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The Importance Of Air

Other planets have sunlight, but the Earth is the only planet we know that has air and water. Without air and
water, the Earth would be unable to sustain life.
A diverse community of plant and animal life has thrived on this planet for millions of years, sustained by
the sun and supported by the soil, water and air.

Definition Of Air Pollution

Air pollution occurs when the air contains gases, dust, fumes or odour in harmful amounts. That is, amounts
which could be harmful to the health or comfort of humans and animals or which could cause damage to
plants and materials.
The substances that cause air pollution are called pollutants. Pollutants that are pumped into our
atmosphere and directly pollute the air are called primary pollutants. Primary pollutant examples include
carbon monoxide from car exhausts and sulfur dioxide from the combustion of coal.
Further pollution can arise if primary pollutants in the atmosphere undergo chemical reactions. The
resulting compounds are called secondary pollutants. Photochemical smog is an example of this.

Historical Explanation
In the days before the proliferation of large cities and industry, nature's own systems kept the air fairly
clean. Wind mixed and dispersed the gases, rain washed the dust and other easily dissolved substances to
the ground and plants absorbed carbon dioxide and replaced it with oxygen.
With increasing urbanisation and industrialisation, humans started to release more wastes into the
atmosphere than nature could cope with.
Since then, more pollution has been added to the air by industrial, commercial and domestic sources. As
these sources are usually found in major cities, the gases that are produced are usually concentrated in the
air around them. The adverse effects of air pollution were graphically illustrated in London in 1952 when, in
just a few days, an estimated 4000 people died from effects of fine particle pollution.
It is when these concentrated gases exceed safe limits that we have a pollution problem. Nature can no
longer manage air pollution without our help.

More About Pollutants

Air pollutants mainly occur as a result of gaseous discharges from industry and motor vehicles. There are
also natural sources such as wind-blown dust and smoke from fires.
Some forms of air pollution create global problems, such as upper atmosphere ozone depletion and global
warming. These problems are very complex, and require international cooperative efforts to find solutions.

Air pollution consists of gaseous, liquid, or solid substances that, when present in sufficient concentration, for a
sufficient time, and under certain conditions, tend to interfere with human comfort, health or welfare, and cause
environmental damage. Air pollution causes acid rain, ozone depletion, photochemical smog, and other such
phenomena.
Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/air-pollution.html#ixzz28L7A4XRF

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What Can You Do To Reduce Our Air Pollution?

Some People may say but how can I make a difference? How much can one person really do?
The truth is that everybody has the power to make a difference to the quality of the air and the environment.
To improve the quality of the air we breathe we must think about our individual contribution to pollution. We all
add to air pollution in one way or another.
Take action:
It is important to:

Think for yourself

Communicate with others

Get involved

You can act personally, at home or at school, or by doing something with others in the community.
Walk or ride your bike instead of getting a lift in a car.
Use products made close to your home: This reduces pollution from the transportation of goods.
Where possible, use public transport instead of riding around in your parents car.
Suggest that your class holds a discussion on air pollution. You could discuss the main sources of air pollution in
your area, and how they could be reduced.
Get a guest speaker to come to your school and talk about air pollution.
Join a local environment group. You can find out about these by contacting your local council.

