Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Colloidal particles carry posi tive or nega tive c harge which stabilizes colloidal dispersion. E.g.
Ferric hydroxide sol, arsenic sulphide sol.
Size of particles dissolved in the solvent are very small of the order of
108 cm
2) It is homogenous.
3) It cannot be separa ted into components by si mple mechanical method.
Composition of solution
a) Solute: The component which consti tutes smaller part of solution is called as solute.
b) Solvent: The component which consti tutes larger pa rt of solution is called as solvent.
Homogeneous solution:
Definition- The solution whose composi tion is uniform throughout the body of the solution is called
as homogeneous solution.
Formation/Preparation: The homogeneous solution is formed due to force of a ttrac tion between
the molecules or pa rticles of solute and solvent.
Heterogeneous solution: It i s defined as the mix ture of two or more pha ses.
Solvation: It i s defined as the process of interac tion of solvent molecules with solute particles to
form aggrega tes. When wa ter i s used as solvent, i t i s called as hydra tion or aqua tion.
Remember:
Extent of dissolution of solute in solvent to form homogenous solution depends on na ture of solute
and solvent.
1
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
General rule for solubility is Like dissolves like i.e. polar solutes are soluble in polar solvents.
E.g. NaCl in water.
or non-polar solutes are soluble in non-polar sol vents. E.g. Iodine in CCl 4
Explain: Water is called universal sol vent.
1)
2) It has high dielectric constant. Hence, it reduces the force of attrac tion between ions of
solute and offers them to remain apart.
3) Thus, i t acts as good medium for grea ter ionization of the solutes hence i t is called as universal
solvent.
Types of solution:
No.
Solute
Solvent
Examples
Solid
Solid
Liquid
Solid
Gas
Solid
Solid
Liquid
Liquid
Liquid
Ethanol in water
Gas
Liquid
Solid
Gas
Iodine in air
Liquid
Gas
Chloroform in ni trogen
Gas
Gas
Aqueous solution: The solution in which water is used as solvent is called as aqueous solutions.
Non-aqueous solutions: The solution in which solvent other than water is used is called as non-aqueous
solution.
Concentration of solutions: It is defined as the a mount of solute dissolved in specific a mount of
solvent.
Dilute solutions: The solutions containing relati vely less a mount of solute are called as dilute solutions.
Concentrated solution: The solution containing relati vely more a mount of solute is called as
concentra ted solution.
Different methods of expressing the concentration of solution1)
Mass of solute
100
Mass of solution
2
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
Where
volume of solute
100
Volume of solution
Note:
Total volume of solutions is not equal to sum of volumes of solute and solvent as sa me
solute particles occupy empty spaces in voids in struc ture of liquids.
Volume is tempera ture dependent and hence (v/v) c hanges with tempera ture.
3) Mole fraction (x): The mole fraction of any component of solution is defined as the ra tio of
number of moles of tha t component present in the solution to the total number of moles of all
the components of the solution.
Math ematical expression of x :
For binary solution,
n1
n1 n 2
n2
n1 n 2
Note:
x1 x 2
n1 n 2
1
n1 n 2
4) Molarity (M) : It is defined a s the number of moles of solute present in 1 d m3 (lit) volume of
the solution.
Molarity(M)
Note :
mol dm3
Molari ty is expressed in
3
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
5) Molality (m): It i s defined as the number of moles of solute dissol ved in 1kg of solvent.
Molality (m)
Normality (N)
Where
Molecular wt of acid
Basicity
Molecular wt of Base
Acidity
N nM
Where n = acidity / basicity
ppm
When solute (sugar) i s added to solvent (water) , i t gets dissol ved due to a ttrac tive force
between solute particles and solvent molecules.
Solute particles are constantly in sta te of random motion and constantly collide with each
other and with solvent molecules.
Solute particles are held together due to/ by physical forces of a ttrac tion.
4
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
If physical forces are not sufficient, dissolved sugar solute crystallizes out.
