Electronic Elements

In circuit theory, a filter is an electrical network that alters the amplitude and/or
phase characteristics of a signal with respect to frequency. Ideally, a filter will not add
new frequencies to the input signal, nor will it change the component frequencies of
that signal, but it will change the relative amplitudes of the various frequency
components and/or their phase relationships. Filters are often used in electronic
systems to emphasize signals in certain frequency ranges and reject signals in other
frequency ranges.In signal processing, a filter is a device or process that removes from
a signal some unwanted component or feature. Filtering is a class of signal processing,
the defining feature of filters being the complete or partial suppression of some aspect
of the signal. Most often, this means removing some frequencies and not others in
order to suppress interfering signals and reduce background noise. However, filters do
not exclusively act in the frequency domain; especially in the field of image
processing many other targets for filtering exist. The drawback of filtering is the loss of
information associated with it.
As an example, consider a situation where a useful signal at frequency f1 has been
contaminated with an unwanted signal at f2. If the contaminated signal is passed
through a circuit (Figure below) that has very low gain at f2 compared to f1, the
undesired signal can be removed, and the useful signal will remain. Note that in the
case of this simple example, we are not concerned with the gain of the filter at any
frequency other than f1 and f2. As long as f2 is sufficiently attenuated relative to f1,
the performance
of this filter will be satisfactory. In general, however, a filter's gain may be specified at
several different frequencies, or over a band of frequencies.

Electronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions,
specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance
wanted ones, or both. Electronic filters can be:

passive or active
analog or digital
High-pass, low-pass, bandpass, band-reject (band reject; notch), or all-pass.
discrete-time (sampled) or continuous-time
linear or non-linear
infinite impulse response (IIR type) or finite impulse response (FIR type)

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Terminology
Some terms used to describe and classify linear filters: The frequency response can be
classified into a number of different bandforms describing which frequencies the filter
passes (the passband) and which it rejects (the stopband):
Low-pass filter low frequencies are passed, high frequencies are attenuated.
High-pass filter high frequencies are passed, low frequencies are attenuated.
Band-pass filters only frequencies in a frequency band are passed.
Band-stop filter or band-reject filters only frequencies in a frequency band are
attenuated.
Notch filter rejects just one specific frequency - an extreme band-stop filter.
Comb filter has multiple regularly spaced narrow passbands giving the bandform
the appearance of a comb.
All-pass filter all frequencies are passed, but the phase of the output is modified.
Cutoff frequency is the frequency beyond which the filter will not pass signals. It
is usually measured at a specific attenuation such as 3dB.
Roll-off is the rate at which attenuation increases beyond the cut-off frequency.
Transition band, the (usually narrow) band of frequencies between a passband
and stopband.
Ripple is the variation of the filters insertion loss in the passband. The order of a
filter is the degree of the approximating polynomial and in passive filters
corresponds to the number of elements required to build it. Increasing order
increases roll-off and brings the filter closer to the ideal response.

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Low-pass filter
A low-pass
filter is
an electronic
filter that
passes
lowfrequency signals but attenuates (reduces the amplitude of) signals with frequencies
higher than the cutoff frequency. The actual amount of attenuation for each frequency
varies from filter to filter. It is sometimes called a high-cut filter, or treble cut
filter when used in audio applications. A low-pass filter is the opposite of a high-pass
filter. A band-pass filter is a combination of a low-pass and a high-pass.
Low-pass filters exist in many different forms, including electronic circuits (such as
a hiss filter used in audio), anti-aliasing filters for conditioning signals prior to analogto-digital conversion, digital filters for smoothing sets of data, acoustic barriers,
blurring of images, and so on. The moving average operation used in fields such as
finance is a particular kind of low-pass filter, and can be analyzed with the
same signal processing techniques as are used for other low-pass filters. Low-pass
filters provide a smoother form of a signal, removing the short-term fluctuations, and
leaving the longer-term trend.
An optical filter could correctly be called low-pass, but conventionally is described as
"longpass" (low frequency is long wavelength), to avoid confusion.
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Examples of low-pass filters
Acoustic
A stiff physical barrier tends to reflect higher sound frequencies, and so acts as a lowpass filter for transmitting sound. When music is playing in another room, the low
notes are easily heard, while the high notes are attenuated.
Electronic
In an electronic low-pass RC filter for voltage signals, high frequencies contained in
the input signal are attenuated but the filter has little attenuation below its cutoff
frequency which is determined by its RC time constant.
For current signals, a similar circuit using a resistor and capacitor in parallel works in
a similar manner.
Electronic low-pass filters are used to drive subwoofers and other types
of loudspeakers, to block high pitches that they can't efficiently broadcast.
Radio transmitters use low-pass filters to block harmonic emissions which might
cause interference with other communications.
The tone knob found on many electric guitars is a low-pass filter used to reduce the
amount of treble in the sound.
Telephone lines fitted with DSL splitters use low-pass and high-pass filters to
separate DSL and POTS signals sharing the same pair of wires.
Low-pass filters also play a significant role in the sculpting of sound for electronic
music as created by analogue synthesisers.

