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Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and

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Production and Characterization of Bio-Chars from

Biomass via Pyrolysis
Ayhan Demirbas

Department of Chemical Engineering , Selcuk University , Konya, Turkey

Published online: 23 Aug 2006.

To cite this article: Ayhan Demirbas (2006) Production and Characterization of Bio-Chars from Biomass via Pyrolysis, Energy
Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 28:5, 413-422, DOI: 10.1080/009083190927895
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Energy Sources, Part A, 28:413422, 2006

Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1556-7036 print/1556-7230 online
DOI: 10.1080/009083190927895

Production and Characterization of Bio-Chars

from Biomass via Pyrolysis

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AYHAN DEMIRBAS
Department of Chemical Engineering
Selcuk University
Konya, Turkey
This article deals with slow pyrolysis of oak wood and agricultural residues such as
hazelnut shell and wheat straw at high temperature (9501250 K) in a cylindrical
reactor. The aim of this work is to study the effect of the treatment conditions such as
temperature, particle size, and lignin and inorganic matter contents on bio-char yield
and reactivity. When the pyrolysis temperature increased, the bio-char yield decreased.
A high temperature and smaller particles increase the heating rate resulting in a
decreased bio-char yield. The higher lignin content in hazelnut shell results in a
higher bio-char yield in comparison with oak wood and wheat straw. Bio-chars from
hazelnut shell and wheat straw are more reactive in gasification than bio-chars from
oak wood because of the higher ash content. The bio-char obtained are carbon rich,
with high heating value and relatively pollution-free potential solid biofuel.
Keywords biomass, pyrolysis, bio-char, reactivity

Active carbons are carbonaceous materials with highly developed internal surface area and
porosity. Activated carbon is widely used as an effective adsorbent in many applications
such as air separation and purification, vehicle exhaust emission control, solvent recovery,
and catalyst support because of its high specific pore surface area, adequate pore size
distribution, and relatively high mechanical strength. The large surface area results in
high capacity for adsorbing chemicals from gases and liquids (Zanzi, 2001).
The starting materials used in commercial production of activated carbons are those
with high carbon contents such as wood, lignite, peat, and coal of different ranks, or
low-cost and abundantly available agricultural by-products. Active carbons can be manufactured from virtually any carbonaceous precursor, but the most commonly used materials wood, coal, and coconut shell (Heschel and Klose, 1995). The development of
activated carbons from agricultural carbonaceous wastes will be advantageous for environmental problems. In water contamination, wastewater contains many traces of organic
compounds which are a serious environmental problem. In the development of activated
carbons, agricultural carbonaceous wastes will be used, as this will eliminate the problem
of waste disposal while at the same time societies will derive great economic benefits
from such commercialized products.
This study was financially supported by the Scientific Research Project (BAP in Turkish
initials) of Selcuk University.
Address correspondence to Professor Ayhan Demirbas, Selcuk University, Department of
Chemical Engineering, 42031 Konya, Turkey. E-mail: ayhandemirbas@hotmail.com

413

414

A. Demirbas

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Activated carbons are used in the following applications.