If solute is added continuously, Dissolution and crystallization takes place si mul taneously.
At low concentra tion of solute, ra te of dissolution is very high and ra te of crystalliza tion is
very low.
sugar(s) H2O(l )
sugar solution .
Definition:
Saturated solution: It is defined as the solution tha t contains just the a mount of dissolved
solute necessary to establish equilibrium between dissol ved solute and undis solved solute.
Unsaturated solution: A solution which contains less a mount of solute than required for forming
sa tura ted solution.
Note: Equilibrium does not exist between dissolution and crystalliza tion.
Supersaturated solution: A solution which contains excess of solute than required for forma tion
of satura ted solution.
Solubility- It is defined as the maxi mum a mount of solute which dissolves completely in given
amount of solvent a t a constant tempera ture.
It is expressed as mol/lit.
Solubility of solid solute is al most doubled for every rise of tempera ture by 10 0 C which is always
not true.
The solubility of solid solute in liquid solvent may be exothermi c or endothermic process.
Depending on na ture of process, solubility may increase or decrea se by increasing tempera ture.
For exothermic process, solubility d ecreases by increasing tempera ture while in case of
endothermic process, solubility increases with increase in tempera ture.
Solubility of salts like KNO3 , NaNO3 , KBr increases appreciably with tempera ture.
Solubility of NH4 NO3 being endothermic process increa ses with increase in tempera ture.
By knowing solubility, it is easy to separa te individual component fro m mix ture of water soluble
salt from aqueous solutions. This process is called as frac tional crystallization.
This technique can be used if the substance is highly soluble a t higher tempera ture and
solubility is poor a t lower tempera ture. E.g. separa tion of pure NaCl from mix ture of NaCl and
NaBr a t 00 C. Separa tion of 80% dissol ved KNO3 from mix ture of KNO3 and NaNO3 .
5
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
Effect of pressure on solubility of solid solute in liquid solvent.
Solids are incompressible hence change of pressure has no effec t on solubility of solids in
liquids.
How Solubility of gases in liquids depends on their nature?
Being non polar, solubility of gases like oxygen and nitrogen is very low in water.
CO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid and ammonia reac ts with water to form a mmonium
hydroxide, hence CO2 and NH3 are more soluble in water.
According to Charles law, volume of given ma ss of gas increases with increase of tempera ture.
Thus volume of given ma ss of dissolved ga s in solution increases with increase of tempera ture.
Due to this, solvent in the solution cannot accommoda te the gaseous solute and hence gas
bubbles out.
Cold water i s taken from sources of water and af ter removing hea t, hot wa ter f rom plant is
released into source of water.
Due to this tempera ture increa ses and solubility of oxygen ga s in water dec reases.
Explain why marine life like fish prefers to stay at lower sea level in summer?
In summer hot day, tempera ture of surface of water is rela tively very high and solubility of
oxygen at upper layer i s mini mum.
While tempera ture of water a t lower level is much less and hence i t contains more a mount of
dissolved oxygen.
Due to this, ma rine life prefers to stay a t lower level for their survival.
Henrys law Statement solubility of gas in a liquid at constant tempera ture is proportional to the
pressure of ga s above the solution.
Ma thema tical expression
S P
S KP
If P = 1 a tm.
S = K
6
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
Definition of K and its unit.
K is defined as solubility of gas in mol/d m3 at 1 a tm pressure and a t ref erence tempera ture.
Note: for several gases, solubility of ga s is calculated by using P as partial pressure of gas in the
mix ture
When carbona ted sof t drink beverage bottle is sea ted with cap,it is pressurized by mix ture of
air and CO2
Due to high pa rtial pressure of CO2 , the a mount of CO2 in dissolved sta te i s high in sof t drinks.
When cap is removed ex ternal pressure decreases, solubility of CO 2 decreases and excess of
CO2 and air in the bottle escapes out.
Composition
Duralumin
Aluminium
Properties
.copper,
magnesium
and
It
is
light
Uses
and
strong a s steel
It
is
used
in
construc tion
manganese.
the
of
aircrafts.