29 minutes ago
Lita Rizkika Sari
Air pollution
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Bad air quality" redirects here. For the obsolete medical theory, see Bad air.
"Air quality" redirects here. For the measure of how polluted the air is, see Air quality index.
Not to be confused with Qualities of air.
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Air pollution from World War II production
Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological
materials that cause discomfort, disease, or death to humans, damage other living organisms such as
food crops, or damage the natural environment or built environment.
The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet
Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human
health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.
Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two of the Worlds Worst Toxic Pollution Problems in
the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report.[1]
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Contents
1 Pollutants
2 Sources
2.1 Emission factors
3 Indoor air quality (IAQ)
4 Health effects
4.1 Effects on cardiovascular health
4.2 Effects on cystic fibrosis
4.3 Effects on COPD and asthma
4.4 Links to cancer
4.5 Effects on children
4.6 Health effects in relatively "clean" areas
5 Reduction efforts
5.1 Control devices
6 Legal regulations
6.1 Canada
7 Cities
8 NATA
9 Governing urban air pollution a regional example (London)
10 Carbon dioxide emissions
11 Atmospheric dispersion
12 Environmental impacts of greenhouse gas pollutants
13 See also
14 References
15 External links
Pollutants
Main articles: Pollutant and Greenhouse gas
Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New Mexico
contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.
Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate
contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground level ozone concentration,
(6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides.
A substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and the environment is known as an air pollutant.
Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In addition, they may be natural
or man-made.[2]
Pollutants can be classified as primary or secondary. Usually, primary pollutants are directly emitted from
a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust
or sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form
in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary pollutant is
ground level ozone one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog. Some
pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, they are both emitted directly and formed from
other primary pollutants.

Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:

Sulphur oxides (SOx) - especially sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is
produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulfur
compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence
of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of the causes for concern over
the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high temperature combustion, and
are also produced naturally during thunderstorms by electrical discharge. Can be seen as the brown haze
dome above or plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula
NO2. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp,
biting odor. NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants.
Carbon monoxide (CO)- is a colourless, odorless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is a product by
incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of
carbon monoxide.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) - a colourless, odorless, non-toxic greenhouse gas also associated with ocean
acidification, emitted from sources such as combustion, cement production, and respiration. It is
otherwise recycled in the atmosphere in the carbon cycle.
Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field they are often
divided into the separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an
extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon
VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of
methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local air quality. Within the
NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may
lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound which is
often associated with industrial uses.
Atmospheric particulate matter - Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM) or fine
particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to particles
and the gas together. Sources of particulate matter can be man made or natural. Some particulates
occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and
sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various
industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged over the globe,
anthropogenic aerosolsthose made by human activitiescurrently account for about 10 percent of the
total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to
health hazards such as heart disease,[3] altered lung function and lung cancer.
Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles could cause cardiopulmonary disease.[4][5]
Toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products currently banned from
use.
Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH3. It
is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly
to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers.
Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals.
Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.
Odors such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war explosives, and natural
processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.
Smog over Santiago, Chile
Secondary pollutants include:
Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog.
Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smog results
from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern
smog does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in
the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the
primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the troposphere.
It is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone
layer. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur
in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human
activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.

Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.

Minor air pollutants include:
A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean
Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive.
A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulate matter.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental
degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been
observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human
and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have potential significant impacts on human health
and the environment.
Sources
Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas
Controlled burning of a field outside of Statesboro, Georgia in preparation for spring planting
Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations, activities or factors which are responsible for the
releasing of pollutants into the atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major categories
which are:
Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related to burning different kinds of fuel
"Stationary Sources" include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste
incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices. In developing and poor
countries, traditional biomass burning is the major source of air pollutants; traditional biomass includes
wood, crop waste and dung.[6][7]
"Mobile Sources" include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of sound etc.
Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management. Controlled or
prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration or
greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire
can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees,
thus renewing the forest.
Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents
Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is not toxic; however, it is highly
flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace
oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced
to below 19.5% by displacement
Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry
Natural sources
Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation
Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle
Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally
occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health
hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as
the basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking
Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires
Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of VOCs on warmer days. These
VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutantsspecifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organic
carbon compoundsto produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants.[8]
Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates
Emission factors
Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
Industrial Air Pollution emissions
Air pollutant emission factors are representative values that people attempt to relate the quantity of a

