bridge
Biomass Energy Data Book, U.S.

DOE, September 2006.
Provides a compilation of biomass-related statistical data.
http://cta.ornl.gov/bedb/index.
shtml

and Property Database, U.S. DOE.
Provides results on chemical composition and physical

properties from analyses of more than 150 samples of
potential bioenergy feedstocks, including corn stover; wheat
straw, bagasse, switchgrass, and other grasses; and poplars
A Geographic Perspective on
Milbrandt, A., 2005.
Describes the availability of the various types of biomass on a

county-by-county basis.
www.nrel.gov/docs/
fy06osti/39181.pdf
Kent and Riegels Handbook

of Industrial Chemistry and
Biotechnology, Kent, 2007.
Detailed, comprehensive, fairly technical explanation of the

range of biomass conversion technologies.
Bioenergy
Biopower/Bioheat
80
Biomass Combined Heat and

Power Catalog of Technologies,
U.S. EPA, September 2007.
Detailed technology characterization of biomass CHP

systems, including technical and economic characterization
of biomass resources, biomass preparation, energy
conversion technologies, power production systems, and
complete integrated systems. Includes extensive discussion
of biomass feedstocks.
www.epa.gov/chp/documents/
biomass_chp_catalog.pdf
Combined Heat and Power

Market Potential for Opportunity
Fuels, U.S. DOE, Resource
Dynamics Corporation, August
2004.
Determines the best opportunity fuels for distributed

energy sources and CHP applications.
www.eere.energy.gov/de/pdfs/
chp_opportunityfuels.pdf
State Bioenergy Primer | Appendix A
A.1 Biomass Feedstocks and Conversion Technologies (cont.)

Resource
Description
URL
Bioenergy Conversion
Technology Characteristics,
September 2008.
Investigates the biofuel conversion technologies that are

currently available, as well as technologies currently under
development that are developed enough to be potentially
available on a commercial basis circa 2015.
A National Laboratory Market

and Technology Assessment of
the 30x30 Scenario, NREL, March
2007.
Draft assessment of the market drivers and technology needs

to achieve the goal of supplying 30 percent of 2004 motor
gasoline fuel demand with biofuels by 2030.
From Biomass to BioFuels: NREL

Leads the Way, NREL, August
2006.
Provides an overview of the world of biofuels, including the

maturity levels of various biofuels, how they are produced,
and the U.S. potential for biofuels.
pdfs/39436.pdf
Research Advances Cellulosic

Ethanol: NREL Leads the Way,
NREL, March 2007.
Highlights some of NRELs most recent advances in cellulosic

ethanol production.
pdfs/40742.pdf
transfuels/Task%202.pdf
81
A.2 Benefits of Bioenergy (Environmental, Economic, Energy)

Resource
Description
URL
Economic Impacts of Bioenergy

Production and Use, U.S. DOE,
SSEB Southeast Biomass State and
Regional Partnership, October
2005.
Summarizes the benefits of bioenergy production in the U.S.,

including job creation, reduced demand for fossil fuels, and
expanded tax bases.
www.vienergy.org/Economics.pdf
State Energy Alternatives

Web Site, U.S. DOE, National
Conference of State Legislatures.
Provides information on state-specific biomass resources,

policies, and status as well as current biofuels and biopower
technology information.
states/
An Assessment of Biomass
Harvesting Guidelines, Evans and
Perschel, Forest Guild, 2009.
Presents an assessment of existing biomass harvesting

guidelines and provides recommendations for the
development of future guidelines.
www.forestguild.org/
publications/research/2009/
biomass_guidelines.pdf
Planning for Disaster Debris, U.S.

EPA, 2008.
Provides information and examples for developing a disaster

debris plan that will help a community identify options for
collecting, recycling, and disposing of debris in the event of a
natural disaster.
www.epa.gov/osw/conserve/rrr/
imr/cdm/pubs/disaster.htm
Biomass Power and

Conventional Fossil Systems
with and without CO2
SequestrationComparing the
Energy Balance, Greenhouse
Gas Emissions, and Economics,
NREL, January 2004.
Provides a comparative analysis of a number of different

biopower, natural gas, and coal technologies.
www.nrel.gov/docs/
fy04osti/32575.pdf
Economic Impacts Resulting

from Co-Firing Biomass
Feedstocks in Southeastern
U.S. Coal-Fired Power Plants,
Presentation by Burton English et
al., University of Tennessee.
Summarizes the economic impacts in eight southeastern

states from using biomass to co-fire power plants that
traditionally have only used coal for fuel.
www.farmfoundation.org/
projects/documents/englishcofire.pptprojects/documents/
english-cofire.ppt
Green Power Equivalency

Calculator, U.S. EPA.
Allows any bioenergy user to communicate to internal and

external audiences the environmental impact of purchasing
or directly using green power in place of fossil fuel derived
energy by calculating the avoided carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions. Results can be converted into an equivalent
number of passenger cars, gallons of gasoline, barrels of oil,
or American households electricity use.
www.epa.gov/grnpower/pubs/
calculator.htm
Job Jolt: The Economic Impacts

of Repowering the Midwest:
The Clean Energy Development
Plan for the Heartland, Regional
Economics Applications
Laboratory, November 2002.
Analyzes the economic and job creation benefits of

implementing a clean energy plan in the 10-state Midwest
region.
www.michigan.gov/
documents/nwlb/Job_Jolt_
RepoweringMidwest_235553_7.
pdf
Bioenergy
Biopower/Bioheat
82
A.2 Benefits of Bioenergy (Environmental, Economic, Energy) (cont.)