1. They can be used as adsorbents for the removal or reduction of gaseous pollutants
from the exhaust gases of industrial sources.
2. They can be used as adsorbents for the removal of volatile organic compounds,
ozone from air, mercury and dioxin emissions from incinerator flue gas, and
hydrogen sulfide emissions from sewage treatment facilities.
3. They can be used to remove chlorine and organic chemicals (such as phenols,
polychlorinated biphenyls, trihalomethanes, pesticides and halogenated hydrocarbons), heavy metals and organic contaminants from water.
4. They can be used to extract some harmful elements of cigarette smoke by incorporation in filter tips of the cigarettes.
Pyrolysis can be used for the production of bio-oil if flash pyrolysis processes are
used and these are currently at the pilot stage (EUREC Agency, 1996). Some problems
in the conversion process and use of the oil need to be overcome. These include poor
thermal stability and corrosivity of the oil. Upgrading by lowering the oxygen content
and removing alkalis by means of hydrogenation and catalytic cracking of the oil may
be required for certain applications (Demirbas and Gullu, 1998).
Pyrolysis of wood has been studied as a zonal process (Goldstein, 1981). Pyrolysis of
biomass is thermal decomposition of the fuel. As with coal, pyrolysis is a relatively slow
chemical reaction occurring at low temperatures. The reaction mechanisms of biomass
pyrolysis are complex but can be defined in five stages for wood.
1. Moisture and some volatile loss.
2. Breakdown of hemicelluloses; emission of CO and CO2 .
3. Exothermic reaction causing biomass temperature to rise from 535 to 635 K;
emission of methane, hydrogen, and ethane.
4. External energy required to continue the process.
5. Complete decomposition.
Pyrolysis proceeds in three steps. In an initial step, there is moisture and some
volatile loss (Eq. 1). Primary bio-char occurs in the secondary step (Eq. 2). The last fast
step follows by a slower step including some chemical rearrangement of the bio-char.
During the third stage, the bio-char decomposes at a very slow rate and a carbon-rich
residual solid forms. The formation of secondary charring (Eq. 3) makes the char less
reactive.
Biomass

Water + Unreacted solid residue,

(1)

Unreacted solid residue

(Volatile + Gases)1 + (Char)1 , and

(2)

(Char)1

(Volatile + Gases)2 + (Char)2 .

(3)

Experimental
In this study, hazelnut shell, oak wood, and wheat straw from the East Black Sea region
in Turkey were used as samples. The samples were ground and sieved to give a particle
size of 0.41.2 mm. The pyrolysis experiments were performed in a device designed
for this purpose. The main element of this device was a cylindrical reactor of height

Bio-Chars from Biomass

415

Table 1
Methods of biomass fuel analyses

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Property
Particle size distribution
Proximate composition
Moisture
Ash
Volatile matter
Fixed carbon
Ultimate elemental
Carbon, Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Sulfur
Chlorine
Oxygen
Ash elemental

Analytical method
ASTM E828
ASTM E871
ASTM D1102 (873 K), ASTM E830 (848 K)
ASTM E 872, ASTM E 897
By difference
ASTM E 777
ASTM E 778
ASTM E 775
ASTM E776
By difference
ASTM D3682, ASTM D2795, ASTM D4278, AOAC 14.7

Table 2
Chemical analysis results of biomass samples (wt% dry basis)
Biomass sample
Oak wood
Hazelnut shell
Wheat straw

O (diff.)

Ash

Cl

50.5
50.7
41.9

6.0
6.2
5.5

0.3
1.2
0.7

42.7
40.6
35.5

0.5
1.3
15.1

1.3

95.1 mm, ID 17.0 mm, and OD 19.0 mm. It was heated externally by an electric furnace
with the temperature being controlled by a thermocouple inside the reactor.
Chemical analyses of the samples were carried out according to the ASTM D110380 and ASTM D1104-56 standard test methods. The methods of biomass fuel analyses
are given in Table 1. The used materials are characterized. Table 2 shows the elemental
compositions of the samples.
The pyrolysis processes were carried out with 10 K/s heating rate for obtaining
the bio-char products from the samples at different temperatures. Determination of the
oxygen and hydrogen contents in char samples were carried out at 470, 550, 650, 750,
850, 950, and 1050 K, and other experiments at 950, 1050, 1150, and 1250 K.
All yields were expressed on a dry and ash-free (daf) basis, and the average yields
from three experiments were presented within the experimental error of < 0.5 wt%.

Results and Discussion

The structural analysis results of biomass samples are shown in Table 3. As seen from
Table 3, the hazelnut shell has the highest lignin content (42.7 wt% daf). The proximate
analysis results of biomass samples are given in Table 4. From Table 4, oak wood has
the highest volatile matter content (78.9 wt% daf).