High-pass filter
A high-pass
filter (HPF)
is
a
device
that
passes
high frequencies and attenuates (i.e., reduces the amplitude of) frequencies
lower than its cutoff frequency. A high-pass filter is usually modeled as a linear
time-invariant system. It is sometimes called a low-cut filter or bass-cut
filter.
High-pass filters have many uses, such as blocking DC from circuitry sensitive
to non-zero average voltages or RF devices. They can also be used in
conjunction with a low-pass filter to make a bandpass filter. The actual
amount of attenuation for each frequency is a design parameter of the filter.
They are used as part of an audio crossover to direct high frequencies to
a tweeter while attenuating bass signals which could interfere with, or damage,
the speaker.
Applications
Rumble filters are high-pass filters applied to the removal of unwanted
sounds near to the lower end of the audible range or below. For example,
noises (e.g., footsteps, or motor noises from record players and tape decks)
may be removed because they are undesired or may overload the RIAA
equalization circuit of the preamp.
High-pass filters are also used for AC coupling at the inputs of many audio
amplifiers, for preventing the amplification of DC currents which may harm
the amplifier, rob the amplifier of headroom, and generate waste heat at
the loudspeakers voice coil.

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Mixing consoles often include high-pass filtering at each channel strip.

High-pass and low-pass filters are also used in digital image processing to
perform image modifications, enhancements, noise reduction, etc., using
designs done in either the spatial domainor the frequency domain.
A high-pass filter, if the imaging software does not have one, can be done by
duplicating the layer, putting a gaussian blur, inverting, and then blending
with the original layer using opacity (say 50%) with the original layer.
The unsharp masking, or sharpening, operation used in image editing
software is a high-boost filter, a generalization of high-pass.

Band-pass filter
A band-pass filter is a
rejects
(attenuates)
an analogue electronic
capacitor circuit). These
a high-pass filter.

device that passes frequencies within a certain range and

frequencies
outside
that
range.
An
example
of
band-pass filter is an RLC circuit (a resistorinductor
filters can also be created by combining a low-pass filter with

Bandpass is an adjective that describes a type of filter or filtering process; it is

frequently confused with passband, which refers to the actual portion of affected
spectrum.
An ideal bandpass filter would have a completely flat passband (e.g. with no
gain/attenuation throughout) and would completely attenuate all frequencies outside
the passband. Additionally, the transition out of the passband would be instantaneous
in frequency. In practice, no bandpass filter is ideal. The filter does not attenuate all
frequencies outside the desired frequency range completely; in particular, there is a
region just outside the intended passband where frequencies are attenuated, but not
rejected. This is known as the filter roll-off, and it is usually expressed in dB of
attenuation per octave or decade of frequency. Generally, the design of a filter seeks to
make the roll-off as narrow as possible, thus allowing the filter to perform as close as
possible to its intended design. Often, this is achieved at the expense of pass-band or
stop-band ripple. The bandwidth of the filter is simply the difference between the
upper and lower cutoff frequencies. Outside of electronics and signal processing, one
example of the use of band-pass filters is in the atmospheric sciences. It is common to
band-pass filter recent meteorological data with a period range of, for example, 3 to 10
days, so that only cyclones remain as fluctuations in the data fields.
In neuroscience, visual
cortical simple
cells were
first
shown
by David
Hubel and Torsten Wiesel to have response properties that resemble Gabor filters,
which are band-pass.
Optical bandpass filters are generally used to achieve a wavelength region with high
transmission, with adjacent regions of attenuation.