Resource
Description
URL
Alternative Fueling Station
Locator, U.S. DOE.
Allows users to find alternative fuels stations near a specific

location on a route, obtain counts of alternative fuels stations
by state, view U.S. maps, and more. The following alternative
fuels are included in the mapping application: compressed
natural gas, E85, propane/liquefied petroleum gas, biodiesel,
electricity, hydrogen, and liquefied natural gas.
geographic.html
Biomass Energy Data Book,

ORNL, September 2008.
Describes a meta-analysis of energy balance analyses for

ethanol, revealing the sources of differences among the
different studies.
http://cta.ornl.gov/bedb/pdf/
Biomass_Energy_Data_Book.pdf
Changing the Climate: Ethanol

Industry Outlook 2008, Renewable
Fuels Association (RFA), 2008.
Forecasts that 4 billion gallons of ethanol production capacity

will come on line from 68 biorefineries being constructed in
2008 and beyond, increasing the 2007 figure by nearly 50%.
www.ethanolrfa.org/objects/pdf/
outlook/RFA_Outlook_2008.pdf
Contribution of the Ethanol

Industry to the Economy of the
United States, RFA, 2007.
Finds that the industry spent $12.5 billion on raw materials,

other inputs, and goods and services to produce about 6.5
billion gallons of ethanol in 2007. An additional $1.6 billion
was spent to transport grain and other inputs to production
facilities; ethanol from the plant to terminals where it is
blended with gasoline; and co-products to end-users.
documents/576/economic_
contribution_2006.pdf
Economic and Agricultural

Impacts of Ethanol and Biodiesel
Expansion, University of
Tennessee, 2006.
Finds that producing 60 billion gallons of ethanol and 1.6

billion gallons of biodiesel from renewable resources by 2030
would likely result in development of a new industrial complex
with nearly 35 million acres planted dedicated to energy crops.
http://beag.ag.utk.edu/pp/
Ethanolagimpacts.pdf
Ethanol and the Local

Community, RFA, 2002.
Summarizes possible effects of ethanol production on local

economic development.
documents/120/ethanol_local_
community.pdf
Greener Fuels, Greener Vehicles:

A State Resource Guide, National
Governors Association, 2008.
Discusses alternative transportation fuels and vehicle

technologies.
www.nga.org/Files/
pdf/0802GREENERFUELS.PDF
Greenhouse Gas Impacts of

Expanded Renewable and
Alternative Fuels Use, U.S. EPA,
April 2007.
Provides a summary of GHG emissions from a variety of

advanced fuel options.
www.epa.gov/oms/
renewablefuels/420f07035.htm
New Analysis Shows Oil-Savings

Potential of Ethanol Biofuels,
National Resources Defense
Council (NRDC), 2006.
Describes NRDCs meta-analysis of energy balance papers

and its standardized methods.
www.nrdc.org/media/
pressreleases/060209a.asp
A Rebuttal to Ethanol Fuels:

Energy, Economics and
Environmental Impacts, National
Corn Growers Association, 2002.
Refutes the contention in a previous article that more energy

goes into producing ethanol than ethanol itself can actually
provide, creating a negative energy balance.
www.ethanolrfa.org/
objects/documents/84/
ethanolffuelsrebuttal.pdf

Program, U.S. EPA.
Describes efforts undertaken by U.S. EPA toward a National

Renewable Fuels Standard under requirements of the Energy
Policy Act of 2005. While these requirements are superseded
by more recent legislation, links from this page provide
useful background. In particular, the discussion of estimated
costs summarizes the expected incremental costs of policies
advancing ethanol.
www.epa.gov/oms/
renewablefuels/
83

Resource
84
Description
URL
Regulatory Impact Analysis:

Program, U.S. EPA, 2007.
Examines proposed standards that would implement a

renewable fuel program as required by the Energy Policy Act
of 2005. It notes, however, that renewable fuel use is forecast
to exceed the standards due to market forces anyway.
www.epa.gov/OMS/
renewablefuels/420r07004sections.htm

on Biodiesel, U.S. EPA, October
2006.
Describes how biodiesel is made, its benefits versus

vegetable oil, performance, availability, affordability, and
other characteristics.
factsheet-biodiesel.htm

on E85 and Flex Fuel Vehicles,
U.S. EPA, October 2006.
Describes E85-fuel and flex-fuel vehicles, including their

affordability and benefits.
factsheet-e85.htm
State-Level Workshops on
Ethanol for Transportation: Final
Report.
Summarizes a series of DOE-sponsored, state-level

workshops exploring and encouraging construction of
ethanol plants.
www.nrel.gov/docs/
fy04osti/35212.pdf
TransAtlas Interactive
Alternative Fuel Map, U.S. DOE.
Provides user-friendly Google Maps to display the locations

of existing and planned alternative fueling stations,
concentrations of different vehicle types, alternative fuel
production facilities, roads, and political boundaries.
geographic.html
Analysis of Potential Causes of

Consumer Food Price Inflation,
RFA, 2007.
Asserts that the marketing bill, not increased ethanol

production, is responsible for rising food prices.
www.ethanolrfa.org/resource/
facts/food/documents/Informa_
Renew_Fuels_Study_Dec_2007.
pdf
Ethanol Juggernaut Diverts

Corn from Food to Fuel, Raloff,
Janet, Science News, 2007.
Makes the case that ethanol is driving up food prices.
www.sciencenews.org/view/
generic/id/8179/title/Food_for_
Thought__Ethanol_Juggernaut_
Diverts_Corn_from_Food_to_
Fuel
Food versus Fuel in the United

States, Institute for Agriculture
and Trade Policy, 2007.
Finds that biofuel production is not diverting food from

tables in the U.S. or abroad.
www.iatp.org/iatp/publications.
cfm?accountID=258&refID=
100001
U.S. Corn Growers: Producing

Food and Fuel, National Corn
Growers Association, 2006.
Provides the corn growers perspective that producing food

and fuel from corn is working out well, without undue impact
on food prices.
www.ncga.com/files/pdf/
FoodandFuelPaper10-08.pdf
Aggressive Use of Bioderived

