TRADITIONAL

GRAMMAR

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 NOUN

A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and

abstract idea. Nouns are usually the first words, which small
children learn. The highlighted words in the following sentences are
all nouns:

Late last year our neighbors bought a goat.

Portia White was an opera singer.
The bus inspector looked at all the passengers' passes.
According to Plutarch, the library at Alexandria was destroyed
in 48 B.C.
Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving.

A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an

indirect object, a subject complement, an object complement, an
appositive, an adjective or an adverb.

I. According to Meaning

A. Proper Noun

• a specific name of a place , a person, or a thing

 E.g.:

 Manila Hotel
 Colgate
 Filipinos
 Mars

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B. Common Noun

• a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a

general sense

 E.g.:

 sign
 town
 miles
 weather

C. Abstract Noun

• a noun which names anything which you can not

perceive through your five physical senses

 E.g.:

 Afterthought
 Childhood
 Justice
 Schizophrenia

D. Count Noun

• refer to things that can be divided up into smaller

units which are separate and distinct from one
another

 E.g.:

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  Table
 Chair
 Word
 Remark
Non-count/ Mass noun
• a noun which does not have a plural form, and
which refers to something that you could (or
would) not usually count

• always takes a singular verb in a sentence

 E.g. :

 Oxygen

 Furniture

 Gravel

 Jewelry

E. Collective Noun

• a noun naming a group of things, animals, or

persons

Examples of Collective Nouns

• An armory of aardvarks
• An abominable sight of monks
• An agenda of tasks
• An armada of ships
• An army of caterpillars
• An army of frogs
• An atlas of maps
• A bale of turtles
• A band of men
• A bank of circuits

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• A bank of monitors
• A barren of mules
• A battery of tests
• A bed of clams
• A bed of oysters
• A bed of snakes
• A belt of asteroids
• A bestiary of mythological
creatures
• A bevy of beauties
• A bevy of quail
• A bevy of swans
• A bill of particulars
• A blessing of unicorns
• A bloat of hippopotami
• A boast of soldiers
• A boo of surprises
• A book of Mormons
• A bouquet of flowers
• A bridge of admirals
• A brigade of soldiers
• A broadside of (artillery) shells (on
water)
• A brood of hens
• A buffoonery of orangutans
• A bunch of grapes
• A bury of conies
• A business of ferrets
• A business of flies
• A cackle of hyenas
• A calendar of saints
• A cast of actors
• A cast of falcons

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• A cast of hawks
• A cavalcade of horsemen
• A cavy of extra cowboy mounts
• A cete of badgers
• A chain of islands
• A charlotte of web pages
• A chorus of angels
• A circus of fighter
• A clank of tanks
• A class of students
• A click of (computer) mice
• A cloud of bats
• A cloud of gnats
• A cloud of grasshoppers
• A clowder of cats
• A cluster of alpha computers
• A cluster of grasshoppers
• A clutch of chicks
• A clutch of eggs
• A clutter of cats
• A clutter of starlings
• A college of electors
• A colony of ants
• A colony of beavers
• A colony of gulls
• A colony of penguins
• A colony of rabbits
• A company of parrots
• A company of soldiers
• A congregation of people
• A congregation of plovers
• A congregation of worshipers
• A conspiracy of ravens

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• A constellation of stars
• A constituency of voters
• A convocation of eagles
• A corps of cadets
• A coven of witches
• A covey of pheasants (while on the
ground)
• A covey of quail
• A crash of rhinoceroses (in
contemporary use in Kenya Game
Reports)
• A crowd of onlookers
• A cruft of hackers
• A cry of hounds
• A cry of players
• A culture of bacteria
• A death row of turkeys
• A deck of sailors
• A descent of woodpeckers
• A dilation of pupils
• A dissimulation of birds
• A division of soldiers
• A dole of doves
• A donut of data
• A down of hares
• A draught of fish
• A dray of squirrels
• A drift of hogs
• A drift of swine
• A dropping of pigeons
• A drove of cattle
• A dule of doves
• A drumming of grouse

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• An erst of bees
• An evensong of choirboys
• An exaltation of larks
• A fall of woodcocks
• A fidget of altar boys
• A field of racehorses
• A fistful of dollars
• A flap of nuns
• A fleet of ships
• A flight of cormorants
• A flight of doves
• A flight of stairs
• A flight of swallows
• A float of crocodiles
• A flock of sheep
• A flotilla of ships
• A fluther of jellyfish
• A gaggle of geese (wild or
domesticated)
• A galaxy of stars
• A galaxy of starlets
• A gang of hoodlums
• A glossolalia of Pentecostals
• A government of Episcopalians
• A grist of bees
• A grove of trees
• A hailstorm of gunships
• A hand of bananas
• A heap of trash
• A herd of elephants
• A herd of horses
• A herd of wrens
• A hill of beans

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• A hive of bees
• A host of angels
• A host of sparrows
• A huddle of lawyers
• A huddle of players
• A hug of teddy bears
• A husk of hares
• An immersion of Baptists
• A kettle of hawks (riding a thermal )
• A kindle of kittens
• A labor of moles
• A leap of hares
• A leap of leopards
• A leash of foxes
• A mask of raccoons
• A mass of priests
• A maze of canyons
• A meeting of Quakers
• A membership of Presbyterians
• A mess of officers
• A mob of kangaroo
• A muscle of marines
• A muster of peacocks
• A muster of soldiers
• A muster of storks
• A nest of mice
• A nest of rabbits
• A nest of vipers
• A nest of wasps
• A network of computers (linked
together )
• An observance of hermits
• An orchestra of musicians

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• A pack of hounds
• A pack of wolves
• A pad of (sheets of) paper
• A paddling of ducks (while
swimming)
• A pantheon of gods
• A parade of penguins
• A parliament of owls
• A parliament of rooks
• A party of jays
• A passel of brats
• A patch of flowers
• A patter of footsteps
• A peal of bells
• A peep of chickens
• A piddle of puppies
• A pile of dung
• A piteousness of doves
• A pitying of turtledoves
• A plague of locusts
• A platoon of soldiers
• A plump of waterfowl
• A pod of seals
• A pod of whales
• A pomposity of professors
• A pontificality of prelates
• A prattle of parrots
• A prickle of hedgehogs
• A prickle of porcupines
• A pride of lions
• A radiance of cardinals
• A raft of canvass-back ducks
• A raft of ducks (while idle in water)

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• A raft of widgeon
• A rafter of turkeys
• A range of mountains
• A ring of keys (linked physically)
• A rope of pearls
• A round of drinks
• A route of wolves
• A rumble of artillery
• A rumpus of baboons
• A run of poultry
• A salt substrate of potato chips
• A salt substrate of pretzels
• A salt substrate of saltines
• A salvo of [artillery] shells
• A school of fish
• A sedge of cranes
• A sea of bishops
• A sheaf of wheat (stalks of grain
tied together)
• A shoal of bass
• A shoal of shad
• A shock of corn (pile of stalks)
• A shrewdness of apes
• A siege of herons
• A singular of boars
• A skein of geese (in flight)
• A skulk of foxes
• A slate of candidates
• A slew of homework
• A sloth of bears
• A smack of jellyfish
• A sneak of weasels
• A sounder of swine

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• A squad of soldiers
• A stable of prostitutes
• A staff of employees
• A stand of flamingo
• A stand of trees
• A stash of weed (when hidden)
• A stench of skunks
• A storm of paratroops
• A streak of tigers
• A string of ponies
• A superfluity of nuns
• A swarm of bees
• A tangle of tricksters
• A team of athletes
• A team of ducks (while flying)
• A team of horses
• A team of oxen
• A tick tock of clocks
• A totter of giraffes
• A tribe of goats
• A tribe of monkeys
• A tribe of natives
• A trip of dotterel
• A trip of goats
• A troop of kangaroo
• A troupe of performers
• A ubiquity of sparrows
• An unkindness of ravens
• A visit of Jehovah’s witnesses
• A wake of vultures
• A walk of snipe
• A wealth of information
• A wedge of geese (flying in a "V")

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 • A wedge of swans (flying in a "V")
• A wing of (fighter) aircraft
• A wisdom of owls
• A wisp of snipe

• A wolf pack of submarines

II. According to Form

A. Gender

1. Masculine

• refers to a male character or member of a

species

 E.g.:

 Actor

 Prince

 Waiter

 Widower

2. Feminine

• refers to a female member of a species

 E.g.:

 Actress

 Princess

 Waitress

 Widow

3. Common

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• refers to a member of species which can be a
male or a female

 E.g.:

 Child

 Student

 Applicant

 Candidate

4. Neuter

• refers to a member of a species which is neither a

male nor a female

 E.g.:

 Chair

 Table

 Tree

 Star

Examples of Masculine and Feminine Nouns

Male Female
boy girl
son daughter
king queen
actor actress
nephew niece
waiter waitress
prince Princess
Master Mistress
Brother Sister
Uncle Aunt
Lord Lady

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Man Woman
Husband Wife
Prince Princess
Bull Cow
Rooster Hen
Stag Doe
Drake Duck
Fox Vixen
Gander Goose
Lion Lioness
Ram Ewe
Bachelor Spinster/bachelorette/maid
Bullock Heifer
Dog Bitch
Drone Bee
Horse Mare
Jew Jewess
Wizard Witch
Heir Heiress
Manager Manageress
Poet Poetess
Shepherd Shepherdess
Benefactor Benefactress
Hunter Huntress
Emperor Empress
Traitor Traitress
Ox Cow
Mayor Mayoress
Tiger Tigress
Monk Nun
Gentleman Lady
Duke Duchess
Abbot Abbess
Adulterer Adulteress
Author Authoress
Monitor Monitress
Baron Baroness
Murderer Murderess
Enchanter Enchantress
Prophet Prophetess
God Goddess

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 Host Hostess
Sorcerer Sorceress
Host Hostess
Canon Canoness
Patron Patroness
Count Countess
Peer Peeress
Dauphin Dauphiness
Poet Poetess
Deaconess Deaconess
Proprietor Proprietress
Prior Prioress
Giant Giantess
Heir Heiress
Shepherd Shepherdess
Hunter Huntress
Priest Priestess
Songster Songstress
Instructor Instructress
Inventor Inventress
Executor Executrix
Testator Testatrix
Administrator Administratrix
Hero Heroine
Landgrave Landgravine
Margrave Margravine
Don Donna
Infant Infanta
Signor Signora
Sultan Sultana
B. Number

A noun number shows whether the noun names

one or more than one person or thing. A noun is singular
if it names one person or thing. A noun is plural if it
names more than one person/thing.

1. Regular

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• follows the normal plural rule of adding –es or –s
to form a plural, or changing –y to –I and adding –
es

The majority of English count nouns are

regular and predictable in the spelling of the plural
form. Add -s to the end of the singular form or -es
to those singulars that end in a sibilant sound
(/s/, /z/, /ts/, /dz/).

 E.g.:

-s -es

Minute Minutes Box Boxes

Ship Ships Witness Witnesses

Tree Trees Church Churches

Boat Boats Dish Dishes

Doll Dolls Fox Foxes

Bay Bays Buzz Buzzes

Key Keys Quiz quizzes

2. Irregular

• not follow the normal plural rules

• changes form or doesn’t change at all

• Some nouns that end in -f or -fe are changed

to -ves in the plural

 E.g.

-f or –fe changed to -ves

Knife Knives
Wife Wives

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 Half Halves
Leaf Leaves
Calf Calves
Wolf Wolves
Thief Thieves
Life Lives
Shelf Shelves
Self Selves
Loaf Loaves
Elf Elves
Sheaf Sheaves
Scarf Scarves
Hoof hooves
• Some nouns change the vowel sound in
becoming plural:

 E.g.:

singular plural
fireman firemen
foot feet
goose geese
louse lice
man men
mouse mice
tooth teeth
woman women

• Some Old English plurals are still in use:

 E.g.:

singular plural
child children
ox oxen

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• Some nouns ending in -o take -s as the
plural, while others take -es.

-o becomes -os -o becomes -oes

auto autos echo echoes
embarg
kangaroo kangaroos embargoes
o
kilo kilos hero heroes
memo memos potato potatoes
photo photos tomato tomatoes
piano pianos torpedo torpedoes
pimento pimentos veto vetoes
pro pros
solo solos
soprano sopranos
studio studios
tattoo tattoos
video videos
zoo zoos

 E.g.:

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• Some nouns ending in -o take either -s or
-es:

 E.g.:

singular plural
buffalo buffalos/buffaloes
cargo cargos/cargoes
halo halos/haloes
mosquito mosquitos/mosquitoes
motto mottos/mottoes
no nos/noes
tornado tornados/tornadoes
volcano volcanos/volcanoes
zero zeros/zeroes

• Some nouns do not change at all

 E.g.:

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 singular plural
cod* cod*
deer deer
fish* fish*
offspring offspring
perch* perch*
sheep sheep
trout* trout*

*Notice that these are names of fish. Many fish have irregular plural
forms. Salmon, pike, halibut and tuna are further examples, but
one shark becomes two sharks.

• These include nouns that are traditionally

plural, but are also used for singular forms:

 E.g.:

singular plural
barracks barracks
crossroads crossroads
dice/die dice
gallows gallows
headquarters headquarters
means means
series series
species species

• Other nouns retain foreign plurals. Note that

some of these have adapted a regular
English plural form as well.

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  E.g.:

foreign English plural in

singular
plural use
alga algae
amoeba amoebae amoebas
antenna antennae antennas
formula formulae formulas
larva larvae
nebula nebulae nebulas
vertebrae
vertebra

• Nouns ending in -us with plural -a (only in

technical use):

 E.g.:

singular plural
corpus corpora
genus genera

• Nouns ending in -us with plural -i:

 E.g.:

foreign English plural in

singular
plural use
alumnus alumni

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 bacillus bacilli
cactus cacti cactuses
focus foci
fungus fungi funguses
nucleus nuclei
octopus octopi octopuses
radius radii
stimulus stimuli
syllabus syllabi syllabuses
termini
terminus

• Nouns ending in -um with plural -a:


singular Foreign plural English plural in use
addendum addenda
bacterium bacteria
curriculum curricula curriculums
datum data
erratum errata
medium media
memorandum memoranda memorandums
ovum ova
stratum strata
symposium symposia symposiums

• Nouns ending in -ex, -ix becoming plural

-ices:

 E.g.:

singular Foreign English plural in

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 plural use
apex apices apexes
appendix appendices appendixes
cervix cervices cervixes
index indices indexes
matrix matrices matrixes
vortex vortices

• Nouns ending in -is becoming -es in plural:

singular plural
analysis analyses
axis axes
basis bases
crisis crises
diagnosis diagnoses
emphasis emphases
hypothesis hypotheses
neurosis neuroses
oasis oases
parenthesis parentheses
synopsis synopses
thesis theses

• Nouns ending in -on becoming -a:

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 

• Other irregular plurals, retained from

different languages:

 E.g.:

singular plural
libretto libretti
Italian tempo tempi
virtuoso virtuosi
cherub cherubim
Hebrew
seraph seraphim
Greek schema schemata

3. Compound

• made up of two or more words used together

• can be:

- One word

 E.g.:

 Shoelace

singular plural
criterion criteria
phenomenon phenomena
automaton automata

 Keyboard

 Flashlight

 Applesauce

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  Notebook

 Bedroom

- Hyphenated:

 Sky-scraper

 Boy-friend

 Baby-sitter

 Editor-in-chief

 Great-grandfather

- Two words:

 Police officer

 Seat belt

 High school

 Word processor

 Post office

C. Cases

1. Nominative/ Subjective

• if it is the subject of a verb

• Answers the question "who?" or "what?"

• The subject of a sentence will generally

appear in this case.

 E.g.:

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  My sister walks.

 The dog barks.

2. Objective

• if they are the direct objects of verbs or if

they are the objects of preposition

• Answer the question Whom? or What?

 E.g.:

 I met your sister

 The vendor sells mangoes.

3. Dative

• if it is the indirect object of the verb

• There should not be a preposition before the

indirect object because in that case it will be
the object of that preposition.

• answers the question "(to/for) whom?" or

"(to/for) what

 E.g.:

 The teacher gave the students

few exercises.

 Get him a pen.

4. Possessive

• denotes possession or ownership

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 • all singular nouns form the possessive form
by adding apostrophe and –s

 E.g.:

 Ria’s shoes

 Singer’s microphone

• exception: singular nouns that end in –s form the possessive

by adding either an apostrophe and –s or an apostrophe only.
Both forms of the possessive are considered correct.