Band-stop filter
In signal processing, a band-stop filter or band-rejection filter is a filter that passes
most frequencies unaltered, but attenuates those in a specific range to very low levels.
It is the opposite of a band-pass filter. A notch filter is a band-stop filter with a
narrow stopband (high Q factor).
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Narrow notch filters (optical) are used in Raman spectroscopy, live sound reproduction
(public address systems, or PA systems) and in instrument amplifiers (especially
amplifiers
or preamplifiers for
acoustic
instruments
such
as
acoustic
guitar, mandolin, bass instrument amplifier, etc.) to reduce or prevent audio feedback,
while having little noticeable effect on the rest of the frequency spectrum
(electronic or software filters). Other names include 'band limit filter', 'T-notch filter',
'band-elimination filter', and 'band-reject filter'.
Typically, the width of the stopband is less than 1 to 2 decades (that is, the highest
frequency attenuated is less than 10 to 100 times the lowest frequency attenuated). In
the audio band, a notch filter uses high and low frequencies that may be
only semitones apart.

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GAIN
In electronics, gain is a measure of the ability of a circuit (often an amplifier) to
increase the power or amplitude of a signal from the input to the output. It is
usually defined as the mean ratio of the signal output of a system to the signal
input of the same system. It may also be defined on a logarithmic scale, in
terms of the decimal logarithm of the same ratio ("dB gain"). A gain greater
than one (zero dB), that is, amplification, is the defining property of an active
component or circuit, while a passive circuit will have a gain of less than one.
Thus, the term gain on its own is ambiguous. For example, "a gain of five" may
imply that either the voltage, current or the power is increased by a factor of
five, although most often this will mean a voltage gain of five for audio and
general purpose amplifiers, especially operational amplifiers, but a power gain
for radio frequency amplifiers, and for directional aerials will refer to a signal
power change compared with a simple dipole. Furthermore, the term gain is
also applied in systems such as sensors where the input and output have
different units; in such cases the gain units must be specified, as in "5
microvolts per photon" for the responsivity of a photosensor.
Power gain
The power gain of an electrical network is the ratio of an output power to an input
power. Unlike other signal gains, such as voltage and current gain, "power gain" may
be ambiguous as the meaning of terms "input power" and "output power" is not always
clear. Three important power gains are operating power gain, transducer power
gain and available power gain.

Power gain, in decibels (dB), is defined by the 10 log rule as follows:

where Pin and Pout are the input and output powers respectively.
A similar calculation can be done using a natural logarithm instead of a
decimal logarithm, and without the factor of 10, resulting in nepers instead
of decibels:

Voltage gain
When power gain is calculated using voltage instead of power, making the
substitution (P=V 2/R), the formula is:

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In many cases, the input and output impedances are equal, so the above
equation can be simplified to:

and then the 20 log rule:

This simplified formula is used to calculate a voltage gain in decibels, and is

equivalent to a power gain only if the impedances at input and output are
equal.
Current gain
In the same way, when power gain is calculated using current instead of power,
making the substitution (P = I 2R), the formula is:

In many cases, the input and output impedances are equal, so the above
equation can be simplified to:

And then:

This simplified formula is used to calculate a current gain in decibels, and is

equivalent to the power gain only if the impedances at input and output are
equal.

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Differential amplifier
A differential amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that amplifies the
difference between two voltages but does not amplify the particular voltages.
Many electronic devices use differential amplifiers internally. The output of an
ideal differential amplifier is given by:

Where
and
are the input voltages and Ad is the differential gain.
In practice, however, the gain is not quite equal for the two inputs. This means,
for instance, that if
and
are equal; the output will not be zero, as it
would be in the ideal case. A more realistic expression for the output of a
differential amplifier thus includes a second term.

Ac is
called
the
common-mode
gain
of
the
amplifier.
As differential amplifiers are often used to null out noise or bias-voltages that
appear at both inputs, a low common-mode gain is usually desired.
Differential amplifiers are found in many circuits that utilize series negative
feedback (op-amp follower, non-inverting amplifier, etc.), where one input is
used for the input signal, the other for the feedback signal (usually
implemented by operational amplifiers). A differential amplifier is used as the
input stage emitter coupled logic gates and as switch.