Products and Materials in the
U.S. by 2010, A.D. Little, Inc., 2001.
The presentation and report summarize near-term

opportunities to dramatically increase the use of biomass to
make nonfuel products.
www.p2pays.org/ref/40/39031.
pdf
Industrial Bioproducts: Today

and Tomorrow, U.S. DOE, July
2003.
The report finds that a bioindustry could harness the energy

and molecular building blocks of biomass (crops, trees,
grasses, crop residues, forest residues, animal waste, and
municipal solid waste) to create products now manufactured
from petroleum, making us far less dependent on fossil fuels.
www.brdisolutions.com/pdfs/
BioProductsOpportunitiesReportFinal.
pdf
Preliminary Screening Technical

and Economic Assessment
of Synthesis Gas to Fuels and
Chemicals with Emphasis on the
Potential for Biomass-Derived
Syngas, NREL, 2003.
Summarizes opportunities for biomass to be used to

manufacture a variety of products beyond fuels alone.
www.nrel.gov/docs/
fy04osti/34929.pdf

Resource
Description
URL
Environmental Life Cycle

Implications of Fuel Oxygenate
Production from California
Biomass Technical Report,
NREL, 1999.
Looks at the costs and benefits of biomass-derived ethanol,

ETBE, and E10 as fuel oxygenates across their life cycles.
www-erd.llnl.gov/
FuelsoftheFuture/pdf_files/
lifecyclecalif.pdf
Quantifying Cradle-to-Farm
Gate Life-Cycle Impacts
Associated with Fertilizer used
for Corn, Soybean, and Stover
Production, NREL, May 2005.
Documents the costs, such as eutrophication, and benefits of

nitrate and phosphate fertilizers used in production of three
crops.
pdfs/37500.pdf
Life Cycle Analysis of Ethanol

from Corn Stover, NREL, 2002.
This comprehensive accounting of ethanols flows to and

from the environment focuses on ethanol produced from
corn stover
www.nrel.gov/docs/gen/
fy02/31792.pdf
Life Cycle Inventory of Biodiesel

and Petroleum Diesel for Use
in an Urban Bus: Final Report,
NREL, 1998.
Examines the relative costs and benefits of using biodiesel

versus petroleum diesel in an urban bus.
www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/
fy98/24089.pdf

Biodiesel versus Petroleum
Diesel Fuel, Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers, 1996.
The proceedings of the 31st Intersociety Energy Conversion

Engineering Conference, held August 1116, 1996, in
Washington, DC.

Biomass-Derived Refinery
Feedstocks for Reducing CO2,
NREL, 1997.
Discusses the two processes for producing 1,4-butanediol.

The first process is the conventional hydrocarbon feedstockbased approach, utilizing methane to produce formaldehyde,
and acetylene with synthesis under conditions of heat and
pressure. The second is a biomass-based feedstock approach
where glucose derived from corn is fermented.
Not available online

Biomass Cofiring in a Coal-Fired
Power Plant, NREL, 2001.
Reports on a cradle-to-grave analysis of all processes

necessary for the operation of a coal-fired power plant that
co-fires wood residue, including raw material extraction, feed
preparation, transportation, and waste disposal and recycling.
Understanding Land Use

Change and U.S. Ethanol
Expansion, RFA, November 2008.
Discusses historical agricultural land use and crop utilization

trends, explores the role of increased productivity, looks at
the contributions of ethanol feed co-products, and examines
global agricultural land use projections obtained from
Informa Economics.
documents/2041/final_land_
use_1110_w_execsumm.pdf
National Biofuels Action

Plan, Biomass Research and
Development Board, October
2008.
Outlines areas where cooperation between federal agencies

will help to evolve bio-based fuel production technologies
into competitive solutions for meeting U.S. fuel demands.
Seven key areas for action are identified: feedstock
production; feedstock logistics; conversion of feedstock to
fuel; distribution; end Use; sustainability; and Environment,
Health, and Safety.
pdfs/nbap.pdf
85
a.3 Assessing Potential Markets for Biomass

Resource
Description
URL
Bioenergy
86
Biomass Resource Assessment

Tool, U.S. EPA and NREL.
Online mapping tool that takes various biomass resource

datasets and maps them, allowing user queries and
analysis. For example, users can select a point on the map
and determine the quantity of feedstock within a certain
radius, and the quantity of energy that could potentially be
produced from that biomass.
http://rpm.nrel.gov/biopower/
biopower/launch
Coordinated Resource Offering

Protocol (CROP) Evaluations,
U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of
Land Management.
Provides the results of ten CROP evaluations that have been

conducted for over 30 million acres of public forestlands
potentially vulnerable to wildfires. The evaluations contain
detailed resource-offering maps that illustrate the growing
fuel load problem within major forest systems and quantify
Woody_Biomass/supply/CROP/
index.shtml
USFS Forest Inventory Data

Online (FIDO).
Provides access to the National Forest Inventory and Analysis

databases. It can be used to generate tables and maps of
forest statistics (including tree biomass) by running standard
reports for specific states or counties and survey year, or
customized reports based on criteria selected by the user.
http://fiatools.fs.fed.us/fido/index.
html
Biomass Feedstocks, U.S. DOE.
U.S. DOE Biomass Program Web site
biomass_feedstocks.html
Dynamic Maps, GIS Data, and

Analysis Tools, NREL.
Provides county-levelbiomass resource maps. The feedstock

categories include crop residues, forest residues, primary
mill residues, secondary mill residues, urban wood waste,
methane emissions from landfills, methane emissions from
manure management, methane emissions from wastewater
treatment plants, and dedicated energy crops. The maps
are derived from data contained in a report, Geographic
Perspective on the Current Biomass Resource Availability in
the United States (described below). Note that these maps
present technical biomass resource data. The economic
biomass resource availability will most likely be somewhat
less than what is presented in the maps.
www.nrel.gov/gis/biomass.html
Geographic Perspective on
NREL, 2006.
Provides the basis for the maps and data presented in

NRELs Dynamic Maps, GIS Data, and Analysis Tools Web site
described above. The report provides a geographic analysis
of biomass resource potential at the county level, and can
give state officials a sense of the major biomass resources
available within their state and their technical potential
relative to other states.
www.nrel.gov/docs/
fy06osti/39181.pdf

Resources (SABRE), U.S. DOE.

index.php
A.3 Assessing Potential Markets for Biomass (cont.)