pollutant released to the ambient air with an activity associated with the release of that pollutant. These
factors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit weight, volume, distance, or
duration of the activity emitting the pollutant (e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted per megagram of
coal burned). Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions from various sources of air pollution. In most
cases, these factors are simply averages of all available data of acceptable quality, and are generally
assumed to be representative of long-term averages.
There are 12 compounds in the list of POPs. Dioxins and furans are two of them and are intentionally
created by combustion of organics, like open burning of plastics. The POPs are also endocrine disruptor
and can mutate the human genes.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of air pollutant emission
factors for a multitude of industrial sources.[9] The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and many other
countries have published similar compilations, as well as the European Environment Agency.[10][11][12]
[13]
Indoor air quality (IAQ)
Main article: Indoor air quality
A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of their
time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside
houses. Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (H2CO) gas. Paint and
solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dust and
be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other
scented items. Controlled wood fires in stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of smoke
particulates into the air, inside and out.[14] Indoor pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides
and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation.
Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the
burning of charcoal indoors. Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from poorly adjusted
pilot lights. Traps are built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas, hydrogen sulfide, out of
interiors. Clothing emits tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning.
Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in industrial and
domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many localities.
Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after
long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in structures. Sufferers have
severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and are at an increased risk regarding several different types of
lung cancer. As clear explanations are not always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be
taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant diseases. According to the World Health
Organisation (WHO), these may defined as; asbestosis, lung cancer, and Peritoneal Mesothelioma
(generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated with
prolonged exposure to asbestos).
Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce
dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding,
carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit
methane, mold forms in walls and generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can
incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce
pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate
more than they would otherwise occur in nature.
Health effects
Air pollution is a significant risk factor for multiple health conditions including respiratory infections, heart
disease, and lung cancer, according to the WHO. The health effects caused by air pollution may include
difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac
conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room
visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are
far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system.
Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree
of exposure, the individual's health status and genetics.[citation needed]
The most common sources of air pollution include particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur
dioxide. Both indoor and outdoor air pollution have caused approximately 3.3 million deaths worldwide.
Children aged less than five years that live in developing countries are the most vulnerable population in
terms of total deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.[15]