Lead ha rdened by
Sb (Anti mony)
It is acid resistant
Used for
manufac turing lead
Babbitt metal
Alloy
of
anti mony
it is antifric tion
extensively
Contains
chromium
used
in
resistant
Used in cutlery.
to
corrosion,
7
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
spiegeleisen
5 to 20% manganese
very hard
in iron
safes
and
hea vy
mac hinery
Ferromanganeous
Manganin
70
to
80%
very hard
manganese and 30 to
safes
20% iron
mac hinery
almost
zero
4% Ni
tempera ture
Used
used
coefficient
of
electrical
and
in
hea vy
instruments
for
making
electrical
measurements.
resistance
Amalga ms.
This
property
metals
mercury
amalga ms
of
to
from
is
used
for
ex trac ting
amalga ms.
metals
from
ores.
the
by
Gold
and
distilling
off
mercury.
In alloys like bronze and lead shot arsenic is used as hardening agent.
Most of the chromium produced all over the world is used to produce steel alloys
Colligative properti es: The properties of solutions tha t d epend only on the number of solute particles in
solution and not on the na ture of the solute particle are called as Colligative properties.
Colligative properti es are used to d etermine molar ma sses of non elec trolyte solutes.
The relations derived by mea suring colligative properti es hold good for dilute solutions, with
concentra tion less than or equal to 0.2M.
All liquids exhibit tendency for evapora tion. The gaseous sta te of a substance is called vapour
If the intermolecular forces of a ttrac tion are weak the liquids evapora te readily and are
called volatile liquids. E.g Ethyl aceta te is the most vola tile liquid. Ethyl alcohol, acetone are
also volatile liquids
Due to strong intermolecular forces of a ttrac tion, Lubricating oils are slightly volatile..
8
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
The molecules of liquid escaping from the surface of liquid remain in the container above the
surface of liquid.
They collide with each other, with the walls of the container and with the surface of the liquid
and return to the liquid sta te. This is reverse of evapora tion, called condensation
Af ter some ti me interval, equilibrium is established between two phases of the substance, liquid
and its vapour. At thi s stage the ra te of evapora tion equals the ra te of condensa tion.
Note: If the boiling is carried out in an open atmosphere then external pressure is the
atmospheric pressure.
The vapour pressure of a substance is d efined as the pressure exerted by the gaseous sta te of
tha t substance when i t i s in equilibrium with the solid or liquid phase.
The vapour pressure of a liquid solvent is lowered when a non vola tile solute is dissolved in i t to
form a solution.
In case of pure solvent, i ts surface area is completely occupied by volatile solvent molecules.
In case of solution of nonvolatile solute, i ts surface area is not completely available for volatile
solvent but i t i s partly occupied by non vola tile solute.
Hence, ra te of evapora tion of the solution will be less as compared to tha t of pure solvent
Thus vapour pressure of solution is lower than tha t of the pure solvent.
Definition: The difference between vapour pressures of pure solvent and the vapor pressure of
solvent from solution is called vapour pressure lowering.
9
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
Describe th e experiment for lowering of vapor pressure of solvent due to addition of non-volatile
solute.
Consider three beakers numbered as 1, 2, and 3 containing 100 ml each of pure solvent wa ter,
1M copper sulpha te and 2 M copper sulpha te solution respec ti vely.
The three beakers are placed in airtight dessica tor, so tha t a t constant tempera ture, sol vent
from all the three beakers evapora tes and condense and equillibrium is reached .
Observations at Equillibrium
o
In beaker 2, conc. Of copper sulpha te does not c hange i.e. volume of solution remains
almost sa me.
In beaker 3, condensa tion of solvent ta kes place hence volume of solution becomes
almost 200 ml and conc. Of solution becomes 1M i.e. al most equal to tha t of beaker 2.
Conclusion of experiment
o
Thus lowering of vapor pressure of solvent takes place due to addition of non -volatile
solute.