Resource
Description
URL
State Woody Biomass

Utilization Policies,
University of Minnesota,
Department of Forest
Resources, Staff Paper 199. Becker,
D.R., and C. Lee. 2008.
Documents information on state policies to facilitate

comparison of the types of approaches used in certain
areas, policy structures and incentives employed, program
administration, and relationships to complementary local and
federal actions.
Staffpaper199.pdf
Initial Market Assessment for

Small-Scale Biomass-Based CHP.
National Renewable Energy
Laboratory, NREL, January 2008.
Examines the energy generation market opportunities

for biomass CHP applications smaller than 20 MW. Using
relevant literature and expert opinion, the paper provides
an overview of the benefits of and challenges for biomass
CHP in terms of policy and economic drivers, and identifies
primary characteristics of potential markets.
www.nrel.gov/docs/
fy08osti/42046.pdf
Green Power Marketing in the

United States: A Status Report,
NREL.
Documents green power marketing activities and trends in

voluntary markets in the United States.
http://apps3.eere.energy.
gov/greenpower/resources/
pdfs/38994.pdf
U.S. EPA's Landfill Methane

Outreach Program (LMOP).
Promotes the use of landfill gas as a renewable, green energy

source. Its Web site contains general information, tools, and
links to databases containing specific landfill data.
www.epa.gov/lmop/
U.S. EPAs Landfill Methane

Outreach Program (LMOP)
Landfill Database.
Provides a nationwide listing of operational and underconstruction LFG energy projects; candidate municipal solid
waste landfills having LFG energy potential; and information
on additional landfills that could represent LFG energy
opportunities. The database can be accessed as a series
of downloadable Excel spreadsheets, which are updated
and posted to the Web site each month. The information
contained in the LMOP database is compiled from a variety
of sources, including annual voluntary submissions by LMOP
partners and industry publications.
www.epa.gov/lmop/proj/index.
htm
Landfill Gas Energy Project

Development Handbook, U.S.
EPA Landfill Methane Outreach
Program.
Provides landfill gas energy project development guidance,

with individual chapters on the basics of landfill gas energy,
gas modeling, technology options, economic analysis and
financing, contract and permitting considerations, and
selection of project partners.
www.epa.gov/lmop/res/
handbook.htm
Market Opportunities for Biogas

Recovery Systems, U.S. EPA
AgStar.
Assesses the market potential for biogas energy projects at

swine and dairy farms in the United States. For the top ten
swine and dairy states, the guide characterizes the sizes and
types of operations where biogas projects are technically
feasible, along with estimates of potential methane
production, electricity generation, and greenhouse gas
emission reductions.
www.epa.gov/agstar/pdf/
biogas%20recovery%20systems_
screenres.pdf
U.S. EPAs Combined Heat and

Power (CHP) Partnership.
Promotes the use of biomass-fueled CHP and the use of

biogas at wastewater treatment facilities.
www.epa.gov/chp
Biopower/Bioheat
87

Resource
Description
URL

Resources, U.S. DOE.

and biofuel production capacities. It offers state-bystate snapshots of available feedstocks, data on potential
production capacities, and projections on the future use of
biofuels. The site is particularly useful for states interested in
evaluating resource potential for producing biofuels.
index.php

of Ethanol Plants, U.S. EPA.

programs and federal and state agency roles applicable to the
construction, modification, and operation of ethanol plants.
agriculture/ethanol_plants_
manual.pdf

of Biodiesel Production
Facilities, U.S. EPA.

programs and federal, state, and local agency roles
applicable to designing, building, and operating biodiesel
manufacturing facilities.
agriculture/biodiesel_manual.pdf
California
An Assessment of Biomass Resources in California, 2007,

provides an updated biomass inventory for the state along
with an assessment of potential growth in biomass resources
and power generation that could help to satisfy the state
renewable portfolio standard (RPS).
http://biomass.ucdavis.edu/
materials/reports%20and%20
publications/2008/CBC_Biomass_
Resources_2007.pdf
Georgia
Biomass Wood Resource Assessment on a Countyby-County Basis for the State of Georgia provides a
biomass wood resource assessment on a county-level
basis for Georgia.
www.gfc.state.ga.us/
ForestMarketing/documents/
BiomassWRACountybyCountyGA05.
pdf
Hawaii
Biomass and Bioenergy Resource Assessment: State of

Hawaii provides an assessment of current and potential
biomass and bioenergy resources for the state. Includes
animal wastes, forest products residues, agricultural residues,
and urban wastes.
www.hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/
energy/publications/biomassassessment.pdf
Mississippi
Mississippi Institute for Forest Inventory Dynamic Report

Generator provides a continuous, statewide forest resource
sampling estimation techniques with a presumed precision of
+/- 15% sampling error with 95 percent confidence.
www.mifi.ms.gov/
South Carolina
Potential for Biomass Energy Development in South Carolina

quantifies the amount of forestry and agricultural biomass
available for energy production on a sustainable basis in
South Carolina. Also includes an analysis of the economic
impacts of transferring out-of-state costs for coal to in-state
family forest landowners and biomass processors.
www.scbiomass.org/Publications/
Potential%20Biomass%20
Energy%20in%20SC.pdf
State Examples
88