The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die each year from causes directly
attributable to air pollution, with 1.5 million of these deaths attributable to indoor air pollution.[16]
"Epidemiological studies suggest that more than 500,000 Americans die each year from cardiopulmonary
disease linked to breathing fine particle air pollution. . ."[17] A study by the University of Birmingham has
shown a strong correlation between pneumonia related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicles.[18]
Worldwide more deaths per year are linked to air pollution than to automobile accidents.[19] A 2005
study by the European Commission calculated that air pollution reduces life expectancy by an average of
almost nine months across the European Union.[20] Causes of deaths include aggravated asthma,
emphysema, lung and heart diseases, and respiratory allergies.[citation needed] The US EPA estimates
that a proposed set of changes in diesel engine technology (Tier 2) could result in 12,000 fewer
premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart attacks, 6,000 fewer emergency room visits by children with
asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-related hospital admissions each year in the United States.[citation
needed]
The US EPA estimates allowing a ground-level ozone concentration of 65 parts per billion, would avert
1,700 to 5,100 premature deaths nationwide in 2020 compared with the current 75-ppb standard. The
agency projects the stricter standard would also prevent an additional 26,000 cases of aggravated
asthma, and more than a million cases of missed work or school.[21][22]
The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster.[23] Leaked industrial
vapours from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A., killed more than 25,000
people outright and injured anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000. The United Kingdom suffered its worst
air pollution event when the December 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than
4,000 died, and 8,000 more died within the following months.[citation needed] An accidental leak of
anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is
believed to have been the cause of hundreds of civilian deaths.[citation needed] The worst single
incident of air pollution to occur in the United States of America occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in late
October, 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000 were injured.[24]
A new economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles
Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3800 people die prematurely
(approximately 14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal
standards. The number of annual premature deaths is considerably higher than the fatalities related to
auto collisions in the same area, which average fewer than 2,000 per year.[25][26][27]
Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion derived particulate matter air pollution. In
several human experimental studies, using a well validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked
to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation.[28][29] This serves as a plausible
mechanistic link between the previously described association between particulate matter air pollution
and increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.
Effects on cardiovascular health
A 2007 review of evidence found ambient air pollution exposure is a risk factor correlating with increased
total mortality from cardiovascular events (range: 12% to 14% per a 10 microg/m3 increase). PMID
19235364.
Air pollution is also emerging as a risk factor for stroke, particularly in developing countries where
pollutant levels are highest.[30] A 2007 study found that in women air pollution is associated not with
hemorrhagic but with ischemic stroke.[31] Air pollution has was also found to be associated with
increased incidence and mortality from coronary stroke in a cohort study in 2011.[32]
Effects on cystic fibrosis
Main article: Cystic fibrosis
A study from around the years of 1999 to 2000, by the University of Washington, showed that patients
near and around particulate matter air pollution had an increased risk of pulmonary exacerbations and
decrease in lung function.[33] Patients were examined before the study for amounts of specific pollutants
like Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Burkholderia cenocepacia as well as their socioeconomic standing.
Participants involved in the study were located in the United States in close proximity to an
Environmental Protection Agency.[clarification needed] During the time of the study 117 deaths were
associated with air pollution. Many patients in the study lived in or near large metropolitan areas in order
to be close to medical help. These same patients had higher level of pollutants found in their system
because of more emissions in larger cities. As cystic fibrosis patients already suffer from decreased lung
function, everyday pollutants such as smoke, emissions from automobiles, tobacco smoke and improper
use of indoor heating devices could further compromise lung function.[34]
Effects on COPD and asthma
Main article: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) includes diseases such as chronic bronchitis and
emphysema.[35]
Researches have demonstrated increased risk of developing asthma [36] and COPD[37] from increased
exposure to traffic-related air pollution. Additionally, air pollution has been associated with increased
hosptializations and mortality from asthma and COPD.[38][39]
A study conducted in 1960-1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London residents
with 477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low reported death rates
from chronic bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers aged 40 to 59. Compared to the
subjects from the outlying towns, the London subjects exhibited more severe respiratory symptoms
(including cough, phlegm, and dyspnea), reduced lung function (FEV1 and peak flow rate), and increased
sputum production and purulence. The differences were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to 59.
The study controlled for age and smoking habits, so concluded that air pollution was the most likely
cause of the observed differences.[40]
It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban environment serious health hazards
become more apparent. Studies have shown that in urban areas patients suffer mucus hypersecretion,
lower levels of lung function, and more self diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and emphysema.[41]
Links to cancer
A review of evidence regarding whether ambient air pollution exposure is a risk factor for cancer in 2007
found solid data to conclude that long-term exposure to PM2.5 (fine particulate matter) increases the
overall risk of nonaccidental mortality by 6% per a 10 microg/m3 increase.PMID 19235364
Exposure to PM2.5 was also associated with an increased risk of mortality from lung cancer (range: 15%
to 21% per a 10 microg/m3 increase) and total cardiovascular mortality (range: 12% to 14% per a 10
microg/m3 increase). PMID 19235364
The review further noted that living close to busy traffic appears to be associated with elevated risks of
these three outcomes (increase in lung cancer deaths, cardiovascular deaths, and overall nonaccidental
deaths. PMID 19235364
The reviewers also found suggestive evidence that exposure to PM2.5 is positively associated with
mortality from coronary heart diseases and exposure to SO2 increases mortality from lung cancer, but
the data was insufficient to provide solid conclusions.
In 2011, a large Danish epidemiological study found an increased risk of lung cancer for patients who
lived in areas with high nitrogen oxide concentrations. In this study, the association was higher for nonsmokers than smokers.[42] An additional Danish study, also in 2011, likewise noted evidence of possible
associations between air pollution and other forms of cancer, including cervical cancer and brain cancer.
[43]
Effects on children
Around the world, children living in cities with high exposure to air pollutants are at increased risk of
developing asthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections. Because children are outdoors
more and have higher minute ventilation they are more susceptible to the dangers of air pollution. Risks
of low initial birth weight are also heightened in such cities.
The World Health Organization reports that the greatest concentrations of particulate matter particles are
found in countries with low economic world power and high poverty and population growth rates.
Examples of these countries include Egypt, Sudan, Mongolia, and Indonesia. However even in the United
States, despite the passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970, in 2002 at least 146 million Americans were
living in non-attainment areasregions in which the concentration of certain air pollutants exceeded
federal standards.[44] These dangerous pollutants are known as the criteria pollutants, and include
ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead.
Protective measures to ensure childrens' health are being taken in cities such as New Delhi, India where
buses now use compressed natural gas to help eliminate the "pea-soup" smog.[45]
Health effects in relatively "clean" areas
Even in the areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects can be significant and
costly, since a large number of people breathe in such pollutants. A 2005 scientific study for the British
Columbia Lung Association showed that a small improvement in air quality (1% reduction of ambient
PM2.5 and ozone concentrations) would produce a $29 million in annual savings in the Metro Vancouver