If
p10 is the vapour pressure of pure solvent and p is the vapour pressure of the solution of
p p10 p
The relati ve lowering of vapour pressure: The rela tive lowering of vapour pressure for the given
solution i s the ra tio of vapour pressure lowering of solvent f rom solution to the vapour pressure of pure
solvent. Thus,
Relati ve lowering of vapour pressure
p p10 p
p10
p10
Raoults law: The partial vapour pressure of any volatile component of a solution is the produc t of
vapour pressure of tha t pure component and the mole frac tion of the component in the solution.
Deri ve expression of Raoults Law for a solution containing both volatile c omponents
x1 and x 2 respectively.
10
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
Let
p and p be the vapour pressures of the pure components A1 and A2 respec tively.
0
1
0
2
pT p1 p2 p10 x1 p02 x 2
Hence,
Hence,
x1 x 2 1 or x 2 1 x1
pT p10 x1 p02 (1 x1 )
pT p10 x1 p02 p02 x1
Note: The solution which obeys Raoul ts law over the entire range of concentra tion is called an ideal
solution. If a solution does not obey Raoul ts law, the solution is non ideal.
Deri ve Expression of Raoults l aw for a solution of non-volatile solute or Derive Expression for
relative lowering of vapor pressure of solution contaning non -volatile solute.
respectively.
In this solution the component A2 (i.e. solute) is non -vola tile, hence i t does not evapora te
and does not contribute to the total vapour pressure of solution.
p02 0
pT p10 x1
Thus Vapor pressure of a solution of non-vola tile solute is the produc t of vapour pressure of
pure solvent
p10 and mole fraction of the sol vent, x1 which is Raoults law.
x1 x 2 1 .
Hence Product
x1 1
p10 x1 is always less than p10 . Therefore vapour pressure of solution, pT p10
which proves tha t lowering of vapour pressure of solution contaning non -vala tile solute.
11
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
p is given by,
p p10 pT
p10 1 x1
p10 p10 x1
Hence,
But
1 x1
x2
p p10 x 2
Lowering of vapour pressure is the produc t of vapour pressure of pure solvent and mole frac tion
of non-vola tile solute dissolved in vola tile solvent to form a solution.
The lowering of vapour pressure depends on na ture of pure sol vent and concentra tion of solute
in mole fraction.
p p10 p p10 x 2
x2
p10
p10
p10
Hence, relative lowering of vapour pressure =
The above expression proves tha t the lowering of vapour pressure i s a colligative property because i t
depends on the concentra tion of non-vola tile solute.
Determination of Molar mass of non volatile solute and relati ve lowering of vapour pressure:
Hence number of moles of sol vent, n 1 and number of moles of solute n 2, in solution are gi ven
as,
n1
W1
W
and n 2 2
M1
M2
x2
x 2 is given by,
n2
W2 / M 2
n1 n 2 W1 / M1 W2 / M 2
12
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
W2 / M 2
p p10 pT
x2
0
0
p1
p1
W1 / M1 W2 / M 2
p n 2 W2 / M 2 W2 M1
p10
n1 W1 / M1 W1M 2
Knowing the masses of non-vola tile solute and the sol vent in dilute solutions and by determining
experi mentally vapour pressure of pure solvent and the solution i t is possible to determine molar
ma ss of a non vola tile solute.
Boiling point:
Boiling point i s defined a s the tempera ture a t which the vapour pressure of liquid
The vapour pressure of a solution of non-vola tile solute is always less than the vapour pressure
of pure solvent.
At the tempera ture of boiling point of pure solvent, solution will not boil as its vapour pressure
is less than tha t of the vapour pressure of pure solvent which is also equal the ex ternal
pressure.
Thus
solution
will
only
boil
if
its
vapour
pressure
is
increased
upto
ex ternal
atmosphericpressure.
Definition - Eleva tion of boiling point is the differenc e between boiling points of solution and
tha t of pure solvent.