Resource
Description
URL
Oregon
Biomass Energy and Biofuels from Oregons Forests assesses

the statewide potential for production of electricity and
biofuels from woody biomass, including the available
wood supply and the environmental, energy, forest health,
and economic effects. Reviews and summarizes efforts
underway to promote electric energy and biofuels from
woody biomass, and identifies gaps in existing efforts.
Assesses constraints and challenges to the development of
biomass energy and biofuels from Oregon forests, including
economic, environmental, legal, policy, infrastructure, and
other barriers and develops recommendations on how to
overcome these barriers.
www.oregonforests.org/assets/
uploads/Biomass_Full_Report.pdf
Northeastern states (CT, DE, ME,

MD, MA, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, VT)
Securing a Place for Biomass in the Northeast United States:

A Review of Renewable Energy and Related Policies provides
a biomass feedstock assessment for northeastern states.
www.nrbp.org/pdfs/nrbp_final_
report.pdf

The Western Bioenergy Assessment includes a series of

technical reports produced for the Western Governors
Association. These reports extensively evaluate biomass
resources in the western states, biofuel conversion
technologies, spatial analysis and supply curve development,
and deployment scenarios and potential policy interactions.

The Western Governors Association Transportation Fuels for

the Future Initiative provides seven working group reports
and a final report analyzing the potential for the development
of alternative fuels and vehicle fuel efficiency in the West.

ND, SD, NE, KS, AK, HI)
Biomass Task Force Report focuses on the use of biomass

resources for the production of electricity as part of an overall
effort of the Western Governors Association to increase the
contribution of clean and renewable energy in the region.
cdeac/Biomass-full.pdf
89
A.4 Tools to Help Estimate Economic, Energy, and/or Environmental Benefits

Resource
Description
URL
Tools for Evaluating Benefits
90
AirCRED, Argonne National

Laboratory, August 2007.
This tool is used to support local air emission reductions

claims associated with alternative-fuel vehicles within the
State Implementation Planning process.
modeling_simulation/AirCred/
index.html
Biomass Technology Analysis

Models and Tools.
Web sites of models and tools that demonstrate biomass

technologies and uses, and can be used in life-cycle
assessments. Most tools can be applied on a global, regional,
local, or project basis.
www.nrel.gov/analysis/analysis_
tools_tech_bio.html

and Property Database.
Provides data results from analysis of more than 150 samples

of potential biofuels feedstocks, including corn stover, wheat
straw, bagasse, switchgrass and other grasses, and poplars
CHP Emissions Calculator, U.S.

EPA.
Enables a quick and easy analysis of the criteria air pollutant

and GHG emission reductions from incorporating CHP
designs into plants and production facilities. It also translates
these reductions into cars and trees to convey their value
to a nontechnical audience.
www.epa.gov/chp/basic/
calculator.html
Clean Air Climate Protection

Software, ICLEI and NACAA.
Helps local governments create greenhouse gas inventories,

quantify the benefits of reduction measures, and formulate
local climate action plans.
www.cacpsoftware.org/
Emissions & Generation

Resource Integrated Database
(EGRID), U.S. EPA.
Provides a comprehensive database of electric-sector

emissions at the plant, state, and regional levels. These
can be compared to emissions from biopower to estimate
emissions effects.
www.epa.gov/cleanrgy/egrid/
index.htm
Greenhouse Gases, Regulated

Emissions, and Energy Use in
Transportation (GREET) Model,
Argonne National Laboratory,
August 2007.
Includes full fuel-cycle and vehicle-cycle emissions and

energy estimation capability. While not a full life-cycle
assessment tool, it allows estimation of upstream emissions
and energy effects. For some state policy questions, it may
provide sufficient analytic detail on its own. For decisions
with greater financial implications, it may be most appropriate
to use for initial screening to support development of a more
detailed study. States may wish to use GREET directly or to
consider analyses that have been done using this tool.
modeling_simulation/GREET/
Job and Economic Development

Impact (JEDI) Models.
Easy-to-use, spreadsheet-based tools that analyze the

economic impacts of constructing and operating power
generation and biofuel plants at the local and state levels.
www.nrel.gov/analysis/jedi
Power Profiler, U.S. EPA.
Provides a quick estimate of electricity emissions rates

by location, which could be compared to emissions from
biopower to estimate emissions effects.
www.epa.gov/grnpower/buygp/
powerprofiler.htm
Standard Biomass Analytical

Procedures.
Provides tested and accepted methods for performing

analyses commonly used in biofuels research.
analytical_procedures.html
Theoretical Ethanol Yield

Calculator.
Calculates the theoretical ethanol yield of a particular

biomass feedstock based on its sugar content.
ethanol_yield_calculator.html
Thermodynamic Data for

Biomass Conversion and Waste
Incineration, NREL, National
Bureau of Standards.
Provides heat of combustion and other useful data for

biopower and biofuels research on a wide range of biomass
and non-biomass materials.
pdfs/2839.pdf
A.5 Financing Bioenergy Projects

Resource
Description
URL
Capturing the Full Potential of

Bioenergy: A Model for Regional
Bioenergy Initiatives, GEN
Publishing, Inc., 2007.
Advances a step-by-step approach for advancing bioenergy.
www.liebertonline.com/doi/
abs/10.1089/ind.2007.3.120
Clean Energy-Environment
Guide to Action: Policies, Best
Practices, and Action Steps for
States, U.S. EPA, 2006.
This Web site and guide present 16 policies that states use to
advance clean energy.
www.epa.gov/cleanrgy/
stateandlocal/guidetoaction.htm
Clean Energy Lead by Example

Guide, U.S. EPA, 2009.
Describes proven strategies, resources, and tools to help

states save money and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by
adopting clean energy practices in their facilities, operations,
and vehicle fleets.
www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/
documents/epa_lbe.pdf
Database of State Incentives for

Renewable Energy (DSIRE).
Searchable database of incentives relevant to bioenergy, by

state. Select a renewable energy search, by technology, for
biomass, CHP, and/or landfill gas. The database is updated
routinely.
www.dsireusa.org/
State Policies for Promoting the