region in 2010.[46] This finding is based on health valuation of lethal (death) and sub-lethal (illness)
effects.
Reduction efforts
There are various air pollution control technologies and land use planning strategies available to reduce
air pollution. At its most basic level land use planning is likely to involve zoning and transport
infrastructure planning. In most developed countries, land use planning is an important part of social
policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population as well
as to protect the environment.
Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developing countries
have permissive regulations),[citation needed] expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and
transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as lawn trimmers, chainsaws,
and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion to
cleaner fuels (such as bioethanol, biodiesel, or conversion to electric vehicles).
Control devices
The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or transportation
devices. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is
emitted into the atmosphere.
Particulate control
Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)
Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate
collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an induced
electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally
impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulate matter such as dust
and smoke from the air stream.
Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust filter, a filtercleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system (distinguished from air cleaners which
utilize disposable filters to remove the dust).
Particulate scrubbersWet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology. The term describes a variety
of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the
polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by
forcing it through a pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants.
Scrubbers
Baffle spray scrubber
Cyclonic spray scrubber
Ejector venturi scrubber
Mechanically aided scrubber
Spray tower
Wet scrubber
NOx control
Low NOx burners
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)
NOx scrubbers
Exhaust gas recirculation
Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)
VOC abatement
Adsorption systems, such as activated carbon
Flares
Thermal oxidizers
Catalytic converters
Biofilters
Absorption (scrubbing)
Cryogenic condensers
Vapor recovery systems
Acid Gas/SO2 control
Wet scrubbers
Dry scrubbers

Flue-gas desulfurization
Mercury control
Sorbent Injection Technology
Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)
K-Fuel
Dioxin and furan control
Miscellaneous associated equipment
Source capturing systems
Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)
Legal regulations
Smog in Cairo
In general, there are two types of air quality standards. The first class of standards (such as the U.S.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards and E.U. Air Quality Directive) set maximum atmospheric
concentrations for specific pollutants. Environmental agencies enact regulations which are intended to
result in attainment of these target levels. The second class (such as the North American Air Quality
Index) take the form of a scale with various thresholds, which is used to communicate to the public the
relative risk of outdoor activity. The scale may or may not distinguish between different pollutants.
Canada
In Canada air pollution and associated health risks are measured with the The Air Quality Health Index or
(AQHI). It is a health protection tool used to make decisions to reduce short-term exposure to air pollution
by adjusting activity levels during increased levels of air pollution.
The Air Quality Health Index or "AQHI" is a federal program jointly coordinated by Health Canada and
Environment Canada. However, the AQHI program would not be possible without the commitment and
support of the provinces, municipalities and NGOs. From air quality monitoring to health risk
communication and community engagement, local partners are responsible for the vast majority of work
related to AQHI implementation. The AQHI provides a number from 1 to 10+ to indicate the level of
health risk associated with local air quality. Occasionally, when the amount of air pollution is abnormally
high, the number may exceed 10. The AQHI provides a local air quality current value as well as a local air
quality maximums forecast for today, tonight and tomorrow and provides associated health advice.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 +
Risk: Low (1-3) Moderate (4-6) High (7-10) Very high (above 10)
As it is now known that even low levels of air pollution can trigger discomfort for the sensitive population,
the index has been developed as a continuum: The higher the number, the greater the health risk and
need to take precautions. The index describes the level of health risk associated with this number as
low, moderate, high or very high, and suggests steps that can be taken to reduce exposure.
[47]
Health Risk Air Quality Health Index Health Messages
At Risk population *General Population
Low 1-3 Enjoy your usual outdoor activities. Ideal air quality for outdoor activities
Moderate 4-6 Consider reducing or rescheduling strenuous activities outdoors if you are experiencing
symptoms. No need to modify your usual outdoor activities unless you experience symptoms such as
coughing and throat irritation.
High 7-10 Reduce or reschedule strenuous activities outdoors. Children and the elderly should also take it
easy. Consider reducing or rescheduling strenuous activities outdoors if you experience symptoms such
as coughing and throat irritation.
Very high Above 10 Avoid strenuous activities outdoors. Children and the elderly should also avoid
outdoor physical exertion. Reduce or reschedule strenuous activities outdoors, especially if you
experience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation.
[48]
It is measured based on the observed relationship of Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), ground-level Ozone (O3)
and particulate matter (PM2.5) with mortality from an analysis of several Canadian cities. Significantly,
all three of these pollutants can pose health risks, even at low levels of exposure, especially among those
with pre-existing health problems.
When developing the AQHI, Health Canadas original analysis of health effects included five major air