The vapour pressure tempera ture curve of solution i s always below the vapour pressure
tempera ture curve of pure solvent.
The eleva tion of boiling point is proportional to the lowering of vapour pressure i .e.
0
1
Tb p
13
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
Deri ve the expression to calculate the molecular weight of unknown solute by measuring elevation
in boiling point.
For a dilute solution the eleva tion of boiling point ( Tb ) is direc tly proportional to the molality, m
of the solution.
Tb m
Thus,
Tb K b m...............eqn(1)
Where m is the molality of the solution,
ebullioscopic constant.
Molality
W2
M2
W1
Tb
K b W2
K W
M2 b 2
M 2 W1
Tb W1
Define
Hence uni t of
For m = 1 molal, K b
Definition of
K b is K kg mol -1 .
Tb .
K b - It is the eleva tion of boiling point produced, when one mole of solute is
dissolved in 1 kg of solvent.
Value of
Freezing point: Freezing point of a liquid is a tempera ture a t which the vapour pressure of solid is equal
to the vapour pressure of liquid.
14
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
Depression of freezing point: Solution ha s lower vapour pressure than pure sol vent and hence freezes
at lower tempera ture than pure sol vent. Thus depression of freezing point is the difference between
the freezing point of pure solvent and freezing point of solution contaning non -vola tile solute.
Show graphical representation of freezing point depression of pure solvent by addition of non volatile solute.
AB i s the solid vapour subli ma tion curve of the solid solvent, CD is the liquid-vapour pressure curve
At the f reezing point, solid and liquid phases have identical vapour pressures.
At point B, the two forms ha ve sa me vapour pressure and therefore T 0 , the tempera ture
corresponding to B, must be the freeing point of pure solvent.
When solute i s dissolved in the solvent, the vapour pressure of solvent lowered and can no longer
solid solvent becomes identical. It i s assumed tha t solute does not dissolve in solid solvent
The tempera ture T, corresponding to the point E, where the vapour pressure curve of the solution
intersects the subli ma tion curve, is the freezing point of the solution.
The vapour pressure curve of the solution EF always lies below the vapour pressure curve of pure
solvent. Hence intersection of vapour pressure curves of solution and solid sol vent can occur only a t
a point lower than T 0 .
Therefore any solution of the solute must ha ve freezing point T, lower than tha t of the pure
solvent.
Thus
T f T 0 T
The depression of freezing point is proportional to the lowering of the vapour pressure and hence
0
1
Tf p10 p
15
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
Deri ve the expression to calculate the molecular weight of unknown solute by measuring
depression in freezing point of pure solvent by addition of non -volatile solute.
Freezing point depression of any solution is direc tly proportional to the molality of solution.
Thus,
Tf m m is molality of solution
Tf Kf m............eqn(1)
Molality
W2
m
M2
W1
Tf
K f W2
KW
M2 f 2
M 2 W1
Tf W1
Tf m m is molality of solution
If m = 1 then Tf
Kf .
Cryoscopic constant is defined as, the depression of freezing point produced by dissolving
Unit of
Tf Kf m, hence, Kf Tf / m
K f is K kg mol -1 .
It is a membrane which allows the solvent molecules, but not the solute molecules, to pa ss
through i t.
Cellulose, cellulose nitra te, ani mal bladder, etc. are used as semi permeable membranes.
Osmosis
When a solution is sepa ra ted from pure solvent by a semipermeable membrane a s shown in figure,
the solvent molecules pa ss through the membrane into the solution and dilute i t.
16
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
Similarly, when two solutions of different concentra tions are sepera ted by semipermeable
membrane then the direction of flow of solvent molecules is f rom the solution of lower
concentra tion to the solution of higher concentra tion.
Due to flow of solvent into the high concentra ted solution, the solution gets diluted.
The flow continues till the concentra tions of the two solutions become equal.
Definition of OsmosisThe spontaneous and unidirectional flow of solvent molecules through a semi permeable membrane, into
the solution or flow of solvent f rom a solution of lower concentra tion to the solution of higher
concentra tion through a semi permeable membrane is called osmosis.