Next Generation of Biomass
Technologies, Great Plains
Institute, November 22, 2006.
Summarizes recommendations on state policies to advance

biomass.
www.ef.org/documents/BWG_
State_Policy_Menu_Final_v3.pdf
State Incentives and Resources

Search, U.S. DOE.
This Web page includes state energy information for

biomass, other renewable energy, and fossil energy.
www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/
about/state_activities/incentive_
search.asp
Developing State Policies

Supportive of Bioenergy
Development, Southern States
Energy Board, 2002.
Analyzes policy options to advance bioenergy, based on

regional experiences in the Southeast.
www.osti.gov/bridge/
servlets/purl/828971-Pbx12e/
native/828971.pdf
Environment and Energy Study

Institute (EESI).
This Web site includes information on bioenergy and federal

and state incentives.
www.eesi.org/Sustainable_
Biomass_Energy_Program
It All Adds Up to Cleaner

Air Resources Toolkit, U.S.
Department of Transportation.
While not explicitly designed for bioenergy, this step-by-step

guide to implementing a public outreach program provides
many tips that would be appropriate to any outreach
campaign.
www.italladdsup.gov/tools/
how_to.asp
Southern Forest Research

Partnership.
Offers numerous publications, presentations, links, images,

case studies, activities, videos, and other educational tools
that can be used to share woody biomass information with
natural resource management and extension professionals as
well as community planning and development professionals.
www.forestbioenergy.net/
training-materials
State Woody Biomass Utilization

Policies, University of Minnesota,
Department of Forest Resources,
Staff Paper 199. Becker, D.R., and
C. Lee. 2008.
A comprehensive database of woody biomass legislation for

each state in the United States.
Staffpaper199.pdf
Bioenergy
91
A.5 Financing Bioenergy Projects (cont.)

Resource
Description
URL
Biopower/Bioheat
Green-e Certification Process.
A voluntary market for renewable energy certificates exists,

and some kinds of biopower generation are eligible for
Green-e certification. Eligible sources must go through the
certification process to be able to sell certified products.
www.green-e.org/docs/
Appendix_D-Green-e_National_
Standard.pdf
State Energy Program.
This collaboration of DOE and the states provides joint

funding for state formula grant projects and local energy
state_energy_program/
State Technologies Advancement

Collaborative Program, U.S.
DOE, National Association of
State Energy Officials, Association
of State Energy Research and
Technology Transfer Institutions.
This collaboration provides funding for state energy

www.stacenergy.org
Alternative Fuels Data Center:

All State Incentives and Laws,
U.S. DOE, NREL.
The data center is a comprehensive clearinghouse of data,

publications, tools, and information related to advanced
transportation technologies.
methodology.html
Funding Database Biomass/

Biogas, U.S. EPA.
This database of financial and regulatory incentives at the

state level is updated monthly.
www.epa.gov/chp/funding/bio.
html
Understanding and Informing

the Policy Environment:
State-Level Renewable Fuels
Standards, NREL, January 2007.
Summary and analysis of state actions on renewable fuels

standards.
www.nrel.gov/docs/
fy07osti/41075.pdf
Funding Landfill Gas Energy

Projects: State, Federal, and
Foundation Resources, U.S. EPA.
This guide from the Landfill Methane Outreach Program

details potential sources of funding for landfill gas projects.
www.epa.gov/lmop/res/guide/
index.htm
Arkansas
http://arkansasenergy.org/solarwind-bioenergy/bioenergy.aspx
Florida
www.floridafarmtofuel.com/
Downloads/FTF%20Grant%20
Agreement%20Contract%20
092507.pdf
Michigan
http://michigan.gov/documents/
cis/CIS_EO_Funding_
Opportunities_192768_7.pdf
Montana
www.deq.state.mt.us/Energy/
bioenergy/Biodiesel_Production_
Educ_Presentations/Combined_
Biodiesel_Ethanol_Govt_Incentives_
Montana_Jan07_bshh.pdf
Washington
http://agr.wa.gov/Bioenergy/
and www.green-e.org/getcert_
re_6steps.shtml#rec
State Examples
92
Appendix B
Glossary
biomass:
A
agricultural residue:
Plant parts, primarily stalks and

leaves, not removed from fields with the primary food
or fiber product. Examples include corn stover (stalks,
leaves, husks, and cobs), wheat straw, and rice straw.
algae:
Simple photosynthetic plants containing chlorophyll, often fast growing and able to live in freshwater,
seawater, or damp oils. May be unicellular and microscopic or very large, as in the giant kelps.
anaerobic:
Living or active in an airless environment.
Any plant-derived organic matter. Biomass

available for energy on a sustainable basis includes herbaceous and woody energy crops, agricultural food and
feed crops, agricultural crop wastes and residues, wood
wastes and residues, aquatic plants, and other waste
materials, including some municipal wastes.
biopower:
and heat.
Use of biomass to produce electricity
bioproducts:
Commercial or industrial products

(other than food or feed) that are composed in whole
or significant part of biomass.
anaerobic digestion:
Degradation of organic matter by

microbes in the absence of oxygen to produce methane
and CO2.
B
benzene:
Aromatic component of gasoline that is a

known cancer-causing agent.
biodiesel:
Biodegradable transportation fuel used in

diesel engines. Biodiesel is produced through transesterification of organically derived oils and fats. It may
be used either as a replacement for or component of
diesel fuel.
bioenergy:
Renewable energy produced from biomass.
biofuels:
Fuels for transportation made from biomass

or its derivatives after processing. The major biofuels
include ethanol and biodiesel.
biogas:
Gaseous mixture of CO2 and methane produced by anaerobic digestion of organic matter.
C
carbohydrate:
Organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and having approximately
the formula (CH2O)n; includes cellulosics, starches, and
sugars.
carbon dioxide:
(CO2) Naturally occurring gas, and