 E.g.:

 Charles’s book

 Charles’ book

• Plural nouns that end in –s form the possessive by adding an

apostrophe.

 E.g.:

 The witches' brooms were

hidden in the corner.

 The babies' beds were all in a

row.

• Plural nouns that do not end in –s form the possessive by

adding an apostrophe and –s.

 E.g.:

 She plans to open a women's

clothing boutique.

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  The geese's food supply was
endangered.

• In cases of joint possession, only the last word shows

possession

 E.g.:

 Miguel and Cecilia's new cars

are in the parking lot.

 Lewis and Clark's expectations

were very much the same.

• In compound noun only the last word show possession

 E.g.:

 The queen’s lady-in-waiting’s

birthday was yesterday.

 The president-elect’s finance

troubles were typical.

III. According to Function

A. Subject of the Sentence

• tells us what the sentence is about

 E.g.:

 The cake is delicious.

 Joe is a gourmet.

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B. Object of the Preposition

• Answers the "whom" or "what" after

a preposition in a prepositional phrase.

 E.g.:

 With his friends

 Under the table

C. Direct Object

• answers "whom" or "what" after an action verb

• "receives" or is the "object" of the action.

 E.g.:

 The children ate all the cookies.

 My professor recommended a good book.

D. Subjective Complement/ Predicate Nominative/Predicate

Noun

• follows a copular or linking verb such as be and

become and refers back to the subject

 E.g.:

 My grandfather is a farmer.

 The woman whom you are looking for is she.

E. Objective Complement/Object Complement

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 • directly follow and modify the direct object

 E.g.:

 We consider our puppy our baby.

 My aunt calls my uncle sweetheart.

F. Indirect Object

• answers "to whom/what" or "for whom/what" after

an action verb

 E.g.:

 The salesperson sold the company new

computers.

 The child drew his mother a picture.

G. Appositive

• modifies or explains another noun or noun phrase

 If the appositive is needed to identify the

noun (restrictive appositive) then no
comma is used.

 E.g.:

 The musician Stevie Nicks is a

singer in Fleetwood Mac.

 The tragedy Romeo and Juliet is

a tearjerker.

 If the appositive provides only additional,

accompanying information about the noun –

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it is called nonrestrictive appositive and
it should be set off from the rest of the
sentence with commas (dashes, colons and
parentheses can also be used).

 E.g.:

 The teacher, my uncle, assigns a

lot of homework.
 Carlo, my cousin, won the
student government election.

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 PRONOUN

A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. You use

pronouns like "he," "which," "none," and "you" to make your
sentences less cumbersome and less repetitive.

Grammarians classify pronouns into several types, including the

personal pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun, the interrogative
pronoun, the indefinite pronoun, the relative pronoun, the reflexive
pronoun, and the intensive pronoun.

Types of Pronoun:

Personal Pronouns

• represent specific people or things

• is used depending on number, person, gender and case

Person First Person Second Person Third Person

Number Singular Plural Familiar Singular Plural Singular Plural Relative

Subject I we thou you you he, she, they who

it

Object me us thee you you him, her, them whom

it

Possessive* my, our, ours thy, thine your, your, his, their, whose
mine yours yours hers, its theirs

Reflexive/ myself ourselves Thyself yourself yourselves himself, themselve

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Intensive herself, s
itself

Types of Personal Pronouns:

I. Subjective Personal Pronoun

• used as the subject of the sentence or as a predicate

noun
• the subjective personal pronouns are the following:

 I
 You
 He
 She
 It
 We
 They
 Who

• In the following sentences, the highlighted words

are the subjective personal pronouns.

 I own this website.

 He went to the market to shop.
 She enjoyed her dance lessons
 We bought some canned goods to prepare
for a disaster.
 They travelled to Europe last week.

II. Objective Personal Pronouns

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 • Used as the direct object of a verb, the indirect object of
a verb or the object of the preposition.
• The objective personal pronouns are the following:

 Me
 You
 Him
 Her
 It
 Us
 Them

• In the following sentences, the highlighted words

are the objective personal pronouns.

 Seamus stole the selkie's skin and forced

her to live with him.
 After reading the pamphlet, Judy threw it
into the garbage can.
 The agitated assistant stood up, faced the
angry delegates, and said, “Our leader will
address you in five minutes.
 Deborah and Roberta will meet us at the
newest café in the market.
 Give the list to me.

III. Possessive Personal Pronouns

• substitute a group of words that are indicating a

possession relation
• acts as a subject complement or a subject of the
sentence
• The possessive personal pronouns are the following:

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  Mine
 Yours
 His
 Hers
 Its
 Ours
 Theirs

• In the following sentences, the highlighted words are the

possessive personal pronouns.

 The smallest gift is mine.

 This is yours.
 His is on the kitchen counter.
 Theirs will be delivered tomorrow.
 Ours is the green on the counter.

Demonstrative Pronouns

• pronouns that point to specific things

• indicate whether they are close or far, in space or time, from
the speaker in the moment of speaking

Near Far
Singular This That
Plural Thes those
e

- N.B.: "that" can also be used as a relative pronoun.

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 • In the following sentences, the highlighted words are the
demonstrative pronouns.

 This tastes good.

 Have you seen this?
 These are bad times.
 Do you like these?

 That is beautiful.

Relative Pronouns

• used to join two or more sentences

• used to add information in defining relative clauses and non-
defining relative clauses

 Defining relative clauses – the relative pronoun can be

either the subject or the object of the relative clause

• When it is the subject, the word order is subject +

verb + object:

 I have a friend who/that plays guitar. ( a

friend = subject, plays = verb, guitar =
object)

• When the relative pronoun is the object, the word

order is object + subject + verb:

 He showed me the rocks (which/that) he

had collected. (the rocks =object, he =
subject, had collected = verb)

Adding information about things

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 Relative Which That No relative
pronoun pronoun
Subject
Object

Adding information about people

Relative Who That No relative Whom

pronoun pronoun
Subject
object

• When we add information about things, we can

use that (or no relative pronoun) as object in
conversation and which in more formal contexts:

 Decorating is a job (that) I hate. (rather than

‘…which…’ in this informal context)

• When we add information about people, we

generally prefer that (or no relative pronoun) as
object in informal contexts rather than who or
whom:

 That’s the man (that) I met at Allison’s party

(rather than … who/whom I met …)

• Whom is very formal and rarely used in spoken

English:

 The boy whom Elena had shouted at smiled.

(less formally that, no relative pronoun
or who)

• We use that as subject after: something and

anything; words such as all, little, much, and
none used as pronoun; and noun phrases that
include superlatives. Which is also used as

38
 subject after something and anything, but less
commonly:

 These walls are all that remain of the city.

(not … which remain of the city)

• Note that we can use that (or no relative pronoun)

as object after something/anything; all, etc.; and
noun phrases with superlatives. For example:

 She is one of the kindest people (that) I

know. (not … one of the kindest people who
I know.)

Adding information about things

Relative pronoun Which That

Subject
Object

Adding information about people

Relative pronoun Who Whom

Subject
Object

• Notice that we must include a relative pronoun in

a non-defining relative clause.
• We can use who or whom as object, although
whom is very formal:

 Professor Johnson, who (m) I have long

admired, is to visit the University next week.

• When we add information about things, we

can use which as subject or object. That is

39
 sometimes used instead of which, but some
people think that this is incorrect:

 The Master’s course, which I took in 1990, is

no longer taught. (or … that I took …)

Indefinite Pronoun

• a pronoun that refers to one or more unspecified or

indefinite person, place, or thing

pronoun meaning example

singular

another an additional That ice cream was good. Can

or different I have another?
person or thing

anybody/anyone no matter Can anyone answer this

what person question?

anything no matter The doctor needs to know if

what thing you have eaten anything in
the last two hours.

each every one of Each has his own thoughts.

two or more
people or
things, seen
separately

either one or the Do you want tea or coffee? / I

other of two do not mind. Either is good
people or for me.
things

enough as much or as Enough is enough.

40
 many as
needed

everybody/everyon all people We can start the meeting

e because everybody has
arrived.

everything all things They have no house or

possessions. They lost
everything in the
earthquake.

less a smaller "Less is more" (Mies van der

amount Rohe)

little a small Little is know about his early

amount life.

much a large amount Much has happened since we

met.

neither not one and I keep telling Jack and Jill but
not the other neither believes me.
of two people
or things

nobody/no-one no person I phoned many times but

nobody answered.

nothing no single If you do not know the answer

thing, not it is best to say nothing.
anything

one an unidentified Can one smoke here? | All the

person students arrived but no one is
missing.

other a different One was tall and

person or thing the other was short.

41
 from one
already
mentioned

somebody/someon an unspecified Clearly somebody murdered

e or unknown him. It was not suicide.
person

something an unspecified Listen! I just

or unknown heard something! What could
thing it be?

you an unidentified And you can see why.

person
(informal)

plural

both two people or John likes coffee but not tea. I

things, seen think both are good.
together

few a small Few have ever disobeyed him

number of and lived.
people or
things

fewer a reduced Fewer are smoking these

number of days.
people or
things

many a large number Many have come already.

of people or
things

others other people; I am sure that others have

not us tried before us.

42
several more than two They all complained
but not many and several left the meeting.

they people in They say that vegetables are

general good for you.
(informal)

singular or plural

all the whole All is forgiven.

quantity of All have arrived.
something or
of some things
or people

any no matter how Is any left?

much or how Are any coming?
many

more a greater There is more over there.

quantity of More are coming.
something; a
greater
number of
people or
things

most the majority; Most is lost.

nearly all Most have refused.

none not any; no They fixed the water so why is

person or none coming out of the tap.
persons I invited five friends but none
have come.*

some an unspecified Here is some.

quantity of Some have arrived.
something; an

43
 unspecified
number of
people or
things

such of the type He was a foreigner and he felt

already that he was treated as such.
mentioned
• Some people say that "none" should always take a singular
verb, even when talking about countable nouns (e.g. five
friends). They argue that "none means no one” and "one" is
obviously singular. They say that "I invited five friends but
none has come" is correct and "I invited five friends but
none have come" is incorrect. Historically and grammatically
there is little to support this view. "None" has been used for
hundreds of years with both a singular and a plural verb,
according to the context and the emphasis required.

Reflexive Pronoun

• to indicate that the person who realizes the action of the verb
is the same person who receives the action

Subjec
Reflexive
t
I myself
You yourself
Singular He himself
She herself
It itself
We ourselves
Plural You yourselves
They themselves
 For example:

44
  I cut my hair myself.
* In this example "I" does the action of cutting the hair
and at the same time "I" gets the action of the hair
being cut.
 We defended ourselves brilliantly.
* In this example the reflexive pronoun "ourselves"
refers back to the subject of the sentence.
 John talks to himself when he is nervous.
* In this example "Himself" refers to John.

• act as objects not subjects, and they require an interaction

between the subject and an object.

• For example:

 Because she was not hungry when the

cake was served, Ellen saved herself a
piece.
* In the independent clause, "Ellen" is the
subject and "herself" is a reflexive pronoun
acting as the indirect object. This sentence
is grammatically correct.
 John and myself are going to the
movie.
* In this sentence, "John" and "myself" are
the subjects. Reflexive pronouns cannot be
subjects. This sentence is grammatically
incorrect.

• Care must be taken to identify whether the noun is singular or

plural and choose the pronoun accordingly.

• For example:

45
  Nor is she shy about
giving herself credit for it.
 We gave ourselves a second chance
to complete the course.
 Did they lock themselves out of the
house again?
 Give yourselves a pat on the back for
a job well done.

• Note: The reflexive pronoun can also be used to give more

emphasis to the subject or object (intensive pronoun).

• For example:

 I did it myself.
* I want to emphasize the fact that I did
it.

• Examples:

 He washed himself.
 She looked at herself in the mirror.
 Diabetics give themselves insulin
shots several times a day.
 After the party, I asked myself why I
had faxed invitations to everyone in my
office building.
 Richard usually remembered to send
a copy of his e-mail to himself.

Intensive Pronouns

• used to emphasize the subject

46
 • used when the subject isn't performing the action
• usually next to the subject

Intensive Pronouns

Myself I

Ourselves We

Themselves Them

Yourselves You

Herself She

Himself He

• Examples:

 My sister herself is going to teach the

undergraduate class.

 I myself have two bachelor’s degrees.

 We ourselves studied for the test.

47
 VERB

A verb tells about an action or a state of being. It connects

the subject with information about that subject. In syntax, a verb is
a word belonging to the part of speech that usually denotes an
action (bring, read), an occurrence (decompose, glitter), or a state
of being (exist, stand). Depending on the language, a verb may vary
in form according to many factors, possibly including its tense,
aspect, mood and voice. It may also agree with the person, gender,
and/or number of some of its arguments (subject, object, etc.).

I. Types of Verb:

A. Action Verbs

• verbs that show the performance of an action.

• To find out whether a word is an action verb, ask
yourself whether that word expresses something you can do

 E.g.:
 Muskrats swim in marshes.

 We built a fantastic sandcastle.

B. Linking Verbs

• link a subject to a complement

• connect the subject of a sentence with an adjective, noun, or

pronoun that follows the linking verb

48
 List of Most Common Linking Verbs:

John appeared happy when the company promoted

appear
him.
The graduate students are in Classroom South,
be
Room 106.
feel She felt happy with the new baby.
lie The pieces lay scattered over the floor.
look This person looks tired.
remain Everybody remained silent for a few minutes.
seem This secretary seems (to be) very efficient.
smell That perfume smelled so fresh.
She sounded very surprised when she heard the
sound
news.
Everybody stayed calm when the fire alarm went
stay
off.
taste This grapefruit tastes very bitter.

C. Auxiliary Verbs

• verbs that are used to assist the verb

• cannot be used without a main verb

• used in the sentence structure of the verb sentence

 E.g.:

 Ms. Sothros is reading our stories.

 We should dig for buried treasure.

II. Forms

A. Regular and Irregular Verbs

1. Regular Verbs

49
  If a verb is regular, the past simple and past

participle end in -ed.

 E.g.:

 Clean: cleaned

 finish: finished
 use: used
 paint: painted
 stop: stopped
 carry: carried

2. Irregular Verbs

• if a verb is irregular the past simple and past

participle do not end in -ed.