Operational amplifier
An operational amplifier ("op-amp") is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic
voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended
output. An op-amp produces an output voltage that is typically hundreds of
thousands times larger than the voltage difference between its input terminals.
Operational amplifiers are important building blocks for a wide range of
electronic circuits. Their popularity in circuit design largely stems from the
fact that characteristics of the final op-amp circuits with negative
feedback (such as their gain) are set by external components with little
dependence on temperature changes and manufacturing variations in the opamp itself. Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today,
being used in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Opamps may be packaged as components, or used as elements of more complex
integrated circuits. The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier.

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Circuit notation
The circuit symbol for an op-amp is shown to the right, where:
V+: non-inverting input
V: inverting input
Vout: output
VS+: positive power supply
VS: negative power supply

Operation
The amplifier's differential inputs consist of a V+ input and a V input, and
ideally the op-amp amplifies only the difference in voltage between the two,
which is called the differential input voltage. The output voltage of the opamp is given by the equation, where V+ is the voltage at the non-inverting
terminal, V is the voltage at the inverting terminal and AOL is the openloop gain of the amplifier (the term "open-loop" refers to the absence of a
feedback loop from the output to the input).

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An op-amp without negative feedback (a comparator)

The magnitude of AOL is typically very large10,000 or more for integrated
circuit op-ampsand therefore even a quite small difference
between V+ and V drives the amplifier output nearly to the supply voltage.
This is called saturation of the amplifier. The magnitude of AOL is not well
controlled by the manufacturing process, and so it is impractical to use an
operational
amplifier
as
a
stand-alone differential
amplifier.
Without negative
feedback,
and
perhaps
with positive
feedback for regeneration, an op-amp acts as a comparator. If the inverting
input is held at ground (0 V) directly or by a resistor, and the input voltage
Vin applied to the non-inverting input is positive, the output will be
maximum positive; if Vin is negative, the output will be maximum negative.
Since there is no feedback from the output to either input, this is an open
loop circuit acting as a comparator. The circuit's gain is just the AOL< of the
op-amp.

An op-amp with negative feedback (a non-inverting amplifier)

If predictable operation is desired, negative feedback is used, by applying a
portion of the output voltage to the inverting input. The closed loop feedback
greatly reduces the gain of the amplifier. If negative feedback is used, the
circuit's overall gain and other parameters become determined more by the
feedback network than by the op-amp itself. If the feedback network is made of
components with relatively constant, stable values, the unpredictability and
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inconstancy of the op-amp's parameters do not seriously affect the circuit's
performance. Typically the op-amp's very large gain is controlled by negative
feedback, which largely determines the magnitude of its output ("closed-loop")
voltage gain in amplifier applications, or the transfer function required
(in analog computers). High input impedance at the input terminals and low
output impedance at the output terminal(s) are important typical
characteristics.

An ideal op-amp is usually considered to have the following properties, and

they are considered to hold for all input voltages:
Infinite open-loop gain (when doing theoretical analysis, a limit may be
taken as open loop gain AOL goes to infinity).
Infinite voltage range available at the output (vout) (in practice the voltages
available from the output are limited by the supply voltages
and
).
The power supply sources are called rails.
Infinite bandwidth (i.e., the frequency magnitude response is considered to
be flat everywhere with zero phase shift).
Infinite input impedance (so, in the diagram,
, and zero current
flows from
to
).
Zero input current (i.e., there is assumed to be no leakage or bias current
into the device).
Zero input offset voltage (i.e., when the input terminals are shorted so
that
, the output is a virtual ground or vout = 0).
Infinite slew rate (i.e., the rate of change of the output voltage is
unbounded) and power bandwidth (full output voltage and current available
at all frequencies).
Zero output impedance (i.e., Rout = 0, so that output voltage does not vary
with output current).
Zero noise.
Infinite Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR).
Infinite Power supply rejection ratio for both power supply rails.

