NICOSIA MODEL

Proposed by Francesco Nicosia in 1970s

Incomplete in a number of aspects, very reductionist
Variables in the model have not been clearly defined
Nicosia model is a structural model of the purchase decisionmaking process by an individual consumer or a whole family.
This model shows the interactive relationship between the
company and the consumer. They arise between them for
mutual communication- company communicates with consumers
through promotional activities, while consumers by making
purchases.
The author of a model F.M. Nicosia identified three stages that
gradually move the consumer in process:

preferences,

attitudes,

Motivations.

A number of assumptions have been made that question the

validity of this model, for instance:

What type of consumer are we talking about?

The company and the consumer have an existing

relationship? What type?

Is this for a new product? Is this the first exchange the

consumer has had with the producer?

This model explains the consumer behavior on the basis of four

fields shown in the diagram. The output of field one becomes the
input of field two, and so on.
Field one consists of sub fields one and two. Sub field one is the
firms attributes and the attributes of the product. The sub field
two is the predisposition of the consumer and his own
characteristics and attributes, which are affected by his exposure
to various information and message, and is responsible for the
building of attitude of the consumer.
Field two is the pre action field, where the consumer goes on for
research and evaluation and gets motivated to buy the product. It
highlights the means and end relationship. Field three is the act of
purchase or the decision-making to buy the product. The
customer buys the product and uses it. Field four highlights the
post-purchase behaviour and the use of the product, its storage
and consumption. The feedback from field four is fed into the
firms attributes or field one, and the feedback from the
experience is responsible for changing the pre-disposition of the
consumer and later his attitude towards the product. Nicosia
Model is a comprehensive model of dealing with all aspects of
building attitudes, purchase and use of product including the postpurchase behavior of the consumer.

The four areas of the decision-making process in

Nicosia Model

In Nicosia Model the decision-making process is divided into four

areas (graphically presented on fig. 1) :

Area 1 - includes consumer attitudes shaped

by information from the market. In this area information flows
from the source of their creation to the recipient.

Area 2 - consumer is looking for information about

specific products and gives them value. During
the evaluation the consumer allocates appropriate weight to
each information piece. When the result of the evaluation of a
given product from the consumer's point of view is satisfactory,
consumer is motivated to buy.

Fig. 1. Nicosia model of consumer behaviour

Area 3 - act of purchase. Motivation - established in

advance by consumer prompts him to acquire the product.

Area 4 - feedback, as result of the consumption of the

product, the consumer acquires a new experience and bases
on it his new preferences (predisposition). This last step is not

only the consumption of a product but also a very important

factor for the future decisions of the consumer. Feedback is
also a very important factor for the company, which acquires a
new information that could be used in preparing future product
policy, its advertising and communications targeted to the
consumer.

LIMITATION
The flow is not completed and does not mention the various
factors internal to the consumer.
The assumption about the consumer being involved in the
decision process with no predisposition about the various
brands is restricting.
Overlapping between firms attributes and consumers
attributes.

EXAMPLE

Four-wheelers

THE ENGEL KOLLAT BLACKWELL

This model talks of consumer behaviour as a decision
making process in the form of five steps (activities) and
other related variables which occur over a period of time.
5 steps involved in the decision process:
Problem Recognition

 Information Search
Alternative Evaluation
Choice
Outcome
Other related Variables included in this model:
Information input
Information processing
Product brand evaluation
General motivating influences
Internationalised environment influences