Irregular Verb Dictionary

Infinitive Simple Past Past Participle

arise arose arisen

awake awakened / awoke awakened / awoken

backslide backslid backslidden /

backslid

be was, were been

bear bore born / borne

beat beat beaten / beat

50
become became become

begin began begun

bend bent bent

bet bet / betted bet / betted

bid (farewell) bid / bade bidden

bid (offer amount) bid bid

bind bound bound

bite bit bitten

bleed bled bled

blow blew blown

break broke broken

breed bred bred

bring brought brought

broadcast broadcast / broadcast /

broadcasted broadcasted

browbeat browbeat browbeaten /

browbeat

build built built

burn burned / burnt [?] burned / burnt [?]

burst burst burst

bust busted / bust busted / bust

buy bought bought

51
cast cast cast

catch caught caught

choose chose chosen

cling clung clung

clothe clothed / clad clothed / clad

come came come

cost cost cost

creep crept crept

crossbreed crossbred crossbred

cut cut cut

daydream daydreamed / daydreamed /

daydreamt [?] daydreamt [?]

deal dealt dealt

dig dug dug

disprove disproved disproved /

disproven

dive (jump head-first) dove / dived dived

dive (scuba diving) dived / dove dived

do did done

draw drew drawn

dream dreamed / dreamt dreamed / dreamt

drink drank drunk

52
drive drove driven

dwell dwelt / dwelled dwelt / dwelled

eat ate eaten

fall fell fallen

feed fed fed

feel felt felt

fight fought fought

find found found

fit (tailor, change size) fitted / fit fitted / fit

fit (be right size) fit / fitted fit / fitted

flee fled fled

fling flung flung

fly flew flown

forbid forbade forbidden

forecast forecast forecast

forego (also forgo) forewent foregone

foresee foresaw foreseen

foretell foretold foretold

forget forgot forgotten / forgot

forgive forgave forgiven

53
forsake forsook forsaken

freeze froze frozen

frostbite frostbit frostbitten

get got gotten / got

give gave given

go went gone

grind ground ground

grow grew grown

hand-feed hand-fed hand-fed

handwrite handwrote handwritten

hang hung hung

have had had

hear heard heard

hew hewed hewn / hewed

hide hid hidden

hit hit hit

hold held held

hurt hurt hurt

inbreed inbred inbred

54
inlay inlaid inlaid

input input / inputted input / inputted

interbreed interbred interbred

interweave interwove / interwoven /

interweaved interweaved

interwind interwound interwound

jerry-build jerry-built jerry-built

keep kept kept

kneel knelt / kneeled knelt / kneeled

knit knitted / knit knitted / knit

know knew known

lay laid laid

lead led led

lean leaned / leant leaned / leant

leap leaped / leapt leaped / leapt

learn learned / learnt learned / learnt

leave left left

lend lent lent

let let let

55
lie lay lain

lie (not tell truth) lied lied

REGULAR

light lit / lighted lit / lighted

lip-read lip-read lip-read

lose lost lost

make made made

mean meant meant

meet met met

miscast miscast miscast

misdeal misdealt misdealt

misdo misdid misdone

mishear misheard misheard

mislay mislaid mislaid

mislead misled misled

mislearn mislearned / mislearned /

mislearnt mislearnt

misread misread misread

misset misset misset

misspeak misspoke misspoken

misspell misspelled / misspelled /

misspelt misspelt

56
misspend misspent misspent

mistake mistook mistaken

misteach mistaught mistaught

misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood

miswrite miswrote miswritten

mow mowed mowed / mown

No irregular verbs beginning with "N."

offset offset offset

outbid outbid outbid

outbreed outbred outbred

outdo outdid outdone

outdraw outdrew outdrawn

outdrink outdrank outdrunk

outdrive outdrove outdriven

outfight outfought outfought

outfly outflew outflown

outgrow outgrew outgrown

outleap outleaped / outleaped / outleapt

outleapt

outlie (not tell truth) outlied outlied

REGULAR

57
outride outrode outridden

outrun outran outrun

outsell outsold outsold

outshine outshined / outshined /

outshone outshone

outshoot outshot outshot

outsing outsang outsung

outsit outsat outsat

outsleep outslept outslept

outsmell outsmelled / outsmelled /

outsmelt outsmelt

outspeak outspoke outspoken

outspeed outsped outsped

outspend outspent outspent

outswear outswore outsworn

outswim outswam outswum

outthink outthought outthought

outthrow outthrew outthrown

outwrite outwrote outwritten

overbid overbid overbid

overbreed overbred overbred

overbuild overbuilt overbuilt

overbuy overbought overbought

58
overcome overcame overcome

overdo overdid overdone

overdraw overdrew overdrawn

overdrink overdrank overdrunk

overeat overate overeaten

overfeed overfed overfed

overhang overhung overhung

overhear overheard overheard

overlay overlaid overlaid

overpay overpaid overpaid

override overrode overridden

overrun overran overrun

oversee oversaw overseen

oversell oversold oversold

oversew oversewed oversewn /

oversewed

overshoot overshot overshot

oversleep overslept overslept

overspeak overspoke overspoken

overspend overspent overspent

overspill overspilled / overspilled /

overspilt overspilt

overtake overtook overtaken

59
overthink overthought overthought

overthrow overthrew overthrown

overwind overwound overwound

overwrite overwrote overwritten

partake partook partaken

pay paid paid

plead pleaded / pled pleaded / pled

prebuild prebuilt prebuilt

predo predid predone

premake premade premade

prepay prepaid prepaid

presell presold presold

preset preset preset

preshrink preshrank preshrunk

proofread proofread proofread

prove proved proven / proved

put put put

quick-freeze quick-froze quick-frozen

quit quit / quitted quit / quitted

60
read read (sounds like read (sounds like
"red") "red")

reawake reawake reawaken

rebid rebid rebid

rebind rebound rebound

rebroadcast rebroadcast / rebroadcast /

rebroadcasted rebroadcasted

rebuild rebuilt rebuilt

recast recast recast

recut recut recut

redeal redealt redealt

redo redid redone

redraw redrew redrawn

refit (replace parts) refit / refitted refit / refitted

refit (retailor) refitted / refit refitted / refit

regrind reground reground

regrow regrew regrown

rehang rehung rehung

rehear reheard reheard

reknit reknitted / reknit reknitted / reknit

relay (for example relaid relaid

tiles)

relay (pass along) relayed relayed

REGULAR

61
relearn relearned / relearnt relearned / relearnt

relight relit / relighted relit / relighted

remake remade remade

repay repaid repaid

reread reread reread

rerun reran rerun

resell resold resold

resend resent resent

reset reset reset

resew resewed resewn / resewed

retake retook retaken

reteach retaught retaught

retear retore retorn

retell retold retold

rethink rethought rethought

retread retread retread

retrofit retrofitted / retrofit retrofitted / retrofit

rewake rewoke / rewaked rewaken / rewaked

rewear rewore reworn

reweave rewove / reweaved rewoven / reweaved

rewed rewed / rewedded rewed / rewedded

rewet rewet / rewetted rewet / rewetted

62
rewin rewon rewon

rewind rewound rewound

rewrite rewrote rewritten

rid rid rid

ride rode ridden

ring rang rung

rise rose risen

roughcast roughcast roughcast

run ran run

sand-cast sand-cast sand-cast

saw sawed sawed / sawn

say said said

see saw seen

seek sought sought

sell sold sold

send sent sent

set set set

sew sewed sewn / sewed

shake shook shaken

shave shaved shaved / shaven

shear sheared sheared / shorn

63
shed shed shed

shine shined / shone shined / shone

shit shit / shat / shitted shit/ shat / shitted

shoot shot shot

show showed shown / showed

shrink shrank / shrunk shrunk

shut shut shut

sight-read sight-read sight-read

sing sang sung

sink sank / sunk sunk

sit sat sat

slay (kill) slew / slayed slain / slayed

slay (amuse) slayed slayed

REGULAR

sleep slept slept

slide slid slid

sling slung slung

slink slinked / slunk slinked / slunk

slit slit slit

smell smelled / smelt smelled / smelt

sneak sneaked / snuck sneaked / snuck

sow sowed sown / sowed

64
speak spoke spoken

speed sped / speeded sped / speeded

spell spelled / spelt spelled / spelt

spend spent spent

spill spilled / spilt spilled / spilt

spin spun spun

spit spit / spat spit / spat

split split split

spoil spoiled / spoilt spoiled / spoilt

spoon-feed spoon-fed spoon-fed

spread spread spread

spring sprang / sprung sprung

stand stood stood

steal stole stolen

stick stuck stuck

sting stung stung

stink stunk / stank stunk

strew strewed strewn / strewed

stride strode stridden

strike (delete) struck stricken

strike (hit) struck struck / stricken

string strung strung

65
strive strove / strived striven / strived

sublet sublet sublet

sunburn sunburned / sunburned /

sunburnt sunburnt

swear swore sworn

sweat sweat / sweated sweat / sweated

sweep swept swept

swell swelled swollen / swelled

swim swam swum

swing swung swung

take took taken

teach taught taught

tear tore torn

telecast telecast telecast

tell told told

test-drive test-drove test-driven

test-fly test-flew test-flown

think thought thought

throw threw thrown

thrust thrust thrust

tread trod trodden / trod

66
typecast typecast typecast

typeset typeset typeset

typewrite typewrote typewritten

unbend unbent unbent

unbind unbound unbound

unclothe unclothed / unclad unclothed / unclad

underbid underbid underbid

undercut undercut undercut

underfeed underfed underfed

undergo underwent undergone

underlie underlay underlain

undersell undersold undersold

underspend underspent underspent

understand understood understood

undertake undertook undertaken

underwrite underwrote underwritten

undo undid undone

unfreeze unfroze unfrozen

unhang unhung unhung

unhide unhid unhidden

unknit unknitted / unknit unknitted / unknit

67
unlearn unlearned / unlearned / unlearnt
unlearnt

unsew unsewed unsewn / unsewed

unsling unslung unslung

unspin unspun unspun

unstick unstuck unstuck

unstring unstrung unstrung

unweave unwove / unweaved unwoven /

unweaved

unwind unwound unwound

uphold upheld upheld

upset upset upset

No commonly used irregular verbs beginning with "V.".

wake woke / waked woken / waked

waylay waylaid waylaid

wear wore worn

weave wove / weaved woven / weaved

wed wed / wedded wed / wedded

weep wept wept

wet wet / wetted wet / wetted

whet REGULAR whetted whetted

68
win won won

wind wound wound

withdraw withdrew withdrawn

withhold withheld withheld

withstand withstood withstood

wring wrung wrung

write wrote written

No irregular verbs beginning with "X."

No irregular verbs beginning with "Y."

No irregular verbs beginning with "Z."

B. Gerund

 forms of verbs that act like nouns

 can follow adjectives and other verbs

 can follow prepositions

Gerunds as the Subject of the Sentence

 Any activity that can be expressed with the "-ing"

form of a verb can be the subject of a sentence. All
gerunds can be the subject of a sentence.

 Breathing is necessary.

69
  Driving a car requires good vision.

 Helping other people feels good.

Gerunds as the Object of a Preposition

 Prepositions (for, with, about, in, etc.) must be followed by

an object.
The object can be a noun or a gerund (a verb acting as a noun).

 I am tired of waking up too early.

 I look forward to meeting your friend.

 I am interested in learning baseball.

 She is responsible for implementing the new policy.

Gerunds as the Object of a Verb

 When it comes to gerunds as the object of a verb, not all

verbs are equal. That is, some verbs can take a gerund as their
objects, but other verbs cannot. (Some verbs can take infinitives
as their objects. Some verbs never take an object at all.) These
differences can only be learned as individual vocabulary items.

C. Participle

• a word formed from a verb that can function as

part of a verb phrase
• Forms:
a) Present participle
- formed by adding "-ing" to the base form of
a verb
b) Past participle
- formed by adding "-ed" to the base form,
unless it is an irregular verb

70
  E.g.:
 The cars produced in Japan are nice.
 I saw the man coming to the shop.
 Going to Texas they expected a
better job.

D. Infinitive
• form which follows "to"
 E.g.:
 He claimed to be an expert.
 I managed to reach the top of the
hill.
 Do not pretend that you know the
answer.
 She failed to explain the problem
clearly.
 The customs man demanded to
search our luggage.
 I cannot afford to go out tonight.

III. Tenses and Aspects

• Tenses- relates to time

• Aspects-which has to do with the internal

structure of the action occurring at any time

Aspect
s
Perfect
simple perfect progressive
progressive

Tenses

have + en
O have + en be + ing
be + ing

Present Sing/Sings has/have am/is are has/have been

71
 sung singing singing

Read/reads has/have am/is/are has/have been

read reading reading

Sang had sung was/were had been

Past
singing singing

Read had read was/were had been

reading reading

will sing will have will be will have been

Future
sung singing singing

will read will have will be will have been

read reading reading

A simple aspect refers to events that are conceptualized as a

complete whole.

• Simple present tense

 Shows an action presently or habitually happening, or a fact or

general truth
 The simple present tense or the ordinary form is the base
form of the verb with the addition of –s or –es. Verbs ending in –s or
–es are singular.
 Conventional uses of the simple present or ordinary form:

1. Habitual actions in the present:

 He takes the jeepney to school every day.
 They go to church every Sunday.

2. General timeless truths, such as physical laws or customs:

 Water freezes at 0 degrees centigrade.
 All men die.
 The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

72
3. To express present action or state of being:
 Christine is absent.

 The boys are in the gymnasium.

4. Permanent condition:
 Zamboanga is in Mindanao
 The President lives in Malacanang.
 Tokyo is the capital of Japan.

5. Expresses future when a scheduled event is involved, usually

with a future-time adverbial):
 I have a meeting next Wednesday at that time.

6. Present speech acts (where the action is accomplished in the

speaking of it):
 I resign from the commission.

7. Conversational historical present (used to refer to certain past

events in narration):
 Suddenly, a German plane dives vertically through our
formation firing as he goes. He misses.

• Simple past tense

 The past tense denotes past action. A regular verb forms its
past tense by adding -d or –ed. An irregular verb forms its past
tense in some other way than by adding –d or –ed.
-The storm caused much damage.

-They had no time to spare.

-She passed the examination.

73
-Carlos bought a new car last week.

 Past tense can be apply in:

1. A definite single completed event/ actions in the past:

 I went to Cebu for a workshop last week.

2. Habitual or repeated action/event in the past:

 It snowed almost every weekend last winter.

3. An event with duration that applied in the past with the

implication that it no longer applies in the present:
 Professor Marie taught at UP for 20 years.

4. With states in the past:

 He appeared to be a creative genius.

5. Imaginative conditional in the subordinate clauses:

 If he took better care of himself, he would not be absent so
often.

6. Social distancing:
 Did you want to sit down and stay a while?

• Simple future tense (with will or contrasted ‘ll)

 Simple future is used when the event is conceptualized as a

whole.
 Future time cannot be factually knowable in the same way as
those in the past and the present.
 Since future can’t be reported on factually, will is said to be
used for strong predictions, not factual reports:

74
-We will cover the first half of the book this term.
 Future tense can be applied in:
1. An action to take place at some definite future time
 I shall meet my high school classmates this summer.
2. A future habitual action or state:
 After September, Nicole will ride a bus to Quezon City every
day.
3. A situation that may obtain the present and will obtain in the
future but with some future termination in sight.
 Denice will live in Japan until she improves her Japanese.
4. In the main (result) clause of future conditional:
 If you go, you will be sorry.

PERFECT ASPECT

The core meaning of the perfect is “prior” and it is used in

relation to some other point in time.

• Present perfect

 Present perfect is used retrospectively to refer to a time prior

to now.
 Formed by adding has or have to the past participle of the
verb.
 Uses of present perfect tense:

1. A situation that began at a prior point in time and continues

into the present:
 We have lived in Cavite for 7 years.
2. An action occurring or not occurring at an unspecified prior
time that has current relevance:
 I have already seen that movie.

75
3. A very recently completed action (often with just):
 Abigail has just finished his homework.
4. An action that occurred over a prior time and that is
completed at the moment of speaking.
5. With verbs in subordinate clauses of time or condition:
 If you have done your homework, you can surf the net.

• Past perfect

 Past perfect offers a retrospective point of view on some past

time
 Formed by adding had to the past participle of the verb.
 Uses of past perfect:
1. An action completed in the past prior to some other past
event or time:
 He had already left before I could offer him a ride.
2. Imaginative conditional in the subordinate clauses:
 If Dessa studied harder, she would have passed the exam.

• Future perfect

 Future perfect offers a retrospective point of view on some

future time.
 Formed by adding will have or shall have to the past participle
of the verb.
 Uses of future perfect:
1. A future action that will be completed prior to a specific future
time:
 I will have finished all this editing by 10 in the evening.
2. A state of accomplishment that will be completed in the future
prior to some other future time or event:

76
  At the end of the March, my parents will have been married
for 21 years.

PROGRESSIVE ASPECTS

The core meaning of progressive is being imperfective.

• Present progressive
 Shows continuing action, something going on now. It may also
show something will happen in the future.
 Formed by combining the present tense of the verb to be with
the present participle of another verb.
 Uses of present progressive:
1. Activity in progress:
 He is attending a meeting now.
2. Extended present (action will end and therefore lacks the
permanence of the simple present tense:
 I’m studying English in Philippine Normal University.
3. A temporary situation:
 Gracelle is living with her foster parents.
4. Repetition or iteration in a series of similar ongoing actions.
 Henry is kicking the soccer ball around the backyard.
5. Expresses future:
 My aunt with her husband is coming this summer.
6. Emotional comment on present habit:
 He is always delivering in a clutch situation.
7. A change in progress:
 She is becoming more and more like her mother.

• Past progressive

 Shows continuing action, something that was happening at

some point in the past.

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 Formed by combining the past tense of the verb to be with the
present participle of another verb.
 Uses of the past progressive:
1. An action in progress at a specific point of time in the past:
 She was walking to school at 6:45 this morning.
2. Past action simultaneous with some other event that is
usually stated in the simple past:
 Richelle is reading the book when the phone rang.
3. Repetition or iteration of some ongoing past action:
 My mother was coughing all night long.

4. Social distance:
 I was hoping you could lend me 130 pesos.

• Future progressive

 Shows continuing action, something that will be happening at

some point in the future.
 Formed by combining the future tense of the verb to be with
the present participle of another verb.
 Uses of future progressive:
1. An action that will be in progress at a specific time in the
future:
 He will be taking a test at 8 AM tomorrow.