Describe the Abbe Nollet Experiment for osmosis
The mouth of the thi stle funnel is closed by semipermeable membrane like pigs bladder.
Sucrose solution of some concentra tion is then filled in the thistl e funnel.
The thistl e funnel is then placed in beaker containing water in inverted posi tion.
The net flow of solvent molecules occurs into the solution through the semipermeable membrane.
Due to this, the original volume of the solution increases and the liquid level of solution rise.
Hydrosta tic pressure i s developed due to the liquid column in thi stle funnel.
Due to osmosis, solvent molecules f rom beaker enter into thistl e funnel through semipermeable
membrane. The liquid level in the thi stle funnel tube rises until the excess pressure so produced
is sufficient to stop the flow of solvent molecules. The equilibrium is reached when the
hydrosta tic pressure of the column ma tc hes the osmotic pressure.
Osmotic Pressure: The excess of pressure on the side of solution tha t stops the net flow of
solvent into solution through semipermeable membrane is called osmotic pressure.
Note: The osmotic pressure is not th e pressure produced by solution. It exists only when
the solution is separated from the solvent by the semipermeable membrane. The resulting osmosis
produces an excess pressure (osmotic pressure) in the solution.
17
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
The entry of the solvent into the solution causes i ts dilution and concentra tion changes.
The experi mental set up must ha ve the a rrangement for applying an external mec hanical pressure
on the solution so tha t there is no flow of solvent and concentra tion remains unchanged.
The ex ternal pressure applied to stop osmosi s is a mea sure of osmotic pressure.
Osmotic pressure of a solution can also be defined as the excess mechanical pressure which must
be applied on the side of solution to stop the flow of solvent molecules through semipermeable
membrane into the solution.
Two or more solutions exerting the sa me osmotic pressure are called isotonic solutions.
0.05M 3.0 gL1 urea solution and 0.05M 17.19 gL1 sucrose solution are
If these solutions are separa ted by a semipermeable membrane, there is no flow of solvent in
either direction.
2. Hypertonic solution:
A solution having osmotic pressure higher than tha t of another solution is said to be
hypertonic with tha t solution.
E.g. 0.1 M urea solution exerts higher osmotic pressure than 0.05 M sucrose solution. Hence,
0.1M urea solution is hypertonic to 0.05 M sucrose solution.
If these solutions a re sepera ted by a semi permeable membrane, the solvent flows from
sucrose to urea a s sucrose is having low concentra tion.
18
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
3. Hypotonic solution:
A solution having osmotic pressure lower than tha t of another is sai d to be hypotonic
solution with tha t solution.
For exa mple, 0.05 M sucrose solution has osmotic pressure lower than tha t of 0.1 M urea
solution. Therefore 0.05 M sucrose solution is hypotonic with 0.1 M urea solution.
A raw mango kep t in a concentra ted salt solution loses water due to osmosis and shrivel into
pickle.
A li mp carrot and celery due to water loss into a tmosphere can be placed into water making i t
firm once again. Wa ter moves in carrot due to osmosis.
People ea ting lot of sal t experience edema i.e. swelling of tissue cells due to water retention in
cells.
The preserva tion of fruits by adding sugar protec ts against bac terial action. Due to osmosi s, a
bacterium on candid fruit loses water, shrivels and d ies.
0.91 % solution of sodium chloride (called saline water) i s isotonic with Human Blood. Thus
medicines are mixed with saline water during intravenous injec tions which prevents blood cells
from shrinking or bursting.
When blood cells are kept in hypertonic solution (5% NaCl), water comes out of the cells and
they shrink in size. While when blood cells are kept in hypotonic solution (Distilled water) water
flows into the cell and they swell or burst..