also a by-product of burning fossil fuels and biomass,
as well as land use changes and other industrial processes. It is the principal anthropogenic GHG that
affects the earths radiative balance.
carbon monoxide:
(CO) Colorless, odorless, poisonous gas produced by incomplete combustion.
catalyst:
Substance that increases the rate of a chemical

reaction without being consumed or produced by the
reaction. Enzymes are catalysts for many biochemical
reactions.
cellulase:
Family of enzymes that break down cellulose

into glucose molecules.
Appendix B | State Bioenergy Primer
93
cellulose:
Carbohydrate that is the principal constituent of wood and other biomass and forms the structural framework of the wood cells.
chips:
Small fragments of wood chopped or broken by

mechanical equipment. Total tree chips include wood,
bark, and foliage. Pulp chips or clean chips are free of
bark and foliage.
cofiring:
Use of a mixture of two fuels within the same

combustion chamber.
cogeneration:
Technology of producing electric energy

and another form of useful energy (usually thermal) for
industrial, commercial, or domestic heating or cooling
purposes through sequential use of the energy source.
Also called combined heat and power (CHP).
combustion:
Chemical reaction between a fuel and

oxygen that produces heat (and usually light).
coproducts:
Resulting substances and materials that

accompany production of a fuel product such as
ethanol.
corn stover:
is harvested.
Refuse of a corn crop after the grain
criteria pollutants:
Pollutants regulated under the

federal NAAQS, which were established under the
Clean Air Act. Criteria pollutants include CO, lead,
nitrogen dioxide, PM (PM2.5, PM10), ground-level
ozone, and SO2.
D
digester:
Biochemical reactor in which anaerobic bacteria are used to decompose biomass or organic wastes
into methane and CO2.
E
E10:
Mixture of 10 percent ethanol and 90 percent

gasoline based on volume.
E85:
Mixture of 85 percent ethanol and 15 percent

gasoline based on volume.
enzyme:
Protein or protein-based molecule that speeds

up chemical reactions in living things. Enzymes act as
catalysts for a single reaction, converting a specific set
of reactants into specific products.
ester:
Compound formed from the reaction between

an acid and an alcohol.
ethanol:
(CH3CH2OH) A colorless, flammable liquid

produced by fermentation of sugars. Ethanol is used as
a fuel oxygenate. Ethanol is the alcohol found in alcoholic beverages, but is denatured for fuel use.
eutrophic conditions:
In surface waters, conditions

such as significant algae growth and subsequent oxygen depletion, which can be caused by excessive nutrients from fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides. Some
aquatic species cannot survive eutrophic conditions.
F
feedstock:
Any material used as a fuel directly or converted to another form of fuel or energy product.
fermentation:
Biochemical reaction that breaks down

complex organic molecules (such as carbohydrates)
into simpler materials (such as ethanol, CO2, and water). Bacteria or yeasts can ferment sugars to ethanol.
fluidized bed:
Gasifier or combustor design in which

feedstock particles are kept in suspension by a bed of
solids kept in motion by a rising column of gas. The
fluidized bed produces approximately isothermal conditions with high heat transfer between the particles
and gases.
forestry residues:
Includes tops, limbs, and other

woody material not removed in forest harvesting
operations in commercial hardwood and softwood
stands, as well as woody material resulting from forest
management such as precommercial thinnings and
removal of dead and dying trees.
fossil
fuel: Carbon or hydrocarbon fuel formed in

the ground over millions of years from the remains of
dead plants and animals. Oil, natural gas, and coal are
fossil fuels.
effluent:
Liquid or gas discharged after processing activities, usually containing residues from such use. Also
discharge from a chemical reactor.
energy crop:
Crop grown specifically for its fuel value.

These include food crops such as corn and sugar
cane, and nonfood crops such as poplar trees and
switchgrass.
94
State Bioenergy Primer | Appendix B
G
gasification:
Any chemical or heat process used to

convert a feedstock to a gaseous fuel.
greenhouse gas:
Gassuch as water vapor, CO2, tropospheric ozone, methane, and low-level ozonethat
contributes to the greenhouse effect.
H
hemicellulose:
Hemicellulose consists of short, highly

branched chains of sugars. In contrast to cellulose,
which is a polymer of only glucose, a hemicellulose is a
polymer of five different sugars.
herbaceous plants:
Non-woody species of vegetation,

usually of low lignin content, such as grasses.
herbaceous energy crops:
Perennial non-woody crops

that are harvested annually, though they may take
two to three years to reach full productivity. Examples
include switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), reed canary
grass (Phalaris arundinacea), miscanthus (Miscanthus x
giganteus), and giant reed (Arundo donax).
hydrolysis:
Conversion, by reaction with water, of a

complex substance into two or more smaller units,
such as conversion of cellulose into glucose sugar units.
I
K
microorganism:
Any microscopic organism such as

yeast, bacteria, fungi, etc.
municipal solid waste:
Any organic matter, including

sewage, industrial, and commercial wastes, from municipal waste collection systems. Municipal waste does
not include agricultural and wood wastes or residues.
N
net energy balance:
Total amount of energy used over

the full life cycle of a fuel, from feedstock production
to end use.
nitrogen oxides:
(NOX) Product of photochemical

reactions of nitric oxide in ambient air, and the major
component of photochemical smog.
nonrenewable resource:
One that cannot be

replaced as it is used. Although fossil fuels, such as
coal and oil, are in fact fossilized biomass resources,
they form at such a slow rate that, in practice, they
are nonrenewable.
L
landfill gas:
Biogas produced from natural degradation of organic material in landfills. By volume, LFG
is about 50 percent methane and 50 percent CO2 and
water vapor.
life-cycle analysis:
Assessment of the impacts

from all stages of a products development, from
extraction of fuel for power to production, marketing,
use, and disposal.
lignin:
Structural constituent of wood and other native

plant material that encrusts the cell walls and cements
the cells together.
lignocellulose:
Plant materials made up primarily of

lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose.
M
methane:
(CH4) The major component of natural gas.