2. Duration of some specific future action:

 Fritzie will be working on her thesis for the next three years.

PERFECT PROGRESSIVE ASPECT

78
 This aspect implies the sense of prior of the perfect with the
meaning of incompleteness inherent in the progressive aspect.

• Present perfect progressive

 Shows a continuous action that has been finished at some

point in the past or that was initiated in the past and continues to
happen.
 Formed by combining the present perfect tense of the verb
with the present participle of another verb.
 Uses of present perfect progressive:
1. A situation or habit that began in the past and that continues
up to the present:
 Kenneth has been going out with Lizette.

2. An action in progress that is not yet completed:

 I have been reading this magazine.

3. A state that changes over time:

 The students have been getting better and better.

4. An evaluative comment on something observed over time

triggered by current evidence:
 You have been drinking again.

• Past perfect progressive

 Shows a continuous action completed at some point in the

past.
 Formed by combining the past perfect tense of the verb and
the present participle of another verb.
 Uses of past perfect progressive:

79
1. An action or habit taking place over a period of time in the
past prior to some other past event or time:
 Ate Luisa had been trying to finish her degree that year.

2. A past action in progress that was interrupted by a more

recent past action:
 My family had been planning to go on vacation in Hong Kong,
but changed our minds after receiving the brochure on Macau.

3. An ongoing past action or state that becomes satisfied by

some event:
 I had been longing to see that movie, so I was pleased when I
won tickets.

• Future perfect progressive

 Shows a continuous action that will be completed at some

point in the future.
 Formed by combining the future perfect tense of the verb to
be with the present participle of another verb.

 On Jeffrey’s birthday next month, he will have been teaching

at the learning center for thirty-five years

IV. Voices of Verbs

Voice is used to tell whether the subject of the sentence is

acting or is receiving the action by the verb.

A. Active Voice
• In sentences written in active voice, the subject
performs the action expressed in the verb; the
subject acts.

80
  Example:

In each example above, the subject of the sentence

performs the action expressed in the verb.

With active voice, the action of the verb is linear

and straightforward. The movement of the
sentence is subject –> verb –> rest of idea.

Example: "The report [subject] summarizes [verb] our

findings [object and rest of idea]."

B. Passive Voice

• In sentences written in passive voice, the subject

receives the action expressed in the verb; the
subject is acted upon. The agent performing the
action may appear in a "by the . . ." phrase or may
be omitted.
 Example:

81
 (agent performing action has been
omitted.)

 With passive voice, the verb acts upon the subject. What
would be the subject in a sentence using an active verb
becomes the object.

 Example: "Our findings are summarized by

the report."

• You can recognize passive-voice expressions

because the verb phrase will always include a
form of be, such as am, is, was, were, are, or
been. The presence of a be-verb, however, does
not necessarily mean that the sentence is in
passive voice.

Here are some suggestions:

1. Avoid starting a sentence in active voice and then

shifting to passive.

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Unnecessary shift in voice Revised

Many customers in the

Many customers in the restaurant
restaurant found the coffee
found the coffee too bitter to drink, but
too bitter to drink, but it was
they still ordered it frequently.
still ordered frequently.

He tried to act cool when he

He tried to act cool when he slipped in
slipped in the puddle, but he
the puddle, but the other students still
was still laughed at by the
laughed at him.
other students.

2. Avoid dangling modifiers caused by the use of passive

voice. A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that
modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence.

Dangling modifier with passive

Revised
voice

To save time, the paper was

To save time, Kristin wrote the paper
written on a computer. (Who
on a computer.
was saving time? The paper?)

Seeking to lay off workers

without taking the blame,
Seeking to lay off workers without
consultants were hired to
taking the blame, the CEO hired
break the bad news. Who was
consultants to break the bad news.
seeking to lay off workers? The
consultants?)

3. Don't trust the grammar-checking programs in

word-processing software. Many grammar
checkers flag all passive constructions, but you
may want to keep some that are flagged. Trust

83
 your judgment, or ask another human being for
their opinion about which sentence sounds best.

C. Verb Moods

• Mood - form of the verb that shows the mode or

manner in which a thought is expressed

• Types of Moods:

1. Indicative Mood

• expresses an assertion, denial, or question

 E.g.:

 Little Rock is the capital of Arkansas.

 Ostriches cannot fly.

 Have you finished your homework?

2. Imperative Mood

• expresses command, prohibition, entreaty,

or advice

 Do not smoke in this building.

 Be careful!

 Do not drown that puppy!

3. Subjunctive Mood

• expresses doubt or something contrary to

fact

• describes the state of affairs as speakers

wish or hope them to be

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• Speakers signal the subjunctive by
beginning subordinate clauses with an
auxiliary or by if.
• The subjunctive for the present tense third
person singular drops the -s or -es so that it
looks and sounds like the present tense for
everything else.
• The subjunctive mood of the verb to be is
be in the present tense and were in the
past tense, regardless of what the subject is.
 E.g.:

 Incorrect: If I was you, I would run.

Correct: If I were you, I would run.

(The verb follows if and expresses a
non-factual condition.)

 Incorrect: I wish he were able to type

faster.
Correct: I wish he were able to type
faster.
(The second verb is in a clause following
a verb expressing a wish. It also
suggests a non-factual or doubtful
condition.)

 Incorrect: His requirement is that

everyone is computer literate.
Correct: His requirement is that
everyone be computer literate.
(Subordinate clause follows main
clause with a demand.)

85
  Incorrect: He recommended that each
driver reports his tips.
Correct: He recommended that each
driver report his tips.

4. Interrogative Mood
• Indicates a state of questioning
• starts with an auxiliary verb or an
interrogative pronoun
 E.g.:
 Will you leave me alone?
 Can Liz do that?

V. Verb Usage
A. Using Forms of Be

Often, be verbs is used as a linking verb. Other time

it is use as an auxiliary verb.

Example:

Nina is a student. (Verb be is used as a linking verb)

Nina is dancing. (Verb be is used as an auxiliary verb)

Different Forms of Be that are Used in the Present and Past

Tense

Be Verbs
Present Past

Am -

is was

86
are were

The verbs am and is are singular and used only with singular
subjects. The verb are is used with plural subjects and with the
pronoun you.

Example:

I am very happy.

The kitten is cute. Once, the air we breathe

was clean.

The kittens are cute. The spectators were

ready.

Be: Introductions and Greetings

A. Introduction

1. Introducing one’s self Hello! I am Maria Gomez.

2. Introducing another person I’d like you to meet my

friend. She is

Andrea Chi.

3. Meeting someone for the first Good morning! How are

you? What is

time. your name?

Pronouns with Be

Pronoun Verb Be

I am

87
 He

She is

It

You

We are

They

Contractions of Be

Pronoun +
Be
Be
Cont
racti
on
I am I’m

You are You’re

He is He’s

She is She’s

It is It’s

We are We’re

They are They’re

Yes/No Questions and Short Answers Using Be Verbs

Yes/no Question Short Answers

Affirmative Negative
Contractions

Am I Overweight? You are. You aren’t/ You are

88
 not.

Are you nervous? I am. I’m not.

Is she lonely? She is. She isn’t/ She’s not.

Is English difficult? It is. It isn’t/ It’s not.

Are we out of shape? We are. We aren’t/ We’re

not.

Are verbs difficult? They are. They aren’t/ They’re

not/

B. Using Form of Have

The verb have can be an auxiliary verb or a main

verb. Its forms are: have, has, and had.
Example:
Libraries have many books. (Serves as the main
verb)
The Library has bought more books. (Serves as an
auxiliary verb)
Forms

HAVE / HAS HAD

Example:
How long have you lived
here?
I have been working since
seven this morning.
Example:
He had eaten by the time I
arrived.
Maria and Ann had been
studying for two hours when
their mother arrived.

In the present tense, the verbs have and has are used.
The verb has is used in singular subject. The verb have is
used in plural subjects or with I and you. In the past tense,

89
 only the verb had is used whether the subject is singular or
plural.

Contractions of Have
Has + not Hasn’t
Have + Haven’t
not I’ve
I + have They’ve
They +
have
Had + not Hadn’t

C. Using Forms of Do

Like the verb have, do verb can be an auxiliary verb or

main verb.
Example: The janitors do the work. (Act as a main verb)
The janitor did fix the table. (Act as an auxiliary
verb)

Forms
DO / DOES DID
Used in simple present question Used in simple past question and
and negative forms: negative forms:
Example: Example:
What time does he get up? When did they arrive yesterday?
They don't drive to work. They He didn't finish his homework
take the bus. last week.

In the present tense, the forms do and does are

used. The form does is used with singular subjects. The
form do is used with plural subjects or with I and you.

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 The form did is used with all singular and plural
subjects.

D. Uses of Modals

Modals Meaning/Usage Example

(be) able Ability I’m not able to come to the

to game on Friday.
can Ability Can you play the piano?

“Mom, can I go the cinema

asking for and giving tonight?”
permission “No, you can’t. You have
homework to do”

Offer Can I help you?

Can you switch on the light

request, instruction
for me?

Moods can be really

capability
unpredictable.

Susan can be a real pain in

can + be, to make criticisms
the neck at times.

I can’t come to the game on

can’t ability
Friday.

when you feel sure The tennis match can’t be

something is not possible over yet. (I’m sure it isn’t).
(opposite of must)

possibility or uncertainty He could be the one for you!

could
(can also use might)

request (more polite than Could you switch on the light

can) for me?

We could go on a picnic this

suggestion
afternoon.

asking for and giving “Could I use your phone?”

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 permission “Yes, of course you can”

I couldn’t possibly leave Tom

unwillingness
alone while he’s in this state.

with comparative adjectives I could be fitter.

to express possibility or
He couldn’t study harder.
impossibility

when you don’t need to do You don’t have to go to

something (but you can if school if you don’t want to.
don’t you want)
have to

not necessary to do You don’t need to come to

don’t something (more used than the party if you don’t want
need to needn’t) to.

You’d better do the washing

strong advice (less used up now.
than should)
had better I’d better not go out tonight,
because I have to get up
early tomorrow.

necessity, impersonal, not I have to get up early

for personal feelings, but for tomorrow to catch the train
have a rule or situation. to the office.
(got) to If you are unsure whether to
use must or have to, it is
usually safer to use have to.
I may be married to you, but
to express although in
may that doesn’t give you the
clauses
right to treat me like dirt.

possibility or uncertainty There may be a cure for AIDS

(formal) within the next ten years.

asking for and giving “May I use your phone?”

permission (less usual, more
“Yes, of course you may”
formal)

may as describes the only thing left I’m so bored; I may as well
well/ to do, something which the do some housework.
might as speaker is not enthusiastic
well

92
 about

There might be a cure for

might possibility or uncertainty AIDS within the next ten
years.

If I knew her better, I might

unreal situation
invite her to the ball.

when you feel sure The tennis match must be

must something is true (opposite over by now. (I’m sure it is).
of can’t)

I haven’t spoken to Liz for

necessity, personal feelings
ages. I must give her a call.

You must stop smoking or

order, strong suggestion
you’ll get lung cancer.

You must not leave the table

must not prohibition (negative order) until you have finished your
dinner.

need as a normal verb Do you need me to help you?

Need you make so much

in questions (less usual)
mess?

not necessary to do You needn’t come to the

needn’t something (unusual) party if you don’t want to.

If you like Picasso, you ought

ought to expectation (can use should) to enjoy the exhibition.

You ought to have more

recommendation (can use
driving lessons before you
should)
take the test.

You ought not to shout at

criticism (can use should)
your mother like that.

certainty or desire (mainly I shall give up chocolate for

shall
British English) Lent.

in formal rules and Racism shall not be tolerated

regulations (mainly British in this building.

93
 English)

What shall I do?

in questions to ask for
instructions and decisions, When shall we come and see
and to make offers and you?
suggestions (mainly British
Shall we go to the cinema
English)
this evening?

expectation (can use ought If you like Juan Luna, you

should
to) should enjoy the exhibition.

You should have more

suggestion, advice, opinion
driving lessons before you
(can use ought to)
take the test.

The price on this can of

when something is not right
beans is wrong. It should say
or as you expect it
P 23, not P 53.

You shouldn’t shout at your

criticism (can use ought to)
mother like that.

Should I ask her out on a

Uncertainty
date?

should + words of thinking, I should think he could find a

to make an opinion less more compatible match.
direct

should + be and adjectives It’s odd that he should ask

describing chance, including you so many personal
odd, strange, typical, questions.
natural, interesting,
surprised, surprising, funny
(=odd) and What a
coincidence.

after in case to emphasise

unlikelihood I’m not going out tonight in
case she should call me.

If…..should If Jane should drop by when I

am out, tell her to come back

94
 later.

Applications should be sent

polite order or instruction
by 3rd January.

Oh, that’ll be John on the

will Assumption
phone.

request (can and could are Will you go to the shop for
more common) me?

“I’ll take gran’s pearls then”.

intention or willingness “You won’t!”

“I will!”

Order Will you please shut up!

“I won’t clean my room!”

Insistence
“Yes you will!”

Sarah will sit and gaze at the

habits and typical behaviour
stars all night.

Criticism She will drink too much when

she goes out.
“I’ll take Gran’s pearls then”.
emphatically forbid an
won’t action, in response to a will “You won’t!”
expression
“I will!”

Refusal “I won’t clean my room!”

request (can and could are Would you go to the shop for
would
more common) me?

would like - offer/invitation Would you like a cup of tea?

after be, followed by It’s doubtful that he would be

adjectives doubtful, unlikely, there in time of need.
to emphasise a tentative
action

Annoying habit, typical of a She would ask me for money,

95
 person wouldn’t she?

certainty in a suppressed I would never agree to that.

conditional sentence (even if he asked me)

certainty in a suppressed I wouldn’t agree to that.

wouldn’t
conditional sentence (even if he asked me.)

E. Verb Forming Suffixes

Suffix Meaning Example

-ate to become associated with animate, calculate

-fy Make, do fortify, simplify

-en make or become deepen, harden

-ise, -ize to become like motorize, computerize

F. Other Issues Concerning Verbs

• Distinguishing Verbs from Verbal

Sometimes verb forms are not used as verbs but are used as
other parts of speech. A verb form that is used as another part of
speech is called a verbal. There are three kinds of verbal.

• Using Other Troublesome Verbs Correctly

1. Bring or take? Bring indicates movement toward you.

Take indicates movement away from you.

 E.g.:

 Bring the newspaper inside.

 Take the hamburgers out to the patio.

2. Can or may? Can refers to ability. May refers to

permission.

96
  E.g.:

 Can you play tennis very well?

 May I play awhile before dinner?

3. Learn or teach? Learn means “to obtain knowledge.”

Teach means “to give instruction.”

 E.g.:

 Learn as much as you can.

 You are being taught very well.

4. Let or leave? Let means “to allow.” Leave means “to go

away from” or “to cause to remain”

 E.g.:

 Let me help you.

 Leave the car in the garage.

5. Sit or set? Sit means “to be seated.” Its

principal parts are sit, sitting, sat and (have) sat.
(The verb sit rarely requires an object.)

 E.g.:

 Let’s sit near the front.

 The monkey sat on the limb.

 The campers are sitting in the shade.

97
  We have sat here long enough.

Set means “to put or place something.” Its

principal parts are set, setting, set, (have) set.
(The verb set usually requires an object.)

 E.g.:

 Set the bowl on the table. (Bowl is the

subject)

 They are setting the props in place. (Props is

the object)

 Joe carefully set hit project on the floor.

(Project is the object)

 They have set the date for the performance.

(Date is the object)

6. Rise or raise? Rise means “to go up” or “to get up.” Its
principal parts are rise, rising, rose, (have) risen. (The
verb rise never requires an object.)

 E.g.:

 The dead in Christ shall rise first.

 All Christians will be rising to meet the Lord

in the air.

 Christ died and rose again.

 He has risen as He said.

Raise means “to lift something” or “to push up

something.” It’s principal parts are raise, raising,
raised, (have) raised. (The verb raise usually
requires an object.)

98
  E.g.:

 Each morning we raise the windows.

(Windows is the object)

 Our neighbors are raising vegetables.

(Vegetables is the object)

 Confederate forces raised the sunken

Merrimac. (Merrimac is the object)

 My friend has raised an ant colony. (Colony

is the object)

7. Lie or lay? Lie means “to recline.” Its principal parts are
lie, lying, lay, (have) lain. (The verb lie never requires an
object.)