pollutants: particulate matter, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), as well as sulfur dioxide (SO2), and
carbon monoxide (CO). The latter two pollutants provided little information in predicting health effects
and were removed from the AQHI formulation.
The AQHI does not measure the effects of odour, pollen, dust, heat or humidity.
Cities
Nitrogen dioxide concentrations as measured from satellite 2002-2004
Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely populated metropolitan areas, especially in developing
countries where environmental regulations are relatively lax or nonexistent[citation needed]. However,
even populated areas in developed countries attain unhealthy levels of pollution with Los Angeles and
Rome[49] being two good examples.
NATA
The National-Scale Air Toxics Assessment (NATA) is EPA's ongoing comprehensive evaluation of air toxics
in the U.S. EPA developed the NATA as a state-of-the-science screening tool for State/Local/Tribal
Agencies to prioritize pollutants, emission sources and locations of interest for further study in order to
gain a better understanding of risks. NATA assessments do not incorporate refined information about
emission sources, but rather, use general information about sources to develop estimates of risks which
are more likely to overestimate impacts than underestimate them. NATA provides estimates of the risk of
cancer and other serious health effects from breathing (inhaling) air toxics in order to inform both
national and more localized efforts to identify and prioritize air toxics, emission source types and
locations which are of greatest potential concern in terms of contributing to population risk. This in turn
helps air pollution experts focus limited analytical resources on areas and or populations where the
potential for health risks are highest. Assessments include estimates of cancer and non-cancer health
effects based on chronic exposure from outdoor sources, including assessments of non-cancer health
effects for Diesel Particulate Matter (PM). Assessments provide a snapshot of the outdoor air quality and
the risks to human health that would result if air toxic emissions levels remained unchanged.[50]
Governing urban air pollution a regional example (London)
In Europe, Council Directive 96/62/EC on ambient air quality assessment and management provides a
common strategy against which member states can "set objectives for ambient air quality in order to
avoid, prevent or reduce harmful effects on human health and the environment . . . and improve air
quality where it is unsatisfactory".[51]
On 25 July 2008 in the case Dieter Janecek v Freistaat Bayern CURIA, the European Court of Justice ruled
that under this directive[51] citizens have the right to require national authorities to implement a short
term action plan that aims to maintain or achieve compliance to air quality limit values.[52]
This important case law appears to confirm the role of the EC as centralised regulator to European
nation-states as regards air pollution control. It places a supranational legal obligation on the UK to
protect its citizens from dangerous levels of air pollution, furthermore superseding national interests with
those of the citizen.
In 2010, the European Commission (EC) threatened the UK with legal action against the successive
breaching of PM10 limit values.[53] The UK government has identified that if fines are imposed, they
could cost the nation upwards of 300 million per year.[54]
In March 2011, the City of London remains the only UK region in breach of the ECs limit values, and has
been given 3 months to implement an emergency action plan aimed at meeting the EU Air Quality
Directive.[55] The City of London has dangerous levels of PM10 concentrations, estimated to cause 3000
deaths per year within the city.[56] As well as the threat of EU fines, in 2010 it was threatened with legal
action for scrapping the western congestion charge zone, which is claimed to have led to an increase in
air pollution levels.[57]
In response to these charges, Boris Johnson, Mayor of London, has criticised the current need for
European cities to communicate with Europe through their nation states central government, arguing
that in future "A great city like London" should be permitted to bypass its government and deal directly
with the European Commission regarding its air quality action plan.[55]
In part, this is an attempt to divert blame away from the Mayors office, but it can also be interpreted as
recognition that cities can transcend the traditional national government organisational hierarchy and
develop solutions to air pollution using global governance networks, for example through transnational
relations. Transnational relations include but are not exclusive to national governments and
intergovernmental organisations [58] allowing sub-national actors including cities and regions to partake
in air pollution control as independent actors.