It can be formed by anaerobic digestion of biomass or
gasification of coal or biomass.
methanol (wood alcohol):
(CH3OH) Alcohol
formed by catalytically combining carbon monoxide
with hydrogen in a 1:2 ratio under high temperature
and pressure.
O
opportunity fuels:
Biomass feedstocks derived from

waste materials that would otherwise go unused or
would be disposed of. Bioenergy production provides
an opportunity to productively use these materials.
oxygenate:
Compound that contains oxygen in its

molecular structure. Ethanol and biodiesel act as oxygenates when they are blended with conventional fuels.
Oxygenated fuel improves combustion efficiency and
reduces tailpipe emissions of CO.
P
particulates:
Fine liquid or solid particle, such as dust,

smoke, mist, fumes, or smog, found in air or emissions.
petroleum:
Any substance composed of a complex

blend of hydrocarbons derived from crude oil, including motor fuel, jet oil, lubricants, petroleum solvents,
and used oil.
pyrolysis:
Breaking apart of complex molecules by

heating in the absence of oxygen, producing solid,
liquid, and gaseous fuels.
Appendix B | State Bioenergy Primer
95
renewable energy resource:
Energy resources that can

be replaced as they are used, including solar, wind, geothermal, hydro, and biomass. MSW is also considered a
renewable energy resource.
residues,
biomass: By-products from processing

all forms of biomass that have significant energy
potential. For example, making solid wood products
and pulp from logs produces bark, shavings, sawdust,
and spent pulping liquors. Because these residues are
already collected at the point of processing, they can
be convenient and relatively inexpensive sources of
biomass for energy.
S
silviculture:
human use.
Science and practice of growing trees for
stover:
Dried stalks and leaves of a crop remaining

after the grain has been harvested.
syngas:
Synthesis gas produced by the gasification

process using biomass feedstock. Syngas can be burned
in a boiler or engine to produce electricity or heat, and
can be used to produce a liquid for biofuels production.
T
tar:
Liquid product of thermal processing of carbonaceous materials.
thermochemical conversion:
Use of heat to change

substances chemically to produce energy products.
transesterification:
Chemical process that reacts an

alcohol with triglycerides contained in vegetable oils
and animal fats to produce biodiesel and glycerin.
U
V
volatile:
Solid or liquid material that easily vaporizes.
W
X
xylose:
(C5H10O5) Five-carbon sugar that is a product

of hydrolysis of xylan found in the hemicellulose fraction of biomass.
96
State Bioenergy Primer | Appendix B
zero net contribution: Refers to a process that results
in contribution of no additional carbon emissions to the

atmosphere. For example, combustion of biomass feedstocks returns the same amount of CO2 to the atmosphere that was absorbed during growth of the biomass,
resulting in no additional CO2 released into the air.
Source: Adapted from National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Glossary of Biomass Terms, www.nrel.gov/biomass/glossary.html

Office of Atmospheric Programs
Climate Protection Partnerships Division
1200 Pennsylvania Ave, NW (6202J)
Washington, DC 20460
www.epa.gov
EPA 430-R-09-024
NREL/TP-6A2-44688
September 2009

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State

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Executive Summary ____________________________________________________ 1

How the Primer Is Organized_ ____________________________________________________ 5

What Are Biomass Feedstocks?____________________________________________________ 8

Potential for Increased Production and Use of Biomass Feedstocks_____________________ 11

How Are Biomass Feedstocks Converted into Bioenergy?_____________________________ 12

Resources for Detailed Information_ ______________________________________________ 21

Benefits, Challenges, and Considerations of Bioenergy_ _____________________ 25

Energy Security Benefits_ _______________________________________________________ 26

Environmental Benefits, Challenges, and Considerations_ ____________________________ 29

Feedstock Supply Challenges_ ___________________________________________________ 35

Infrastructure Challenges_ ______________________________________________________ 37

Resources for Detailed Information_ ______________________________________________ 39

How Can States Identify Bioenergy Opportunities?__________________________ 47

Step 1: Determine Availability of Biomass Feedstocks_ _______________________________ 48

Step 3: Identify Opportunities for Action___________________________________________ 59

Resources for Detailed Information_ ______________________________________________ 62

Options for States to Advance Bioenergy Goals_____________________________ 67

Favorable Policy Development ___________________________________________________ 68

Favorable Regulatory Development_______________________________________________ 69

Environmental Revenue Streams _________________________________________________ 70

Direct Investment/Financing and Incentives _ ______________________________________ 70

Research, Development, and Demonstration_ ______________________________________ 74

Resources for Detailed Information_ ______________________________________________ 75

Resources and Tools for States_ _________________________________________ 79

| State Bioenergy Primer

Paul Argyropoulos, Dale Aspy, Allison Dennis,

National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)

- Ann Brennan, Scott Haase, Victoria Putsche, John

U.S. Forest Service -

Marcia Patton-Mallory and Larry

The following individuals authored this report:

Danielle Sass Byrnett, Denise Mulholland, and

Elizabeth Doris, Anelia Milbrandt, Robi

State Bioenergy Primer |

Key Acronyms and Abbreviations

American Council on Renewable Energy

Job and Economic Development Impact model

100 percent biodiesel

A blend of 20 percent biodiesel and 80 percent

Low carbon fuel standard

A blend of 90 percent biodiesel and 10 percent

Biomass Crop Assistance Program

EPAs Landfill Methane Outreach Program

Biomass Commodity Exchange

Lost revenue adjustment mechanisms

Bio-Energy Recovery Systems

Maximum available control technologies

Municipal solid waste

British thermal units

Combined heat and power

Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement

National Ambient Air Quality Standards

Compressed natural gas

National Association of Clean Air Agencies

Coordinated Resource Offering Protocol

National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air

DOEs National Renewable Energy Laboratory

U.S. Department of Energy

New Source Performance Standards

U.S. Department of Transportation

DOEs Oak Ridge National Laboratory