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Inverting amplifier

An inverting amplifier inverts the input signal at the output as input is applied
on the negative terminal of op-amp. Negative feedback stabilizes op-amp
gain(at the cost of reduction in gain) as now amplification factor depends on
external elements(feedback resistance and input terminal's resistance) and not
on op-amp parameters which are highly temperature dependent. Amplification
of the signal is done by the internal circuit of Op-amp.
In this Inverting Amplifier circuit the operational amplifier is connected with
feedback to produce a closed loop operation. When dealing with operational
amplifiers there are two very important rules to remember about inverting
amplifiers, these are: No current flows into the input terminaland that V1
always equals V2. However, in real world op-amp circuits both of these rules
are slightly broken. This is because the junction of the input and feedback
signal ( X ) is at the same potential as the positive ( + ) input which is at zero
volts or ground then, the junction is a Virtual Earth. Because of this virtual
earth node the input resistance of the amplifier is equal to the value of the
input resistor, Rin and the closed loop gain of the inverting amplifier can be set
by the ratio of the two external resistors. We said above that there are two very
important rules to remember about Inverting Amplifiers or any operational
amplifier for that matter and these are.

1. No Current Flows into the Input Terminals

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2. The Differential Input Voltage is Zero as V1 = V2 = 0 (Virtual Earth)
Then, the Closed-Loop Voltage Gain of an Inverting Amplifier is given as.

and this can be transposed to give Vout as:

Differential amplifier

The circuit shown computes the difference of two voltages multiplied by some
constant. In particular, the output voltage is:

The differential input impedance Zin (i.e., the impedance between the two
input pins) is approximately R1 + R2. The input currents vary with the
operating point of the circuit. Consequently, if the two sources feeding this
circuit have appreciable output impedance, then non-linearities can appear
in the output.
Voltage follower (Unity Buffer Amplifier)

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Electronic Elements
Used as a buffer amplifier to eliminate loading effects (e.g., connecting a device
with a high source impedance to a device with a low input impedance).
(realistically, the differential input impedance of the op-amp
itself, 1 M to 1 T)
Summing amplifier

A summing amplifier sums several (weighted) voltages:

When

, and Rf independent

When

Output is inverted
Input impedance of the nth input is Zn = Rn (V
ground)

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Electronic Elements
Modulation & Demodulation
Modulation is a process of mixing a signal with a sinusoid to produce a new
signal. This new signal, conceivably, will have certain benefits of an unmodulated signal, especially during transmission. If we look at a general
function for a sinusoid:
we can see that this sinusoid has 3 parameters that can be altered, to affect
the shape of the graph. The first term, A, is called the magnitude, or amplitude
of the sinusoid. The next term,
is known as the frequency, and the last
term,
is known as the phase angle. All 3 parameters can be altered to
transmit data.
The sinusoidal signal that is used in the modulation is known as the carrier
signal, or simply "the carrier". The signal that is used in modulating the carrier
signal(or sinusoidal signal) is known as the "data signal" or the "message
signal". It is important to notice that a simple sinusoidal carrier contains no
information of its own.
In other words we can say that modulation is used because the some data
signals are not always suitable for direct transmission, but the modulated
signal may be more suitable.
There are 3 basic types of modulation: Amplitude modulation, Frequency
modulation, and Phase modulation.
amplitude modulation : a type of modulation where the amplitude of the
carrier signal is modulated (changed) in proportion to the message signal while
the frequency and phase are kept constant.

frequency modulation : a type of modulation where the frequency of the

carrier signal is modulated (changed) in proportion to the message signal while
the amplitude and phase are kept constant.

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Phase modulation : a type of modulation where the phase of the carrier signal
is varied accordance to the low frequency of the message signal is known as
phase modulation.

Introduction

Connecting digital circuitry to sensor devices is simple if the sensor devices are
inherently digital themselves. Switches, relays, and encoders are easily interfaced with
gate circuits due to the on/off nature of their signals. However, when analog devices
are involved, interfacing becomes much more complex. What is needed is a way to
electronically translate analog signals into digital (binary) quantities, and vice versa.
An analog-to-digital converter, or ADC, performs the former task while a digital-toanalog converter, or DAC, performs the latter.
An ADC inputs an analog electrical signal such as voltage or current and outputs a
binary number. In block diagram form, it can be represented as such:

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A DAC, on the other hand, inputs a binary number and outputs an analog voltage or
current signal. In block diagram form, it looks like this:

Together, they are often used in digital systems to provide complete interface with
analog sensors and output devices for control systems such as those used in
automotive engine controls:

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It is much easier to convert a digital signal into an analog signal than it is to do the
reverse.

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