416

A. Demirbas
Table 3
Structural analysis results of biomass samples (wt% daf)
Biomass
sample

Hemicelluloses

Cellulose

Lignin

Extractive
mattera

Hazelnut shell
Wheat straw
Oak wood

28.9
45.6
31.0

25.1
33.8
45.0

42.7
17.6
22.2

3.3
3.0
1.8

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a Alcohol-benzene extractives.

Table 4
Proximate analysis results of biomass samples
Biomass
sample

Moisture
(% in fuel)

Ash
(% in dry fuel)

Volatile matter
(% in dry fuel)

Fixed carbon
(% in dry fuel)

Oak wood
Wheat straw
Hazelnut shell

6.5
7.3
6.1

0.5
15.1
1.3

78.9
66.8
71.0

20.6
18.1
27.7

Figure 1 shows the effect of temperature on the bio-char yield. The decrease for
the hazelnut shell is 84.2% (33.5 wt% daf to 15.3 wt% daf) for particle size between
0.8 mm and 1.2 mm when the temperature is increased from 950 to 1250 K. The inorganic
properties of biomass samples are presented in Table 5. The different amount of inorganics
may also affect the results. The oak wood gives more volatiles and less char than the
hazelnut shell on a dry and ash free (daf) basis. Chlorine, which is found in certain
biomass types, such as straw, may affect operation by corrosion. The high chlorine and
alkali content of some biomass fuels raises concerns regarding corrosion. The greatest
concern focuses on high-temperature corrosion of superheater tubes induced by chlorine
on the surface.

Figure 1. Effect of temperature on char yield (wt% daf). Particle size: 0.81.2 mm.

Bio-Chars from Biomass

417

Table 5
Inorganic properties of biomass samples (wt% of the ash)
Biomass
sample

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Oak wood
Wheat
straw
Hazelnut
shell

Si2 O

Al2 O2

Fe2 O3

CaO

MgO

Na2 O

K2 O

SO3

P2 O5

Cl

48.8
48.0

9.6
3.5

8.6
0.5

18.6
3.7

1.2
1.8

0.5
14.5

9.6
21.0

1.6
0.9

1.8
3.5

0.5
3.6

33.8

3.1

3.8

15.4

7.9

1.5

30.4

0.6

3.2

0.3

The yield of bio-char was calculated from the ash yields of the bio-char and biomass
(Zanzi et al., 1996):
Bio-char yield (wt% daf) =

(ab /ac ) (ab /100)

100,
1 (ab /100)

(4)

where ab is wt% ash in dry biomass, and ac is wt% ash in dry bio-char.
Figure 2 shows the effect of particle size on bio-char yield in the conditions selected
for the study. In the experiments with oak wood at 950 K the bio-char yield decreases
26.0% (from 22.7 wt% daf to 16.8 wt% daf) when the particle size is reduced from
1.2 mm to 0.4 mm. An increase in particle size from 0.4 to 1.2 mm for hazelnut shell
at 950 K increases the solid residue from 21.6 to 33.5 wt% after total pyrolysis, i.e., an
55.1% increase in amount of bio-char.
Figure 3 shows the effect of temperature on carbon content in char. Figure 4 shows the
effect of temperature on oxygen content in char. Figure 5 shows the effect of temperature
on hydrogen content in char. The results of the elemental analysis (Figures 35) indicate
that contents of carbon increase with pyrolysis temperature while these corresponding
to hydrogen and oxygen decrease. Losses in hydrogen and oxygen correspond to the
scission of weaker bonds within the bio-char structure favored by the higher temperature
(Della Rocca et al., 1997).

Figure 2. Effect of particle size on char yield (wt% daf). Final temperature: 950 K.

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A. Demirbas

Figure 3. Effect of temperature on carbon content in char. Particle size: 0.81.0 mm.

Figure 4. Effect of temperature on oxygen content in char. Particle size: 0.81.0 mm.