 E.g.:

 Do not lie down on the job.

 The turtle lay asleep under the bush.

 The lion is lying in wait.

 He had lain motionless for hours.

Lay means “to put or place something.” Its

principal parts are lay, laying, laid, (have) laid.
(The verb lay usually requires an object.)

 E.g.:

 Lay your briefcase on the table. (Briefcase is

the object)

99
  We are laying new carpet in the den.
(Carpet is the object)

 He laid his notes aside. (Notes is the object)

 The girl has laid her apron back into the

drawer. (Apron is the object)

Avoiding Common Errors in Verb Usage

1. Do not use ain’t and aren’t I.

 E.g.:

He ain’t here (incorrect)

I am here, aren’t I? (incorrect)

He isn’t here (correct)

I am here, am I not? (correct)

2. Do not use better for had better.

E.g.:

We better leave now. (incorrect)

We had better leave now. (correct)

3. Do not use didn’t go to for didn’t mean to or didn’t intend

to.

 E.g.:

Billy didn’t go to break Mom’s vase.

(incorrect)

Billy didn’t mean to break Mom’s vase.

(correct)

4. Do not use took sick for became ill.

100
  E.g.:

Debbie took sick and went to the clinic.

(incorrect)

Debbie became ill and went to the clinic.

(correct)

5. Do not use used to could for used to be able to.

 E.g.:

He used to could memorize easily.

(incorrect)

He used to be able to memorize easily.

(correct)

6. Do not use want in, want out, want on, want off, or want
through.

 E.g.:

Jack wants in. (incorrect)

Stop. I want off. (incorrect)

Jack wants to join. (correct)

Stop. I want to get off. (correct)

G. Observing Verb Tense Consistency

The tense of a verb indicates the time

expressed by the verb. When you are writing, select
one tense and do not change to a different tense
without good reason. If you begin writing in the past
tense, do not switch to the present. If you begin with
the present, do not switch to the past.

101
 Not consistent: Chuck caught the ball and throws it
over the first baseman’s head.

(Caught is past tense; throws is present tense.)

Consistent: Chuck caught the ball and threw it over

the first baseman’s head.

(Both verbs are in the past tense.)

Not consistent: When he spoke, he wins the approval

of the audience.

(Spoke is past tense; wins is present tense.)

Consistent: When he spoke, he won the approval of

the audience.

(Both verbs are in the past tense.)

Consistent: When he speaks, he wins the approval

of the audience.

(Both verbs are in present tense.)

H. Using Exact and Vivid Verbs

The surest way to attract and hold a reader’s

interest is to use exact and vivid verbs. Choose verbs
with action and color to create mental pictures in the
reader’s mind.

Notice the following sentence: “He went down the road.”

The verb went is a general word that does not

show any specific action. Observe how the mental

102
 pictures change when exact verbs are substituted for
the word went.

 E.g.:

 He strutted down the road.

He stumbled down the road.

 He plodded down the road.

He sprinted down the road.

 He staggered down the road.

He rambled down the road.

ADVERB

An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a

phrase, or a clause. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause,
or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where,"
"how much".

While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic

"ly" suffix, most of them must be identified by untangling the
grammatical relationships within the sentence or clause as a whole.
Unlike an adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within
the sentence.

In the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an

adverb:

The PNU Chorale sang the Philippine National Anthem beautifully.

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In this sentence, the adverb "beautifully" modifies the verb "sang"
and indicates in what manner the PNU Chorale sang the Philippine
National Anthem.

The midwife waited patiently through a long labor.

Similarly in this sentence, the adverb "patiently" modifies the verb

"waited" and describes the manner in which the midwife waited.

The boldly-spoken words would return to haunt the rebel.

In this sentence the adverb "boldly" modifies the adjective "spoken."

We urged him to dial the number more expeditiously.

Here the adverb "more" modifies the adverb "expeditiously."

Unfortunately, the bank closed at three today.

In this example, the adverb "unfortunately" modifies the entire

sentence.

Adverbs modifying verbs

Where? inflation zoomed upward.

In what manner? She was graciously helping.

To what extent? He always did it right.

I. Kinds of Adverbs According to Meaning

A. Adverbs of Time

• tell us when an action happened, but also for

how long, and how often

 E.g.:

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  Goldilocks went to the Bears'
house yesterday.
 I am going to tidy my room tomorrow.
 My mother lived in France for a year.

B. Adverbs of frequency or number

• answer the question "How often?" or "How

frequently?"
• tell us how often somebody does something
• come before the main verb (except the main verb
"to be")

 E.g.:

 We usually go shopping on Saturday.

 I have often done that.
 She is always late.

C. Adverbs of Place

• tell us where something happens

• usually placed after the main verb or after the
object

 E.g.:

 They built a house nearby.

 She took the child outside.
 I looked everywhere.

D. Adverbs of Manner

• tell us how something happens or is done

 E.g.:

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  She walked slowly.
 John drove carefully.
 The soldiers fought bravely.

E. Adverbs of Degree or Quantity

• tell us about the intensity or degree of an action,

an adjective or another adverb

 E.g.:
 She does not quite know what she will
do after university.
 They are completely exhausted from
the trip.
 I am too tired to go out tonight.

F. Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation

• used to answer the questions raised by others
• modifies and reinforces the positive and negative
aspects of something

 E.g.:

 Surely you are mistaken.

 He certainly went.
 I do not know him.

G. Adverbs of Reason

• Indicates reason

 E.g.:

 Therefore he left.
 Hence we agreed.

H. Adverbs of Interrogation

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 • used in asking questions

 E.g.:

 Why did you not come?

 When do you need it?
 Where did he halt?

I. Adverbs of Relation

• relates or refers back to its antecedent

 E.g.:

 This the place where we met him.

 He does not tell me the reason why he
was absent.

II. Forms of Adverbs

a. Regular adverbs – adjective + ly

As you noticed in our study of verbs, adverbs are the most

common kind of verb modifiers. They are usually grouped into
adverbs of manner and frequency and adverbs of place and time.
By far the most numerous adverbs in English are those ending in –
ly, derived from adjectives. Almost any adjective in the language
can be turned into an adverb by the addition of this suffix as in
prettily, beautifully, happily, and quietly.

Examples:

 She dresses prettily.

 He lives quietly.
 They sing beautifully.

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  We cheered happily.

b. Irregular adverbs

 Adverbs that do not end in -ly

Some adverbs of the types that do not end in-ly are always, in,
later, once, away, up, often, and ever.

Examples:

 He is in.
 You are often absent.
 You go up.
 He will come later.
 They went out.
 I met her once.

 Adverbs that function both as adverbs or as

adjectives without change in form

The following words often called “flat” adverbs, function both

as adverbs or as adjectives without change in form: fast, hard, late,
straight, deep, well, first, slow, and fair.

Examples: Compare
Adjective Adverb

Raul is a fast worker. Raul works fast.

This is hard assignment. Father works hard.

She was late. She came late.

The pathway is straight. He couldn’t walk

straight. 108
 There is a small group of adverbs ending in-ward or-wards
that express destination of direction of movement, such as forward.
(s), afterward (s), backward (s), upward (s), and downward (s). Like
the “flat” adverbs, these forms may be used as adverbs or as
adjectives. The –ward form can be used either before or after
nouns; the –wards from can only be used after a noun or a verb.

Examples:

 He took a backward step.

 Can you write backward (s)?
 The homeward journey (s) was pleasant.
 They traveled homeward (s) by boat.
 He believes in forward buying.
 Please move forward (s).

III. Position of Adverbs

1. The adverb occupies various positions in the sentence as follows:

1) Adj. + Adv. Pattern. The adverb ending in-ly

generally comes before

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 an adjective.

Examples:

 I read an amazingly interesting book.

 He is exceptionally brilliant man.

2) LV + Adv. Pattern: The adverb comes after a

linking verb as in:

Examples:

 She is unusually tall.

 This is terribly difficult.

3) Following Direct Object:

Examples:

 We consider the speech needless long.

 I think the show unnecessarily expensive.

IV. Types of Adverbs According to Function

1. Conjunctive Adverb - These words help to join two clauses in a

sentence.

Examples:

 Still, meanwhile, then, finally, also, and however.

One can usually identify a conjunctive adverb by its use

immediately after a semi-colon as a way of joining the two clauses.

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An example of a sentence using a conjunctive adverb to join two
discrete elements is:

Example:

 It seemed as though time had stopped in anticipation; finally,

in a sudden flurry, the storm came.

2. Interrogative Adverb – Adverbs used in asking questions are

called interrogative adverbs. These are why, where, how, and
when.

They are usually placed at the beginning of a question.

Examples:

 Why are you so late?

 Where is my passport?
 How are you?
 How much is that coat?
 When does the train arrive?

Notice that how can be used in four different ways:

1. Meaning 'in what way?':

How did you make this sauce?
How do you start the car?

2. with adjectives:
How tall are you?
How old is your house?

3. with much and many:

How much are these tomatoes?
How many people are coming to the party?

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4. with other adverbs:
How quickly can you read this?
How often do you go to London?

3. Relative Adverbs - relates or refers back to its antecedent.

Examples:

 This place where we met him.

 He does not tell me the reason why he was absent.

Explanation: The adverb where joins two clauses and it relates or

refers back to the antecedent place; the adverb why also joins two
clauses and relates to the antecedent reason. They are relative
adverbs.

4. Independent Adverbs - modifies a verb, an adjective, another

adverb, phrasal modifier and sentence modifier.

Examples:

1. The woman laughed heartily.

• The adverb heartily is modifying the verb laughed.

2. The gun was barely concealed.

• The adverb barely is modifying the adjective

concealed.

3. His partner told him he should walk more cautiously in the

future.

• The adverb more is modifying another adverb,

cautiously, which in turn is modifying the verb walk.

4. Sadly, he never listened to her advice.

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 The adverb sadly modifies the entire sentence that follows.

V. Functions of Adverbs

a. Intensifier

Adverbs often function as intensifiers, conveying a greater or

lesser emphasis to something. Intensifiers are said to have three
different functions: they can emphasize, amplify, or tone down. Here
are some examples:

• Emphasizers:

 I really don't believe him.

 He literally wrecked his mother's car.
 She simply ignored me.
 They're going to be late, for sure.

• Amplifiers:

 The teacher completely rejected her proposal.

 I absolutely refuse to attend any more faculty
meetings.
 They heartily endorsed the new restaurant.
 I so wanted to go with them.
 We know this city well.

• Downtoners:

 I kind of like this college.

 Joe sort of felt betrayed by his sister.

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  His mother mildly disapproved his actions.
 We can improve on this to some extent.
 The boss almost quit after that.
 The school was all but ruined by the storm.

b. Adjuncts

Regardless of its position, an adverb is often neatly integrated into

the flow of a sentence. When this is true, as it almost always is, the
adverb is called an adjunct. (Notice the underlined adjuncts or
adjunctive adverbs in the first two sentences of this paragraph.)

c. Disjuncts

When the adverb does not fit into the flow of the clause, it is called
a disjunct or a conjunct and is often set off by a comma or set of
commas. A disjunct frequently acts as a kind of evaluation of the
rest of the sentence. Although it usually modifies the verb, we could
say that it modifies the entire clause, too. Notice how "too" is a
disjunct in the sentence immediately before this one; that same
word can also serve as an adjunct adverbial modifier: It's too hot to
play outside. Here are two more disjunctive adverbs:

 Frankly, Martha, I don't give a hoot.

 Fortunately, no one was hurt.

d. Conjuncts

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 Conjuncts, on the other hand, serve a connector function
within the flow of the text, signaling a transition between ideas.

Examples;

 If they start smoking those awful cigars, then I'm not staying.

 We've told the landlord about this ceiling again and again, and
yet he's done nothing to fix it.

At the extreme edge of this category, we have the purely

conjunctive device known as the conjunctive adverb (often called
the adverbial conjunction):

 Jose has spent years preparing for this event; nevertheless,

he's the most nervous person here.

 I love this school; however, I don't think I can afford the

tuition.

ADJECTIVE

An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing,

identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the
noun or the pronoun, which it modifies.

In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:

The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.

Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wallpaper.

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The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.

The coalmines are dark and dank.

Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmas

music.

A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.

The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots.

Forms
Adjectives related to nouns and verbs

A lot of adjectives are closely related to nouns or verbs.

beautiful: beauty (noun) dangerous: danger

(noun)

drinkable: drink (verb) talkative: talk (verb)

These adjectives often have one of the following endings or

‘suffixes’. Sometimes, as in the case of impeccable, the adjective
survives long after the noun or verb it has been related to is
forgotten.

-able impeccable -ent intelligent -ory

obligatory

-al paternal -ful truthful -ous

outrageous-ate immaculate -ist Communist -some
winsome

-an Anglican -ive impressive -wise

streetwise

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 -ant fragrant -less useless -y misty

Words which are not adjectives can also have these endings.

We can attach non-, pro- and anti- to the beginning of some nouns,
and –like and –friendly to the end to create adjective forms, e.g. a
pro-/anti-democracy movement, a business-like manner, a user-
friendly computer manual.

Participle Forms

In the following examples boring and bored are parts of the verb
(to) bore.

 Am I boring you? I haven’t bored you, have I?

Boring is the present participle and bored is the past participle.

Many adjectives have the same form as participles (e.g. boring,
bored, broken, closed, exciting, excited).

Multiword Adjectives

Many adjectives are made up of two parts (usually connected by a

hyphen). These two-part adjectives are multiword adjectives.

The second part of multiword adjectives is often a past participle

form.

adverb and past participle: well-liked, well-intentioned,

beautifully written

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noun and past participle: feather-brained, self-centered,
people-oriented

We also derive adjectives from multiword verbs (e.g. wear someone

out, tie someone up). In this case the first part is usually a past
participle form (e.g. worn-out, tied-up).

Other multiword adjectives don’t involve participle forms at all, e.g.

two-piece, birds-eye and slip-on in the following description.

His two-piece birds-eye suit is impressive; his blue shirt with its
rounded collar immaculate, his thin, faintly European slip-on shoes
is impeccable.

Adjectives don’t change before plural nouns, e.g. two green

books NOT *two greens books.

Comparative-Superlative Forms

Adjectives have three degrees of comparison, namely:

positive, comparative, and superlative. We add –er to the end of
most short adjectives to make the comparative from, and to make
the superlative form we add –est or –st.

Group 1 The regular adjectives

Examples:

Positive Comparative Superlative

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 pretty prettier prettiest

thick thicker thickest

long longer longest

Group 2 The irregular adjectives

Examples

bad worse worst

good better best

little less least

many more most

much more most

NOTE: This group is limited to only the above five adjectives.

Group 3 Comparisons with more and most

Examples:

careful more careful most careful

stupid more stupid most stupid

honest more honest most honest

Negative comparisons are made using: less, least

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Types

Possessive Adjectives

A possessive adjective (``my,'' ``your,'' ``his,'' ``her,''

``its,'' ``our,'' ``their'') is similar or identical to a possessive
pronoun; however, it is used as an adjective and modifies a noun or
a noun phrase, as in the following sentences:

I can't complete my assignment because I don't have the textbook.

In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``my'' modifies

``assignment'' and the noun phrase ``my assignment'' functions as
an object. Note that the possessive pronoun form ``mine'' is not
used to modify a noun or noun phrase.

What is your phone number.

Here the possessive adjective ``your'' is used to modify the noun

phrase ``phone number''; the entire noun phrase ``your phone
number'' is a subject complement. Note that the possessive pronoun
form ``yours'' is not used to modify a noun or a noun phrase.

The bakery sold his favourite type of bread.

In this example, the possessive adjective ``his'' modifies the noun

phrase ``favourite type of bread'' and the entire noun phrase ``his
favourite type of bread'' is the direct object of the verb ``sold.''

After many years, she returned to her homeland.

Here the possessive adjective ``her'' modifies the noun

``homeland'' and the noun phrase ``her homeland'' is the object of
the preposition ``to.'' Note also that the form ``hers'' is not used to
modify nouns or noun phrases.

We have lost our way in this wood.

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In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``our'' modifies ``way''
and the noun phrase ``our way'' is the direct object of the
compound verb ``have lost''. Note that the possessive pronoun form
``ours'' is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.

In many fairy tales, children are neglected by their parents.

Here the possessive adjective ``their'' modifies ``parents'' and the

noun phrase ``their parents'' is the object of the preposition ``by.''
Note that the possessive pronoun form ``theirs'' is not used to
modify nouns or noun phrases.