Osmotic pressure is responsible for transporting water upward from soil to top of trees. In
plants the leaves of the tree loose water to the a tmosphere constantly by transpira tion. The
solute concentra tion in leaf fluid increases and water is pulled up by osmotic pressure. In case
of some of the tall trees, water reaches to the height of almost 120 meters by osmosi s and
capillary action.
the pressure, which the solute molecules would exert if i t were gas molecules a t the sa me
tempera ture and occupying the sa me volume as the solution.
Thus the osmotic pressure could be considered to be due to bombard ment of solute particles on
semipermeable membrane.
The osmotic pressure i s thus directly proportional to the number of solute particles or the
concentra tion of solute a t constant tempera ture.
State Vant Hoff Boyles Law and its math ematical expression.
to i ts
C (C is concentra tion in
C
n
V
19
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
Hence,
n
1
or for constant n
V
V
V constant or
hence,
constsnt
C
State Vant Hoff Charles Law and its math ematical expression.
The concentra tion remaining constant; the osmotic pressure of a dilute solution is direc tly
proportional to the absolute tempera ture.
T (constant C) i.e.
constant
T
T
constant
V
V=kT (k is constant
of proportionality)
K is called general solution constant. The equa tion is called vant Hoff general solution equa tion.
It is
V RT
T absolute temperature
If V is the volume of solution containing n moles of solute, equa tion becomes,
V nRT
or
n
RT
V
Important Note:
or CRT
n
, is the number of
V
If is expressed in
Nm2 and
volume in m3 then
20
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
1 V1 n1RT1.......for solution 1
Where,
n1 and n 2 are the numbers of moles of the solutes in V1 and V2 liters of the solutions
respectively. If
SAPTARSHI
V n RT
n1 n 2
Since, numbers of moles are equal; numbers of molecules are also equal.
Dilute solution of non -electrolytes like urea, glucose, etc . ex hibit colligative properties like
lowering of vapour pressure, eleva tion of boiling point, depression of freezing point and osmotic
pressure.
In dilute solutions of non electrolytes in aqueous or nonaqueous solvents, the solute remains in
normal molecular condition and DOES NOT undergo ei ther dissociation or a ssocia tion.
The solution of nonelectrolytes does not conduc t elec tricity. The colligative properties of
solutions of nonvola tile, nonelectrolyte solutes depend on ac tual number of solute particles
present in the solution.
Molecular masses of nonvola tile, nonelectrolyte solutes from dilute solutions can be determined
by using the value of colligative property. From these equa tions, i t isobserved tha t colliga tive
property is inversely proportional to molecular mass of solute. This molecular ma ss i s theoretical
molecular ma ss of solute.
This is because the electrolyte solute i.e. the solute of acid, base or salt when dissolved in
solvent can undergo dissocia tion or association.
In case of dissociation of solute, the number of particles in the form of ions is more than
actually dissolved. As the no. of pa rticles increa ses the value of col ligative properties also
increases.
In general if solute molecules undergoes dissocia tion producing 2, 3, 4 ions, the observed
molecular ma ss becomes 1/2, 1/3, 1/4 etc . of the theoretical molecular mass of electrolyte
solute.
In case of some solutes, two or more molecules associa te together to produce large aggrega te
molecules. Because of this, effective number of pa rticles of solute in the solution decrea ses
Due to association, observed molecular mass becomes double, triple of the theoretical molecular
ma ss and so on.
In general, observed, lower molecular masses of electrolyte solutes are due to dissocia tion of
solute molecules or observed higher molecular masses of solutes in nonaqueous solvents a re due
to a ssocia tion/polymeriza tion and are called abnormal molecular masses.
21
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
Explain that how the value of colligative property d epend s on d issociation of electrol yte solutes by
taking suitable exampl e.
Consider the colligative property, depression of freezing point. (Applicable for other colligative
property also)
Tf Kf m
K f For water i s 1.86 K kg mol and Kf Tf / m . Thus theori tical vlue of Kf is 1.86.
The ra tio of Tf / m for 0.05 molal aqueous solutions of non electrolytes and electrolytes are
experi mentally determined and are listed in table.