Particularly promising at present are global city partnerships.[59] These can be built into networks, for
example the C40 network, of which London is a member. The C40 is a public non-state network of the
worlds leading cities that aims to curb their greenhouse emissions.[59] The C40 has been identified as
governance from the middle and is an alternative to intergovernmental policy.[60] It has the potential to
improve urban air quality as participating cities "exchange information, learn from best practices and
consequently mitigate carbon dioxide emissions independently from national government decisions".[59]
A criticism of the C40 network is that its exclusive nature limits influence to participating cities and risks
drawing resources away from less powerful city and regional actors.

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Cutting down on air pollution is an important step in going green. While transportation is the most obvious
generator of air pollution, other aspects of your lifestyle also affect the amount of emissions you create -everything from the products you buy, your behaviors at home and the way you handlehousehold waste. A
number of small changes in different areas of your life can make a difference. The big results come when
everyone is making such a contribution.
Step 1:
Save energy around the house. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, saving energy can
reduce carbon emissions. Because most energy sources require burning fossil fuels, the less energy you use,
the greener you are. Set your appliances and lights on a timer to turn off after a certain period of inactivity. Use
compact fluorescent bulbs instead of standard lightbulbs, and use your microwave instead of the oven to heat
small items. (See References 3)
Step 2:
Manage your heating and cooling. Turn your thermostat down in the winter and up in the summer whenever you
are at work, sleeping or on vacation. You can also turn your water heater down to 120 degrees to save power.
Make sure your insulation is up to the recommended level for your area, and insulate pipes that pass through
unheated spaces. Check to see that your windows and doors are not leaking warm or cool air. To make sure your
furnace and air conditioners are running efficiently, perform regular maintenance. (See References 3)
Step 3:
Cut back on the amount of packaging you purchase and the amount of household waste you produce. The
process of manufacturing packaging releases harmful emissions into the atmosphere, so patronize brands that
use as little packaging as possible. Recycle everything you can: aluminum, paper, glass, plastic and cardboard
are usually easy to recycle. When you are disposing of chemical-based substances like paint, batteries,
pesticides or solvents, check with your local waste management office for a safe, eco-friendly method. (See
References 3)
Step 4:
Reduce the amount of time you spend in the car. Carpool or use public transportation whenever you can. For
shorter distances, walk or ride your bike to do errands. According to the U.S. Department of Transportation,
changing to carpooling can save a person over $1,000 per year. If you avoid driving alone only one day every
week for a year, you can save hundreds of dollars in expenses, not to mention the wear and tear on your car.
When you must drive, refill your gas tank during colder times of the day and avoid spilling gas to prevent
evaporation into the atmosphere. (See References 2)
Step 5:
Improve your fuel economy. According to the EPA, a 1 percent increase in fuel economy equals a 1 percent
decrease in carbon dioxide emissions (see References 1). Avoid accelerating quickly, braking hard and driving at
high speeds, particularly when in heavy traffic. Remove excess weight from your car and remove unused roof
racks or bike carriers, which cause drag.