The cat chased its ball down the stairs and into the backyard.

In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``its'' modifies ``ball'' and

the noun phrase ``its ball'' is the object of the verb ``chased.'' Note
that ``its'' is the possessive adjective and ``it's'' is a contraction for
``it is.''

Demonstrative Adjectives

The demonstrative adjectives ``this,'' ``these,'' ``that,''

``those,'' and ``what'' are identical to the demonstrative pronouns,
but are used as adjectives to modify nouns or noun phrases, as in
the following sentences:

When the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of
books.

In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective ``that'' modifies the

noun ``cord'' and the noun phrase ``that cord'' is the object of the
preposition ``over.''

This apartment needs to be fumigated.

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Here ``this'' modifies ``apartment'' and the noun phrase ``this
apartment'' is the subject of the sentence.

Even though my friend preferred those plates, I bought these.

In the subordinate clause, ``those'' modifies ``plates'' and the noun

phrase ``those plates'' is the object of the verb ``preferred.'' In the
independent clause, ``these'' is the direct object of the verb
``bought.''

Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a

demonstrative pronoun is similar to the relationship between a
possessive adjective and a possessive pronoun, or to that between a
interrogative adjective and an interrogative pronoun.

Interrogative Adjectives

An interrogative adjective (``which'' or ``what'') is like an

interrogative pronoun, except that it modifies a noun or noun
phrase rather than standing on its own (see also demonstrative
adjectives and possessive adjectives):

Which plants should be watered twice a week?

Like other adjectives, ``which'' can be used to modify a noun or a

noun phrase. In this example, ``which'' modifies ``plants'' and the
noun phrase ``which paints'' is the subject of the compound verb
``should be watered'':

What book are you reading?

In this sentence, ``what'' modifies ``book'' and the noun phrase

``what book'' is the direct object of the compound verb ``are
reading.''

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Indefinite Adjectives

An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun,

except that it modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, as in the
following sentences:

Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed.

The indefinite adjective ``many'' modifies the noun ``people'' and

the noun phrase ``many people'' is the subject of the sentence.

I will send you any mail that arrives after you have moved to
Sudbury.

The indefinite adjective ``any'' modifies the noun ``mail'' and the
noun phrase ``any mail'' is the direct object of the compound verb
``will send.''

They found a few goldfish floating belly up in the swan pound.

In this example the indefinite adjective modifies the noun

``goldfish'' and the noun phrase is the direct object of the verb
``found'':

The title of Kelly's favourite game is ``All dogs go to heaven.''

Here the indefinite pronoun ``all'' modifies ``dogs'' and the full title
is a subject complement.

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 Preposition

A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other

words in a sentence. The word or phrase that the preposition
introduces is called the object of the preposition.

A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical

relationship of its object to the rest of the sentence as in the
following examples:

The book is on the table.

The book is beneath the table.

The book is leaning against the table.

The book is beside the table.

She held the book over the table.

She read the book during class.

In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun

"book" in space or in time.

A prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition, its object and

any associated adjectives or adverbs. A prepositional phrase can
function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Each of the
highlighted words in the following sentences is a preposition:

The children climbed the mountain without fear.

In this sentence, the preposition "without" introduces the noun

"fear." The prepositional phrase "without fear" functions as an
adverb describing how the children climbed.

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There was rejoicing throughout the land when the government was
defeated.

Here, the preposition "throughout" introduces the noun phrase "the

land." The prepositional phrase acts as an adverb describing the
location of the rejoicing.

The spider crawled slowly along the banister.

The preposition "along" introduces the noun phrase "the banister"

and the prepositional phrase "along the banister" acts as an adverb,
describing where the spider crawled.

The dog is hiding under the porch because it knows it will be

punished for chewing up a new pair of shoes.

Here the preposition "under" introduces the prepositional phrase

"under the porch," which acts as an adverb modifying the
compound verb "is hiding."

The screenwriter searched for the manuscript he was certain was

somewhere in his office.

Similarly in this sentence, the preposition "in" introduces a

prepositional phrase "in his office," which acts as an adverb
describing the location of the missing papers.

List of the Most Common Prepositions

• aboard
• about
• above
• across
• after
• against
• along
• amid

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• among
• anti
• around
• as
• at

• before
• behind
• below
• beneath
• beside
• besides
• between
• beyond
• but
• by

• concerning
• considering

• despite
• down
• during

• except
• excepting
• excluding

• following
• for
• from

• in
• inside

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• into

• like

• minus

• near

• of
• off
• on
• onto
• opposite
• outside
• over

• past
• per
• plus

• regarding
• round

• save
• since

• than
• through
• to
• toward
• towards

• under
• underneath
• unlike
• until

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 • up
• upon

• versus
• via

• with
• within
• without

Prepositions of Direction: To, On(to), In(to)

1. The basic preposition of a direction is 'to'.

TO: signifies orientation toward a goal

When the goal is physical, such as a destination, "to" implies
movement in the direction of the goal.

(1) Sa'id returned to his

apartment.

When the goal is not a physical place, for instance, an action, "to"
marks a verb; it is attached as an infinitive and expresses purpose.
The preposition may occur alone or in the phrase in order.

(2) Li Ling washed her dog (in order) to rid it of fleas.

The two uses can also occur together in a single sentence:

128
2. The other two prepositions of direction are compounds
formed by adding "to" to the corresponding
prepositions of location.

The preposition of location determines the meaning of the

preposition of direction.

ON + TO = onto: signifies movement toward

a surface

IN + TO = into: signifies movement toward

the interior of a volume

("To" is part of the directional preposition toward, and the two mean
about the same thing.)

3. With many verbs of motion, "on" and "in" have a

directional meaning and can be used along with
"onto" and "into".

(See the sections below for some exceptions to this rule.) This is
why "to" is inside parentheses in the title of the handout, showing
that it is somewhat optional with the compound prepositions. Thus,
the following sentences are roughly synonymous:

129
(4) Tai-shing jumped in/into the
pool.

(5) Porfirio fell on/onto the floor.

(6) The crab washed up on/onto

the shore.

To the extent that these pairs do differ, the compound preposition

conveys the completion of an action, while the simple preposition
points to the position of the subject as a result of that action. This
distinction helps us understand how directional and locational
prepositions are related: they stand in the relationship of cause and
effect.

Completio Position
n of an of
Action Subject

(7) Jean fell Jean is

on(to) the on the
floor. floor.

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(8) Susumu Susumu
dived in(to) is in the
the water. water.

Uses of "to"

To occurs with several classes of verbs.

1. verb + to + infinitive

Verbs in this group express willingness, desire, intention, or

obligation.
• willingness: be willing, consent, refuse
• desire: desire, want, wish, like, ask, request, prefer
• intention: intend, plan, prepare
• obligation: be obligated, have, need
Examples:
(9) I refuse to allow you to intimidate me with your threats.
(10) I'd like to ask her how long she's been skiing.
(11) I plan to graduate this summer.
(12) Henry had to pay his tuition at the Bursar's office.

2. In other cases "to" is used as an ordinary preposition.

• verbs of communication: listen, speak (but not tell), relate,

appeal (in the sense of 'plead,' not 'be attractive')
• verbs of movement: move, go, transfer,
walk/run/swim/ride/drive/ fly, travel

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Except for transfer, all the verbs in (2b) can take toward as well as
to. However, "to" suggests movement toward a specific destination,
while "toward" suggests movement in a general direction, without
necessarily arriving at a destination:

(13) Drive toward the city

limits and turn north.
(Drive in the direction of the city
limits; turnoff may be before arriving
there.)

(14) The plane was headed

toward a mountain. (It was headed in the direction of a
mountain; it may not have reached or
hit the mountain.)

(15) Take me to the airport,

please. (I actually want to arrive at the
airport.)

Uses of "onto"

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1. Onto can generally be replaced by on with verbs of
motion.

(16) Dietrich jumped on(to)

the mat.

(17) Huan fell on(to) the floor.

(18) Athena climbed on(to)

the back of the truck.

2. Some verbs of motion express the idea that the subject

causes itself or some physical object to be situated in
a certain place (compare #15-17 above).

Of these verbs, some take only "on". Others take both on and onto,
with the latter being preferred by some speakers.
(19) The plane landed on the runway. (not onto the runway)
(20) Sam hung the decoration on the Christmas tree. (not
onto the tree)
(21) He placed the package on the table. (not onto the table)
(22) Joanna spilled her Coke on the rug. (not onto the rug)
(23) Samir moved the chair on(to) the deck.
(24) The crane lowered the roof on(to) the house.
(25) The baby threw the pot on(to) the floor.

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Verbs taking only "on" are rare: set may be another one, and so
perhaps is put. Other verbs taking both prepositions are raise,
scatter (when it takes a direct object), pour, and add.
(26) The farmer scattered seed on(to) the fertile ground.
(27) We're adding on a wing at the back of the building.
(28) We're adding a porch onto the house.
In (27), on is really part of the verb, while in (28) onto is a simple
preposition. This contrast points to a fairly important and general
rule:

Simple prepositions can combine with verbs, but

compound prepositions cannot.
Note also that in (27), the word "on" has its ordinary meaning of a
position on a surface, but in this case the surface is vertical rather
than horizontal-- the side of a building. The use of "onto" in (28) is
like its use in (24) and (25) above.

3. There are a number of verb-preposition combinations

which are formally like "add on" but have the meaning
"of continuing or resuming an action" when used in
the imperative mood.

(Not all of them have the force of a command.) Except for hang,
which takes both on and onto, they all occur only with on. The
meanings of these combinations, some of which are idiomatic, are
given in parentheses.
• Hang on(to the rope)! ('continue to grasp tightly')
• carry on ('resume what you were doing')
• sail on ('resume or continue sailing')
• dream on ('continue dreaming'; a humorous way of saying
'that is an unattainable goal')
• lead on ('resume or continue leading us')
• rock on ('continue playing rock music')

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Uses of "into"

1. With verbs of motion, "into" and "in" are interchangeable

except when the preposition is the last word or occurs
directly before an adverbial of time, manner, or
frequency.

In this case only in (or inside) can be used.

(29) The patient went into the doctor's office.
(30) The patient went in. (not into)
(31) Our new neighbors moved into the house next door
yesterday. ('to take up residence in a new home')
(32) Our new neighbors moved in yesterday.
In (32), the last word is the time adverbial yesterday, so the object
of the preposition in (32) can be omitted. Of course, in an
information question, "into" also can be last word except for an
adverbial when its object is questioned by a wh- word:
(34) Now what kind of trouble has she gotten herself into?
(35) Now what sort of trouble is she in?

2. Verbs expressing stationary position take only "on" or "in"

with the ordinary meanings of those prepositions.

If a verb allows the object of the preposition to be omitted, the

construction may have an idiomatic meaning.

(36) The cat sat on the mat.

135
 (37) The doctor is in his office.

(38) The doctor is in. ('available

for consultation')

In(to) has two special uses with move.

3. When "move in" is followed by a purpose clause, it has

the sense of "approach".

(39) The lion moved in for the kill.

(40) The police moved in to rescue the hostages inside the
building.
In (39) and (40) "in" is part of the verb, so "into" cannot be used; we
cannot say: "The lion moved into for the kill."

4. When "into" is used with move, it functions as an ordinary

preposition to convey the idea of moving something
from one place to another.

(41) We'll move your brother's

old bed into your room.

This use of "into" is like the use of onto illustrated in (24)-(27) and
(29).

Prepositions of Location: At, In, On

136
 Prepositions expressing spatial relations are of two kinds:
prepositions of location and prepositions of direction. Both kinds
may be either positive or negative. Prepositions of location appear
with verbs describing states or conditions, especially be;
prepositions of direction appear with verbs of motion.

Dimensions and Prepositions

Prepositions differ according to the number of dimensions they refer

to. We can group them into three classes using concepts from
geometry: point, surface, and area or volume.

Point

Prepositions in this group indicate that the noun that follows

them is treated as a point in relation to which another object
is positioned.

Surface

Prepositions in this group indicate that the position of an

object is defined with respect to a surface on which it rests.

Area/Volume

Prepositions in this group indicate that an object lies within

the boundaries of an area or within the confines of a volume.

Notice that although in geometry surface and area go together

because both are two-dimensional, in grammar area and volume go
together because the same prepositions are used for both.

In light of these descriptions, at, on, and in can be classified as

follows:

137
 at ....... point

on ....... surface

in .......
area/vol
ume

The meanings of the three prepositions can be illustrated with some

sample sentences:

1) My car is at
the house.

2) There is a
new roof on the
house.

3) The house is
in Tippecanoe
county.

4) There are five

rooms in the
house, which
has a lovely

138
fireplace in the
living room.

dimensional structure that can be divided into smaller volumes,

namely, rooms, inside one of which is an object, the fireplace All of
these sentences answer a question of the form, "Where is _______?"
but each gives different information.

“Using "at"

At calls for further comment. Because it is the least specific of the

prepositions in its spatial orientation, it has a great variety of uses.
Here are some of them:

location

5a) Tom is waiting for his sister at

the bank.

5b) Sue spent the whole

afternoon at the fair.

destination

6a) We arrived at the house.

6b) The waiter was at our table

immediately.

Direction

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7a) The policeman leaped at the
assailant.

7b) The dog jumped at my face

and really scared me.

In 5a), the bank can be understood as a point defining Tom's

location, much as in 1) above. It makes less sense to think of a fair
as a point in 5b) since fairs are usually spread out over a fairly large
area. Probably at is used in this case just because it is the least
specific preposition; it defines Sue's location with respect to the fair
rather than some other place. In 6a), at exhibits its cause/effect
relationship with to, which cannot be used here: arrival at a place is
the result of going to it. 7a) and 7b) show that with certain verbs of
motion at may be used with the same meaning as its directional
counterpart to, that is, direction toward something.

"in" and "on"

1. Nouns denoting enclosed spaces, such as a field or a window,

take both on and in. The prepositions have their normal meanings
with these nouns: on is used when the space is considered as a
surface, in when the space is presented as an area:

140
 Three players are
practicing on the field.
(surface)

Three cows are grazing in

the field. (area)

The frost made patterns

on the window. (surface)

A face appeared in the

window. (area)

Notice that in implies that the field is enclosed, whereas on implies

only that the following noun denotes a surface and not necessarily
an enclosed area:

The sheep are grazing in

the pasture. (enclosed by a
fence)

The cattle are grazing on

the open range. (not
enclosed by a fence )

Three players are on the

basketball court. (not
enclosed)

141
Three players are on the
soccer field. (not enclosed)

Two boxers are in the ring.

(enclosed by ropes)

2. When the area has metaphorical instead of actual boundaries,

such as when field means "academic discipline," in is used:
She is a leading researcher in the bioengineering field.

3. Several common uses of in and on occur with street. The first two
follow the general pattern of in and on usage. The third is an idiom
that must be learned as a unit.

a) The children are playing in the

street.

b) Our house is on Third Street.

c) He declared bankruptcy last week, (This is an idiom meaning that

and now he's out on the street. he's poor.)

In a) the street is understood as an area enclosed by the sidewalks

on either side. Compare b) with the discussion of sentence 3) in the
first section. Here on locates the house on either side of Third

142
Street: it doesn't mean that the street is a surface on which the
house sits. Because the street is understood as a line next to which
the house is situated, on functions much like at in its normal use: it
locates the house in relation to the street but does not specify the
exact address. For that purpose, at is used because the address is
like a particular point on the line. Compare: "Our house is at 323
Third Street." In c) out on the street is an idiom meaning "poor" or
"destitute."

4. In and on are also used with means of transportation: in is used

with a car, on with public or commercial means of transportation:

143
in the car
on the bus
on the plane
on the train

on the ship

Some speakers of English make a further distinction for public modes of

transportation, using in when the carrier is stationary and on when it is in
motion.
My wife stayed in/on the bus while I got out at the rest stop.
The passengers sat in/on the plane awaiting takeoff.

Prepositions of Time, of Place, and to Introduce Objects

One point in time

On is used with days:

 I will see you on Monday.
 The week begins on Sunday.

At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day:
 My plane leaves at noon.
 The movie starts at 6 p.m.

In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons:
 He likes to read in the afternoon.
 The days are long in August.