Formation of Bio-Char from Lignin

Figure 6 shows relationships between the content of lignin in biomass. The higher lignin
content in hazelnut shell results in a higher bio-char yield in comparison with oak wood
and wheat straw. Lignin gives higher yields of charcoal and tar from wood although
lignin has a threefold higher methoxyl content than wood (Sakakibara, 1983; Demirbas,
2000; Wenzl et al., 1970).
Phenolics are derived from lignin by cracking the phenyl-propane units of the macromolecule lattice. Pyrolysis seems to produce the most substituted phenols on a selective
basis. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that the syringyl-propan units are
not so linked to the lignin skeleton as the less substituted: gaiacyl-propane and phenylpropane (Brown, 1958). The DTA curves of different lignin preparations in vacuo have
been compared and it has concluded that the degradation pattern was virtually the same,
an endotherm extending from about 373453 K and followed by an exotherm at about
675 K. As the results of thermal analysis of individual types of lignin have been studied
by many other investigators (Soltes and Lin, 1987; Pryor, 1966). Lignin is broken down
by extensive cleavage of -aryl ether linkages during steaming of wood under 488 K
(March, 1992). It has been found that on analysis of the metoxyl groups after isothermal heating of dry distilled wood, lignin decomposition begins at about 550 K with a

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Bio-Chars from Biomass

419

Figure 5. Effect of temperature on hydrogen content in char (wt% daf). Particle size: 0.81.0 mm.

Figure 6. Effect of lignin content on yield of char at different final temperatures. Particle size:
0.81.2 mm.

maximum rate occurring between 625 and 725 K and the completion of the reaction
occurs at 725 and 775 K (Demirbas and Kucuk, 1994).
The formation of char from lignin under mild reaction conditions is a result of the
breaking of the relatively weak bonds, like the alkyl-aryl ether bonds, and the consequent
formation of more resistant condensed structures, as has already been noted (Domburg
et al., 1974). One additional parameter which may also have an effect on the char formation is the moisture content of the kraft lignin used. It has been found that the presence
of moisture increased the yield of char from the pyrolysis of wood waste at temperatures
between 660 and 730 K, while Stray et al. (1986) found only a slight effect for water
added on the hydrogenolysis of both hardwood and softwood lignins at temperatures
between 470 and 675 K.
Formation of Bio-Char from Cellulose and Hemicelluloses
The destructive reaction of cellulose is started at temperatures lower than 325 K and
is characterized by a decreasing polymerization degree. Thermal degradation of cellulose proceeds through two types of reaction: a gradual degradation, decomposition and
charring on heating at lower temperatures, and a rapid volatilization accompanied by
the formation of levoglucosan on pyrolysis at higher temperatures. The degradation of