The Engel, Kollat and Blackwell Model, also referred to as the EKB
model was proposed to organize and describe the growing body of
knowledge/research
concerning
consumer
behavior.
A
comprehensive model, it shows the various components of
consumer decision making and the relationships/interactions
among them. The model went through many revisions and
modifications,
with
attempts
to
elaborate
upon
the
interrelationship between the various components and subcomponents; and, finally another model was proposed in the
1990s which came to be known as the Engel, Blackwell and
Miniard Model (EBM).
The model consists of five parts, viz. information input,
information processing, decision process stage, decision process
variables, and external influences.
Information input: The information input includes all kinds of
stimuli that a consumer is exposed to and triggers a kind of
behavior. The consumer is exposed to a large number of stimuli
both marketing (advertising, publicity, personal selling,

demonstrations, store display, point of purchase stimuli) as well

as non-marketing sources (family, friends, peers); thus the various
stimuli compete for consumers attention. These stimuli provide
information to the consumer and trigger off the decision making
process.
Information processing: Stimuli received in the first stage
provide information; the information is processed into meaningful
information. The stage comprises consumers exposure, attention,
perception/comprehension,
acceptance,
and
retention
of
information. The consumer is exposed to stimuli (and the
accompanying information); attention determines which of the
stimuli he will focus upon; thereafter he would interpret and
comprehend it, accepts it in his short term memory and retains it
by transferring the input to long-term memory.
Decision-process stage: At any time during the information
processing, the consumer could enter into this stage. The model
focuses on the five basic decision-process stages, viz., problem
recognition, search, alternative evaluation, choice, and outcomes
(post-purchase evaluation and behavior).
There is problem recognition; this is followed by a search for
information, which may be internal based on memory. The search
of information is also impacted by environmental influences.
Thereafter, the consumer evaluates the various alternatives;
while evaluation, belief lead to the formation of attitudes, which in
turn affect the purchase intention. The next stage is the choice
and purchase, which gets impacted by individual differences.
Finally there is an outcome, in the form of satisfaction and
dissatisfaction. This outcome acts as a feedback on the input and
impacts the cycle again. Environmental influences, individual
differences and social influences, directly and indirectly influence
each of the stages of the decision process.
However, EKB proposed that it is not necessary for every
consumer to go through all the five stages; it would depend on
whether the problem is an extensive or a routine problem-solving
behavior.

Decision process variables: The model proposes individual

influences that affect the various stages of the decision making
process. Individual characteristics include constructs like
demographics, motives, beliefs, attitude, personality, values,
lifestyle, normative compliance, etc.
External influences: The model also proposes certain
environmental and situational influences that affect the decision
making process. The environmental influences include Circles of
Social Influence, like culture, sub-culture, social class, reference
groups, family and other normative influences; situational
influences include consumers financial condition.

The decision process comprises five stages from need recognition

to outcome. The outcome in the form of
satisfaction/dissatisfaction acts as the input in then next cycle of

a similar purchase. Each of the components is directly or

indirectly impacted by environmental influences, individual
differences and social influences.

Engel, Blackwell and minard

model(Modification)
The EKB model went through a series of revisions and
modifications and finally it was proposed as the Engel, Blackwell
and Miniard Model. The model consists of four sections viz.,
information input; information processing; decision process and
variables influencing the decision process. The variables and the
working relationship is similar to the EKB but has been slightly
modified.
Information received from marketing and non-marketing stimuli
feeds into the information-processing section of the model. The
information section of the model comprises various stages like
exposure, attention, comprehension, acceptance and retention.
After passing through these stages, it goes into the memory. Then
this information that is stored in the memory acts as an initial
influence on the need recognition stage. If internal information is
inadequate there is a search for external information. The model
focuses on the decision process stages: need recognition, search,
pre-purchase alternative evaluation, purchase, consumption, postpurchase alternative evaluation and divestment. Divestment as
a construct was additionally added as a modification over the EKB
model. Divestment relates to options of disposal, recycling or
remarketing. The entire process is influenced by environmental
influences and individual differences.
The core of the EBM model is a decision process which is
augmented with inputs from information processing and other
influencing factors.
Information input

 Information processing
Decision process stage
Variables influencing decision making process
The EBM Model when compared to the Howard-seth model is
more coherent and flexible than the latter.
This model also includes human processes like memory,
information processing and considers both the positive and
negative purchase out comes.

EXAMPLE

Garment sector
Social class
Family
Lifestyle
Personality
Beliefs
attitudes