144
  The book was published in 1999.
 The flowers will bloom in spring.

Extended time

To express extended time, English uses the following prepositions: since,

for, by, from—to, from-until, during,(with)in
 She has been gone since yesterday. (She left yesterday and has not
returned.)
 I'm going to Paris for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks there.)
 The movie showed from August to October. (Beginning in August and
ending in October.)
 The decorations were up from spring until fall. (Beginning in spring
and ending in fall.)
 I watch TV during the evening. (For some period of time in the
evening.)
 We must finish the project within a year. (No longer than a year.)

Place

To express notions of place, English uses the following prepositions: to talk

about the point itself: in, to express something contained: inside, to talk
about the surface: on, to talk about a general vicinity, at
.
 There is a wasp in the room.
 Put the present inside the box.
 I left your keys on the table.
 She was waiting at the corner.

145
Higher than a point

To express notions of an object being higher than a point, English uses the
following prepositions: over, above.

 He threw the ball over the roof.

 Hang that picture above the couch.

Lower than a point

To express notions of an object being lower than a point, English uses the
following prepositions: under, underneath, beneath, below.

 The rabbit burrowed under the ground.

 The child hid underneath the blanket.
 We relaxed in the shade beneath the branches.
 The valley is below sea-level.

Close to a point

To express notions of an object being close to a point, English uses the

following prepositions: near, by, next to, between, among, opposite.

 She lives near the school.

 There is an ice cream shop by the store.
 An oak tree grows next to my house
 The house is between Elm Street and Maple Street.
 I found my pen lying among the books.
 The bathroom is opposite that room.

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To introduce objects of verbs

English uses the following prepositions to introduce objects of the following

verbs.

At: glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, stare

 She took a quick glance at her reflection.

(exception with mirror: She took a quick glance in the mirror.)
 You didn't laugh at his joke.
 I'm looking at the computer monitor.
 We rejoiced at his safe rescue.
 That pretty girl smiled at you.
 Stop staring at me.

Of: approve, consist, smell

 I don't approve of his speech.

 My contribution to the article consists of many pages.
 He came home smelling of alcohol.

Of (or about): dream, think

 I dream of finishing college in four years.

 Can you think of a number between one and ten?
 I am thinking about this problem.

For: call, hope, look, wait, watch, wish

 Did someone call for a taxi?

 He hopes for a raise in salary next year.

147
  I'm looking for my keys.
 We'll wait for her here.
 You go buy the tickets and I'll watch for the train.
 If you wish for an "A" in this class, you must work hard.

Prepositions of Spatial Relationship

Write your name above the

Above line.

Across Draw a line across the page.

Against She leans against the tree.

ahead
The girl is ahead of the boy.
of

There is lace along the edge of

along
the cloth.

among He is among the trees.

Draw a circle around the

around
answer.

148
behind The boy is behind the girl.

Write your name below the

below
line.

beneath He sat beneath the tree.

The girl is standing beside the

beside
boy.

betwee
She is between two trees.
n

From He came from the house.

In front
The girl is in front of the boy.
of

Inside He is inside the house.

There is a tree nearby the

nearby
house.

149
 off His hat is off.

out of He came out of the house.

through She went through the door.

She is walking toward the

toward
house.

under He is hiding under the table.

Please mark only within the

within
circle.

CONJUNCTION

150
You can use a conjunction to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the
following example:

I ate the pizza and the pasta.

Call the movers when you are ready.

Coordinating Conjunctions
You use a coordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so,"
or "yet") to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses. Note
that you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as prepositions.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a coordinating
conjunction:
Lilacs and violets are usually purple.

In this example, the coordinating conjunction "and" links two nouns.

This movie is particularly interesting to feminist film theorists, for the

screenplay was written by Mae West.

In this example, the coordinating conjunction "for" is used to link two

independent clauses.

Daniel's uncle claimed that he spent most of his youth dancing on rooftops
and swallowing goldfish.

Here the coordinating conjunction "and" links two participle phrases

("dancing on rooftops" and "swallowing goldfish") which act as adverbs
describing the verb "spends."

151
Subordinating Conjunctions

A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates

the nature of the relationship among the independent clause(s) and the
dependent clause(s).
The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as,"
"because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though,"
"till," "until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while."

Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a subordinating

conjunction:

After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.

The subordinating conjunction "after" introduces the dependent clause "After

she had learned to drive."

If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on Tuesday.

Similarly, the subordinating conjunction "if" introduces the dependent clause

"If the paperwork arrives on time."

Gerald had to begin his thesis over again when his computer crashed.

The subordinating conjunction "when" introduces the dependent clause

"when his computer crashed."

Midwifery advocates argue that home births are safer because the mother
and baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs.

In this sentence, the dependent clause "because the mother and baby are
exposed to fewer people and fewer germs" is introduced by the
subordinating conjunction "because."

152
Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link

equivalent sentence elements. The most common correlative conjunctions
are "both...and," "either...or," "neither...nor,", "not only...but also," "so...as,"
and "whether...or." (Technically correlative conjunctions consist simply of a
coordinating conjunction linked to an adjective or adverb.)

The highlighted words in the following sentences are correlative

conjunctions:

Both my grandfather and my father worked in the steel plant.

In this sentence, the correlative conjunction "both...and" is used to link the

two noun phrases that act as the compound subject of the sentence: "my
grandfather" and "my father".

Bring either a Jello salad or a potato scallop.

Here the correlative conjunction "either...or" links two noun phrases: "a Jello
salad" and "a potato scallop."

Corinne is trying to decide whether to go to medical school or to go to law

school.

Similarly, the correlative conjunction "whether ... or" links the two infinitive
phrases "to go to medical school" and "to go to law school."

The explosion destroyed not only the school but also the neighbouring
pub.

153
In this example the correlative conjunction "not only ... but also" links the
two noun phrases ("the school" and "neighbouring pub") which act as direct
objects.

Note: Some words which appear as conjunctions can also appear as

prepositions or as adverbs.

DETERMINERS

154
Determiners are words that are used with nouns to clarify the noun. They
can clarify:

o to define something or someone

o to state the amount of people, things or other nouns
o to state possessives
o to state something or someone is specific
o to state how things or people are distributed
o to state the difference between nouns
o to state someone or something is not specific

There are different types of determiners. There type of determiner depends

on the type of noun. Singular nouns always need a determiner. Plural nouns
the determiner is optional. Uncountable nouns the determiner is also
optional.

There are about 50 different determiners in the English language they

include:

o Articles: a, an, the

o Demonstratives: this, that, these, those, which etc.
o Possessives: my, your, our, their, his, hers, whose, my friend's, our
friends', etc.
o Quantifiers: few, a few, many, much, each, every, some, any etc.

Articles

In English Grammar, articles are including two types: Indefinite articles: a /

an and Definite article: the.

The use of these articles depends mainly on whether you are referring to any
member of a group, or to a specific member of a group:

155
Definite article: THE

"THE" is used before singular and plural nouns that refer to a particular
member of a group.

Example: The man standing near the window is my uncle.

The is not used with noncountable nouns referring to something in a general

sense:

 [no article] Coffee is a popular drink.

 [no article] Japanese was his native language.
 [no article] Intelligence is difficult to quantify.

The is used with noncountable nouns that are made more specific by a
limiting modifying phrase or clause:

 The coffee in my cup is too hot to drink.

 The Japanese he speaks is often heard in the countryside.
 The intelligence of animals is variable but undeniable.

The is also used when a noun refers to something unique:

 the White House

 the theory of relativity
 the 1999 federal budget

Notice that people do not use the before:

a. names of countries (Italy, Mexico, Bolivia) except the Netherlands and

the US
b. names of cities, towns, or states (Seoul, Manitoba, Miami)
c. names of streets (Washington Blvd., Main St.)

156
 d. names of lakes and bays (Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie) except with a group
of lakes like the Great Lakes
e. names of mountains (Mount Everest, Mount Fuji) except with ranges of
mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual
f. names like the Matterhorn
g. names of continents (Asia, Europe)
h. names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island
chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands

And people Do use the before:

a. names of rivers, oceans and seas (the Nile, the Pacific)

b. points on the globe (the Equator, the North Pole)
c. geographical areas (the Middle East, the West)
d. deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas (the Sahara, the Persian Gulf,
the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula)

Indefinite articles: A / AN

A or AN is used before singular nouns that refer to any member of a group.

Example:

 A boy is walking toward me.

 A dog can bark. A bird can fly.

The use of A / AN:

• a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy

• a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds
like 'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used)
• an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant

157
 • an + singular noun beginning with voiceless “h” (ex. hour, honor,
honest, etc )

If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an

depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the
article:

 a broken egg
 an unusual problem
 a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with
consonant 'y' sound)

Note also that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate
membership in a profession, nation, or religion.

 I am a teacher.
 Leo is an Australian.
 Yuko is a practicing Shintoist.

Demonstratives are words that are use to indicate which entities a speaker
refers to, and distinguishes those entities from others.

The demonstratives in English are this, that, these, and those, possibly
followed by one(s) in case of pronouns

Demonstratives

Demonstratives can be used as pronouns or adjectives. They are sometimes

referred to as demonstrative adjectives or demonstrative pronouns. When
they are used as adjectives they modify the noun.

• "This" is used for singular nouns that are close to the speaker.
• "That" is used for singular nouns that are far from the speaker.
• "These" is used for plural nouns that are close to the speaker.

158
 • "Those" is used for plural nouns that are far from the speaker.

This - That - These - Those - Here - There

Read the conversations below:

David: Could you give me that book on the table over there?
Frank: Do you mean this book here?
David: Yes, that book.
Frank: Here you are. Oh, could you give me those magazines on the table
over there?
David: These? Sure, here you are.

David: Is there an apple on that table over there?

Frank: Yes, there is. Here it is.
David: Great, are there any oranges?
Frank: No, there aren't.
David: Oh, here they are, next to me on this table.

Look at the chart below:

We use "here" for We use "there" for

something that is near something that is far from
to us. Example: Here us. Example: There is
is the pencil in my the pen next to the
hand. lamp.

We use "this" for one

We use "that" for one
object (singular) that is
object (singular) that is
here (near to us).
there. Example: That is
Example: This is a
his car over there.
book in my hand.

159
 We use "these" for
We use "those" for more
more than one object
than one object (plural)
(plural) that are here
that are there. Example:
(near to us). Example:
Those are his toys over
These are my friends
there.
next to me.

We use "there" for more

We use "there" for one
than one object (plural)
object (singular) that
that exist - or "are".
exists - or "is" (near to
Example: There are
us). Example: There
(There're) many of my
is (There's) a table
friends at the party
next to the window.
tonight.

Quantifiers

Quantifiers are words that are used to state quantity or amount of something
without stating the actually number.

Quantifiers answer the questions "How many?" and "How much?"

Quantifiers can be used with plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns.

Quantifiers must agree with the noun. There are 3 main types of quantifiers;
quantifiers that are used with countable nouns, quantifiers that are used with
uncountable nouns and quantifiers that are used with either countable nouns
or uncountable nouns.

160
The following quantifiers will work with count nouns:
many trees
a few trees
few trees
several trees
a couple of trees
none of the trees

The following quantifiers will work with non-count nouns:

not much dancing
a little dancing
little dancing
a bit of dancing
a good deal of dancing
a great deal of dancing
no dancing

The following quantifiers will work with both count and non-count nouns:
all of the trees/dancing
some trees/dancing
most of the trees/dancing
enough trees/dancing
a lot of trees/dancing
lots of trees/dancing
plenty of trees/dancing
a lack of trees/dancing

In formal academic writing, it is usually better to use many and much rather
than phrases such as a lot of, lots of and plenty of.

161
There is an important difference between "a little" and "little" (used with
non-count words) and between "a few" and "few" (used with count words).
If I say that Tashonda has a little experience in management that means that
although Tashonda is no great expert she does have some experience and
that experience might well be enough for our purposes. If I say that
Tashonda has little experience in management that means that she doesn't
have enough experience. If I say that Charlie owns a few books on Latin
American literature that means that he has some books — not a lot of books,
but probably enough for our purposes. If I say that Charlie owns few books
on Latin American literature that means he doesn't have enough for our
purposes and we'd better go to the library.

Unless it is combined with of, the quantifier "much" is reserved for questions
and negative statements:

 Much of the snow has already melted.

 How much snow fell yesterday?
 Not much.

Note that the quantifier "most of the" must include the definite article the
when it modifies a specific noun, whether it's a count or a non-count noun:
"most of the instructors at this college have a doctorate"; "most of the water
has evaporated." With a general plural noun, however (when you are not
referring to a specific entity), the "of the" is dropped:

 Most colleges have their own admissions policy.

 Most students apply to several colleges.

An indefinite article is sometimes used in conjunction with the quantifier

many, thus joining a plural quantifier with a singular noun (which then takes
a singular verb):

 Many a young man has fallen in love with her golden hair.

162
 Many an apple has fallen by October.

163
 INTERJECTION

An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not

grammatically related to any other part of the sentence.

You usually follow an interjection with an exclamation mark. Interjections are

uncommon in formal academic prose, except in direct quotations.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are interjections:
Ouch, that hurts!

Oh no, I forgot that the exam was today.

Hey! Put that down!

I heard one guy say to another guy, "He has a new car, eh?"

I don't know about you but, good lord, I think taxes are too high!

164
 PUNCTUATION

The following sections will help you understand and use different types
of punctuation more effectively in your writing. This chapter begins with
the comma, the punctuation mark which usually causes writers the most
trouble, before turning to other types of punctuation.

The Comma

Comma usage is in some respects a question of personal writing style:

some writers use commas liberally, while others prefer to use them
sparingly. Most modern North American style guides now recommend using
fewer commas rather than more, so when faced with the option of using a
comma or not, you may find it wise to refrain.

For instance, the use of a comma before the "and" in a series is usually
optional, and many writers choose to eliminate it, provided there is no
danger of misreading:

 We bought scarves, mittens and sweaters before leaving for Iceland.

(comma unnecessary before "and")

 We ate apples, plums, and strawberry and kiwi compote. (comma

needed before "and" for clarity)

Comma Usage

1. Use a comma before a co-ordinating conjunction that joins

independent clauses (unless the independent clauses are very short):
 I wrapped the fresh fish in three layers of newspaper, but my van still
smelled like trout for the next week. (commas with two independent
clauses)

165
 She invited him to her party and he accepted. (comma unnecessary
with short clauses)

2. Use a comma after an introductory adverb clause and, often, after an

introductory phrase (unless the phrase is very short):
 After the hospital had completed its fund-raising campaign, an
anonymous donor contributed an additional $10,000. (after
introductory adverb clause)

 From the east wall to the west, her cottage measures twenty feet.
(after introductory prepositional phrase)

 In the bottom drawer you will find some pink spandex tights. (no
comma with short, closely related phrase)

3. Use a comma to separate items in a series:

 Playing in a band can be exciting, but many people do not realize the
hardships involved: constant rehearsals, playing until 2 a.m., handling
drunken audience members, and transporting heavy equipment to and
from gigs. (the comma preceding "and" is optional unless needed to
prevent misreading)

4. Use commas to set off non-restrictive elements and other

parenthetical elements. A non-restrictive modifier is a phrase or
clause that does not restrict or limit the meaning of the word it is
modifying. It is, in a sense, interrupting material that adds extra
information to a sentence. Even though removing the non-restrictive
element would result in some loss of meaning, the sentence would still
make sense without it. You should usually set off non-restrictive
elements with commas:
 The people of Haiti, who for decades have lived with grinding poverty
and mind-numbing violence, are unfamiliar with the workings of a true
democracy.

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 A restrictive modifier is a phrase or clause that limits the meaning of
what it modifies and is essential to the basic idea expressed in the sentence.
You should not set off restrictive elements with commas:

 Those residents of Ottawa who do not hold secure, well-paying jobs

must resent the common portrayal of the city as a land of opportunity.

Note that you can use two other punctuation marks to set off non-restrictive
elements or other parenthetical information: parentheses and dashes.
Enclosing parenthetical information in parentheses reduces the importance
of that information:

 Mr. Grundy's driving record (with one small exception) was exemplary.

5. Placing parenthetical information between dashes has the opposite

effect: it emphasises the material:
 Mr. Grundy's driving record -- with one exception -- was exemplary.

Nevertheless, you should usually set off parenthetical information with

commas.

Superfluous Commas

Equally important in understanding how to use commas effectively is

knowing when not to use them. While this decision is sometimes a matter of
personal taste, there are certain instances when you should definitely avoid
a comma.

• Do not use a comma to separate the subject from its predicate:

 [WRONG] Registering for our fitness programs before September 15,
will save you thirty percent of the membership cost.