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A. Demirbas

cellulose to a more stable anhydrocellulose, which gives higher bio-char yield, is the
dominant reaction at temperature <575 K (Shafizadeh, 1985). At temperatures >575 K,
cellulose depolymerizes, producing volatiles. If the heating rate is very high, the residence
time of the biomass at temperatures <575 K is insignificant. Thus a high heating rate
provides a shorter time for the dehydration reactions and the formation of less reactive
anhydrocellulose, which gives a higher yield of char (Zanzi, 2001). The result is that the
rapid heating of the biomass favors the polymerization of cellulose and the formation
of volatiles and suppresses the dehydration to anhydrocellulose and char formation (Ekstrm and Rensfeld, 1980). Hence the effect of heating rate is stronger in the pyrolysis
of biomass than in that coal.
The initial degradation reactions include depolymerization, hydrolysis, oxidation,
dehydration, and decarboxylation (Shafizadeh, 1982). The isothermal pyrolysis of cellulose in air and milder conditions, in the temperature range 623643 K, was investigated
(Fengel and Wegener, 1983). Under these conditions, the pyrolysis reactions produced
6272% aqueous distillate and left 1018% charred residue. After the pyrolysis, the
residue was found to consist of some water soluble materials, in addition to char and
undecomposed cellulose.
The hemicelluloses undergo thermal decomposition very readily. The hemicelluloses
reacted more readily than cellulose during heating. The thermal degradation of hemicelluloses begins above 373 K during heating for 48 h; hemicelluloses and lignin are
depolymerized by steaming at high temperature for a short time. The metoxyl content of
wet meals decreased at 493 K (Demirbas and Kucuk, 1994).
The stronger effect of the heating rate on the formation of bi-char from biomass than
from coal may be attributed to the cellulose content of the biomass (Kucuk and Demirbas, 1993). It is well known that heating rate has a significant effect on the pyrolysis of
cellulose. Heating rate has a much greater effect on the pyrolysis of biomass than on that
of coal. The quick devolatilization of the biomass in rapid pyrolysis favors the formation
of char with high porosity and high reactivity (Zanzi et al., 1996). The decreased formation of char at the higher heating rate was accompanied by an increased formation of
tar. The net effect is a decrease in the volatile fuel production and an increased yield of
bio-char cellulose converted to levoglucosan at above 535 K temperatures (Freudenberg
and Neish, 1968).
Steam Effect on Bio-Char Formation
The process of synfuels from biomass will lower the energy cost, improve the waste
management and reduce harmful emissions. This triple assault on plant operating challenges is a proprietary technology that gasifies biomass by reacting it with steam at high
temperatures to form a clean burning syngas (H2 + CO). The molecules in the biomass
(primarily carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen) and the molecules in the steam (hydrogen and
oxygen) reorganize to form this syngas.
In essence, the system embodies a fast, continuous process for pyrolyzing or thermally decomposing biomass and steam reforming the resulting constituents. The entire process occurs in a reducing environment, not an oxidizing environment like other
biomass gasifiers. While the reactions that take place in the gasifier are complex, they
can be categorized as follows: flash evaporation of inherent moisture, devolatization of
higher organics, heavy hydrocarbon cracking, pyrolysis, and steam reforming. The major
thermochemical reactions deal with water-carbon reaction include the following.

Bio-Chars from Biomass

421

C + 2H2
CH4 .

(5)

C + CO2
2CO.

(6)

Carbon char to methane:

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Carbon char oxides:

The hot combustion products (CO2 and H2 O) are further reduced by the char. These
endothermic reactions generate CO and H2 , and the exit gas can be utilized as a gaseous
fuel. Among the thermochemical conversion processes that take place in a gasifier, the
high reactivity of bio-char is higher when smaller biomass particles are subjected to
pyrolysis. The reactions of CO2 and H2 O with the char to produce CO and H2 are
considerably slower than the drying, pyrolysis or combustion reactions. The bio-char
samples obtained by rapid pyrolysis at higher temperatures are more reactive in steam
gasification than those obtained at lower pyrolysis temperatures. This result is of practical
interest for utilization of biomass as a raw material for gasification.

Conclusion
The biomass samples were subjected to pyrolize for obtaining bio-chars at high temperature (9501250 K) in a cylindrical reactor batch reactor. The aim of the work was to study
the effect of the treatment conditions such as temperature, particle size, and lignin and
inorganic matter contents on bio-char yield. When the pyrolysis temperature increased,
the bio-char yield decreased. The bio-char yield increased with increasing particle size
of the sample.
The higher lignin content in hazelnut shell results in a higher bio-char yield in
comparison with oak wood and wheat straw. Bio-chars from hazelnut shell and wheat
straw are more reactive in gasification than bio-chars from oak wood because of the
higher ash content.
Biomass converts by pyrolysis into liquid (bio-oil), bio-char, and gasses by heating
the biomass to about 850 K in the absence of air. The process can be adjusted to favor
bio-char, pyrolytic oil, gas, or methanol production with a 95.5% fuel-to-feed efficiency.
The heat flux is proportional to the driving force, the temperature difference between the
particle and environment. At higher temperature, the heat flux is higher. The size of the
particles affects the heating rate. The heat flux and the heating rate are higher in small
particles than in large particles. The higher heating rate favors a decrease of the char
yield (Zanzi, 2001).

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