Solute
Glucose
HCl
NH4 Cl
CoCl 2
Tf / m
1.862
3.635
3.617
5.204
1.86 1
1.86 2
1.86 2
1.86 3
The non electrolyte solute glucose nei ther associates nor dissociates in solution. As the
number of solute particles are not c hanged, the value of
value of
Electrolytic solutes when dissolved in solvent dissociate to produce mul tiple numbers of
ions/particles.
Due to di ssocia tion of solute, number of particles of solute increases and hence the value
of colligative property also increa ses and thus observed tha t
to integral mul tiple of
K f value.
The value of integral is equal to total number of ions produced o n dissociation as follows.
1.
2.
3.
The value fluctua tes with d egree of dissocia tion of solute in solution.
Explain that how the value of colligative property depend s on association of solutes by taking
suitable example.
In some non -polar sol vents, two or more molecules of solute a ssocia tes to form bigger molecules.
For exa mple, in benzene solutes like acetic acid, benzoic acid etc. associa te to form di mmers.
This associa tion is due to the hydrogen bonding between these molecules.
2CH3COOH CH3COOH 2
22
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
Hence numbers of solute particles a re reduced to half. And thus value of colligative propety also
decreases.
Observed molecular masses of these species in above cases are al most twice the ex pec ted
values in dilute solution.
Vant Hoff factor i s defined as the ra tio of observed colligative property to the theorotical
colligative property
The theorotical colligative property can be considered as the observed colligative property of a
solution assuming the solute as nonelec trolyte of sa me concentra tion
Thus Vant Hoff factor can also be defined as the ra tio of observed colligative property
produced by a given concentra tion of elec trolyte solution to the property observed for the sa me
concentra tion of non electrolyte solution. Therefore,
In short,
i.e.
n observed
n theoretical
Similarly,
colligative property
Hence,
1
molecular mass(M)
M theoretical
M observed
Express the mathematical relation between Vant Hoff factor (i) and degree of dissociation
Consider an electrolyte
A y and of Bx as A x By
( )
xA y yBx
23
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
Assume tha t the molality of electrolyte i s m when i t is dissolved in the solvent i.e m moles of the
electrolyte,
A x By is dissolved in 1 Kg of solvent.
A x By
Initial moles
No. of moles
dissociated /
formed
No.of moles
at equillibrium
m
m
m m
xA y yB x
0
xm
xm
0
ym
ym
mt m 1 x m y m
Hence,
m 1 x y
m 1 x y 1
It is convenient to represent the total number of ions produced by dissociation of one molecule
of solute
mt m 1 n ' 1
Therefore,
m t m 1 (n ' 1)
m
m
i 1
The degree of dissociation,
n ' 1
since
M theoretical
M observed
Hence,
i 1 (n ' 1)
1 n ' 1
24
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart
SAPTARSHI
M theoretical M observed
M observed n ' 1
M observed and by measuring experi mentally any one of the colligati ve properti es.
Desalination:
Probably due the greenhouse effect, every body is facing a problem of shortage of water.
Hence a ttempts are mad e to procure drinking water by removing sal ts from sea water by a
process called as Desalination by reverse osmosis.
Ocean is a large stock of sea -water contaning almost 1.5 X 10 21 L of water. It contains 3.5 %
(w/w) of dissolved sal ts, mainly sodium chloride.
Reverse osmosis i s the flow of solvent f rom high concentra ted solution to low concentra ted
solution.
In this process, high pressure is applied to force water from concentra ted aqueous solution like
sea water to pure water side through semi -permeable membrane.
The osmotic pressure of sea-wa ter is 30 a tm. Hence if the pressure on the solution side is
grea ter than 30 a tm. Osmosi s stops and reverse osmosis starts.
Due to this solvent from sea water enters the other side of pure wa ter.
Note: The method can be used by using semipermeable membrane which withstands high
pressure over prolonged period. By using thi s method, about 10 million litres of fresh wa ter i s
produced every day from sea water.
25
Dream Big Aim High Think Smart