[RIGHT] Registering for our fitness programs before September 15 will

save you thirty percent of the membership cost.

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• Do not use a comma to separate a verb from its object or its subject
complement, or a preposition from its object:
 [WRONG] I hope to mail to you before Christmas, a current snapshot of
my dog Benji.

 She travelled around the world with, a small backpack, a bedroll, a pup
tent and a camera.

[RIGHT] I hope to mail to you before Christmas a current snapshot of

my dog Benji.

[RIGHT] She travelled around the world with a small backpack, a

bedroll, a pup tent and a camera.

• Do not misuse a comma after a co-ordinating conjunction:

 [WRONG] Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof but, the family was used to
the noise and paid it no attention.

[RIGHT] Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof, but the family was used to the
noise and paid it no attention.

• Do not use commas to set off words and short phrases (especially
introductory ones) that are not parenthetical or that are very slightly
so:
 [WRONG] After dinner, we will play badminton.

[RIGHT] After dinner we will play badminton.

• Do not use commas to set off restrictive elements:

 [WRONG] The fingers, on his left hand, are bigger than those on his
right.

[RIGHT] The fingers on his left hand are bigger than those on his right.

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 • Do not use a comma before the first item or after the last item of a
series:
 [WRONG] The treasure chest contained, three wigs, some costume
jewellery and five thousand dollars in Monopoly money.

 [WRONG] You should practice your punches, kicks and foot sweeps, if
you want to improve in the martial arts.

[RIGHT] The treasure chest contained three wigs, some costume

jewellery and five thousand dollars in Monopoly money.

[RIGHT] You should practice your punches, kicks and foot sweeps if you
want to improve in the martial arts.

The Semicolon

You will usually use the semicolon to link independent clauses not
joined by a co-ordinating conjunction. Semicolons should join only those
independent clauses that are closely related in meaning.

Abdominal exercises help prevent back pain; proper posture is also

important.

The auditors made six recommendations; however, only one has been
adopted so far.

Do not use a semicolon to link a dependent clause or a phrase to an

independent clause.

 [WRONG] Although gaining and maintaining a high level of physical

fitness takes a good deal of time; the effort pays off in the long run.

[RIGHT] Although gaining and maintaining a high level of physical

fitness takes a good deal of time, the effort pays off in the long run.
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Generally, you should not place a semicolon before a co-coordinating
conjunction that links two independent clauses. The only exception to this
guideline is if the two independent clauses are very long and already contain
a number of commas.

 [WRONG] The economy has been sluggish for four years now; but
some signs of improvement are finally beginning to show.

[RIGHT] The economy has been sluggish for four years now, but some
signs of improvement are finally beginning to show.

It may be useful to remember that, for the most part, you should use a
semicolon only where you could also use a period.

There is one exception to this guideline. When punctuating a list or

series of elements in which one or more of the elements contains an internal
comma, you should use semicolons instead of commas to separate the
elements from one another:

 Henry's mother believes three things: that every situation, no matter

how grim, will be happily resolved; that no one knows more about
human nature than she does; and that Henry, who is thirty-five years
old, will never be able to do his own laundry.

The Colon

Writers often confuse the colon with the semicolon, but their uses are
entirely different.

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When to Use a Colon

The colon focuses the reader's attention on what is to follow, and as a

result, you should use it to introduce a list, a summation, or an idea that
somehow completes the introductory idea. You may use the colon in this
way, however, only after an independent clause:

 He visited three cities during his stay in the Maritimes: Halifax, Saint
John and Moncton.

 Their lobbying efforts were ultimately useless: the bill was soundly
defeated.

 My mother gave me one good piece of advice: to avoid wasting time

and energy worrying about things I cannot change.

When Not to Use a Colon

You should not place a colon between a verb and its object or subject
complement, or between a preposition and its object:

 [WRONG] His neighbor lent him a pup tent, a wooden canoe, and a
slightly battered Coleman stove. (colon between verb and objects)

[RIGHT] His neighbor lent him a pup tent, a wooden canoe, and a
slightly battered Coleman stove.

 [WRONG] Her three goals are: to improve her public speaking skills, to
increase her self-confidence and to sharpen her sales techniques.
(colon between verb and subject complement)

[RIGHT] Her three goals are to find a job, to buy a house and to go to
grad school.

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  [WRONG] We travelled to: Japan, China and Korea. (colon between
preposition and objects)

 [RIGHT] We travelled to Japan, China and Korea.

End Punctuation

The punctuation marks that signal the end of a sentence are the
period, the question mark and the exclamation mark.

You use the period, by far the most common of the end punctuation
marks, to terminate a sentence that makes a statement. You may also use
periods with imperative sentences that have no sense of urgency or
excitement attached:

 Without a doubt, Lady Emily was much happier after her divorce.

 Turn right at the stop sign.

 Bring me a cup of coffee and a cheese danish.

When you want to express a sense of urgency or very strong emotion, you
may end your imperative sentences and statements with an exclamation
mark:

 Look out below!

 Leave this house at once!

 I hate him!

Exclamation marks are, however, rare in formal writing. Use them sparingly,
if at all.

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You should use the question mark at the end of a direct question:

 Who's on first?

 Where is my flowered cape?

Be careful not to use a question mark at the end of an indirect question.

Indirect questions are simply statements, and therefore end with a period:

 I wonder who was chosen as Harvest King in the county fair.

 She asked if she could play pinball.

 The teacher asked who was chewing gum.

Quotation Marks

The exact rules for quotation marks vary greatly from language to
language and even from country to country within the English-speaking
world. In North American usage, you should place double quotation marks (")
before and after directly quoted material and words of dialogue:

One critic ended his glowing review with this superlative: "It is simply the
best film ever made about potato farming."

May replied, "This is the last cookie."

You also use quotation marks are used to set off certain titles, usually
those of minor or short works -- essays, short stories, short poems, songs,
articles in periodicals, etc. For titles of longer works and separate
publications, you should use italics (or underlined, if italics are not available).
Use italics for titles of books, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, films,
plays, long poems, long musical works, and television and radio programs.

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  Once when I was sick, my father read me a story called "The Happy
Flower," which was later made into a movie entitled Flower Child,
starring Tiny Tim.

Sometimes, you will use quotation marks to set off words specifically
referred to as terms, though some publishers prefer italics:

 I know you like the word "unique," but do you really have to use it ten
times in one essay?

"Well" is sometimes a noun, sometimes an adverb, sometimes an adjective

and sometimes a verb.

Quotations Marks with Other Punctuation

One question that frequently arises with quotation marks is where to place
other punctuation marks in relation to them. Again, these rules vary from
region to region, but North American usage is quite simple:

1. Commas and periods always go inside the quotation marks.

 I know you are fond of the story "Children of the Corn," but is it an
appropriate subject for your essay?

 "At last," said the old woman, "I can say I am truly happy."

2. Semicolons and colons always go outside the quotation marks.

 She never liked the poem "Dover Beach"; in fact, it was her least
favourite piece of Victorian literature.

 He clearly states his opinion in the article "Of Human Bondage": he

believes that television has enslaved and diminished an entire
generation.

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 3. Question marks, exclamation marks, and dashes go inside quotation
marks when they are part of the quotation, and outside when they do
not.
 Where is your copy of "The Raven"?

 "How cold is it outside?" my mother asked.

Note that in North American usage, you should use single quotation marks (')
only to set off quoted material (or a minor title) inside a quotation.

 "I think she said `I will try,' not `I won't try,'" explained Sandy.

The Apostrophe

You should use an apostrophe to form the possessive case of a noun or to

show that you have left out letters in a contraction. Note that you should
not generally use contractions in formal, academic writing.

 The convertible's engine has finally died. (The noun "convertible's" is in

the possessive case)

 I haven't seen my roommate for a month. (The verb "haven't" is a

contraction of "have not")

To form the possessive of a plural noun ending in "s," simply place an

apostrophe after the "s."

 He has his three sons' futures in mind.

 In many suburbs, the houses' designs are too much alike.

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Possessive pronouns such as "hers," "yours," and "theirs" do not take
apostrophes. This is the case for the possessive pronoun "its" as well. When
you write "it's" with an apostrophe, you are writing a contraction for "it is."

 The spaceship landed hard, damaging its radar receiver. ("its" is the
possessive pronoun)

 It's your mother on the phone. ("it's" is the contraction of "it is")

The Dash

As noted in the section on commas, you can use a dash at the

beginning and end of parenthetical information. Usually, you will use dashes
when you want to emphasise the information, but you might also use them if
the parenthetical information is too long or abrupt to be set off with commas.

 I think you would look fine wearing either the silk blouse - the one with
the blue pattern -- or the angora sweater. (abrupt interruption)

 The idea of returning to the basics in the classroom - a notion which,

incidentally, has been quietly supported for years by many respected
teachers - is finally gaining some currency with school administrators.
(lengthy interruption containing internal commas)

You can use a dash to conclude a list of elements, focusing them all toward
one point.

 Chocolate, cream, honey and peanut butter -- all go into this fabulously
rich dessert.

Dashes also mark sharp turns in thought.

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 We pored over exotic, mouth-watering menus from Nemo Catering,
Menu du Jour, Taste Temptations, and three other reputable caterers --
and rejected them all.

MODIFIERS

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 A modifier can be an adjective, an adverb, or a phrase or clause
acting as an adjective or adverb In every case, the basic principle is the
same: the modifier adds information to another element in the sentence.

In this chapter, you will begin by working with single-word modifiers --

adjectives and adverbs -- but the information here will also apply to phrases
and clauses which act as modifiers.

Using Adverbs and Adjectives

Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and
sometimes clauses and whole sentences. Adjectives are words that modify
nouns and pronouns. Be careful not to use an adjective where you need an
adverb. Consider the following sentences, for instance:

 [WRONG] Once the test was over, Sharon walked slow out of the
classroom.

[RIGHT] Once the test was over, Sharon walked slowly out of the
classroom.

The sentence needs an adverb, not an adjective, to modify the verb

"walked."

 [WRONG] We tried real hard to get the muffin mixture perfect.

[RIGHT] We tried really hard to get the muffin mixture perfect.

The sentence needs an adverb, not an adjective, to modify the adjective

"hard." (Note that "really" is an informal substitute for "very", and you should
avoid in in formal essays.)

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Using "good," "bad," "well," and "badly."

You might also note the distinctions between "good" and "bad" (which are
adjectives) and "well" and "badly" (which are adverbs):

 Shelley plays the piano well and the drums badly.

 The actor's performance was good even though he felt bad that night.

 "Well" is an adjective only when it refers to health or condition:

 She protested that she was well enough to start playing sports again.

Using Adjectives with Linking Verbs

In the same vein, remember that adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. Do
not mistakenly use an adverb to modify these parts of speech.

For example, after a linking verb you may be tempted to use an adverb
instead of an adjective. You will recall that the linking verb is a special kind
of verb because it links its subject to a subject complement. A subject
complement can be either a noun (renaming the subject) or a modifier
(describing the subject). When it is a modifier it must be an adjective
because it describes the subject (always a noun or pronoun). It does not
modify the linking verb itself and should therefore not be an adverb:

 [WRONG] We felt badly about having caused the accident

[RIGHT] We felt bad about having caused the accident.

Using Conjunctive Adverbs

The conjunctive adverb is a special kind of adverb that often serves as

a transition between two independent clauses in a sentence. Some common
conjunctive adverbs are "therefore," "however," "moreover," "nevertheless,"
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"consequently," and "furthermore." When using a conjunctive adverb at the
beginning of the second independent clause, be sure to precede it with a
semicolon not a comma.

 My roommate usually listens to rock music; however, he also likes John

Coltrane and several other jazz musicians.

Using the Comparative and Superlative

You should use the comparative form of an adjective or adverb to

compare exactly two things. You can form the comparative by adding the
suffix "-er" to the modifier (for some short words) or by using the word
"more" with the modifier:

 Of the two designs, the architect is convinced that the city will select
the more experimental one. (comparing two designs)

 Now that it is March, the days are getting longer. (longer now than
before)

You should use the superlative form to compare three or more things. You
can form the superlative by adding the suffix "-est" to the modifier (for some
short words) or by using the word "most" with the modifier:

 This is definitely the smartest, wittiest, most imaginative comic strip I

have ever seen. (implying that I have seen more than two)

Note: if you are not certain, you should check a dictionary to see which
words take use "more" and "most" and which words take the suffixes "-er"
and "-est".

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Common Problems with the Comparative and Superlative

There are certain modifiers which you cannot logically use in the
comparative and superlative forms. Adjectives like "perfect" and "unique,"
for instance, express absolute conditions and do not allow for degrees of
comparison. Something cannot be more perfect than another thing: it is
either perfect or not perfect.

You should also avoid using a double comparison -- that is, using both a
suffix and an adverb to indicate the comparative or superlative:

 [WRONG] I am convinced that my poodle is more smarter than your

dachshund.

 [WRONG] Laurel and Hardy are the most funniest slapstick

comedians in film history.

[RIGHT] I am convinced that my poodle is smarter than your

dachshund.

[RIGHT] Laurel and Hardy are the funniest slapstick comedians in film
history.

Similarly, although the double negative -- the use of two negative

words together for a single negative idea -- is common in speech and has a
long history in the English language, you should avoid using it in formal
writing:

 [WRONG] We decided there wasn't no point in pursuing our research

further.

 [WRONG] I can't get no satisfaction.

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 [RIGHT] We decided there wasn't any point in pursuing our research
further. OR We decided there was no point in pursuing our research
further.

[RIGHT] I can't get any satisfaction. OR I can get no satisfaction.

Double negatives involving "not" and "no" are fairly easy to spot and
fix. However, some other adverbs -- for example, "hardly," "scarcely,"
"barely" -- imply the negative, and you should not use them with another
negative:

 [WRONG] Even though he has lived in Toronto for four years, he does
not have hardly any friends there.

[RIGHT] Even though he has lived in Toronto for four years, he has
hardly any friends there. OR Even though he has lived in Toronto for
four years, he does not have many friends there.

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

You have a certain amount of freedom in deciding where to place your

modifiers in a sentence:

 We rowed the boat vigorously.

 We vigorously rowed the boat.

 Vigorously we rowed the boat.

However, you must be careful to avoid misplaced modifiers -- modifiers

that are positioned so that they appear to modify the wrong thing.

In fact, you can improve your writing quite a bit by paying attention to basic
problems like misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers.

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Misplaced Words

In general, you should place single-word modifiers near the word or

words they modify, especially when a reader might think that they modify
something different in the sentence. Consider the following sentence:

 [WRONG] After our conversation lessons, we could understand the

Spanish spoken by our visitors from Madrid easily.

Do we understand the Spanish easily, or do the visitors speak it easily?

This revision eliminates the confusion:

[RIGHT] We could easily understand the Spanish spoken by our

visitors from Madrid.

It is particularly important to be careful about where you put limiting

modifiers. These are words like "almost," "hardly," "nearly," "just," "only,"
"merely," and so on. Many writers regularly misplace these modifiers. You
can accidentally change the entire meaning of a sentence if you place these
modifiers next to the wrong word:

 [WRONG] Randy has nearly annoyed every professor he has had. (he
hasn't "nearly annoyed" them)

 [WRONG] We almost ate all of the Thanksgiving turkey. (we didn't

"almost eat" it)

[RIGHT] Randy has annoyed nearly every professor he has had.

[RIGHT] We ate almost all of the Thanksgiving turkey.

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Misplaced Phrases and Clauses

It is important that you place the modifying phrase or clause as close

as possible to the word or words it modifies:

 [WRONG] By accident, he poked the little girl with his finger in the
eye.

 [WRONG] I heard that my roommate intended to throw a surprise party

for me while I was outside her bedroom window.

 [WRONG] After the wedding, Ian told us at his stag party that he
would start behaving like a responsible adult.

[RIGHT] By accident, he poked the little girl in the eye with his finger.

[RIGHT] While I was outside her bedroom window, I heard that my

roommate intended to throw a surprise party for me.

[RIGHT] Ian told us at his stag party that he would start behaving like a
responsible adult after the wedding.

Squinting Modifiers

A squinting modifier is an ambiguously placed modifier that can

modify either the word before it or the word after it. In other words, it is
"squinting" in both directions at the same time:

 [WRONG] Defining your terms clearly strengthens your argument.

(does defining "clearly strengthen" or does "defining clearly"
strengthen?)

[RIGHT] Defining your terms will clearly strengthen your argument.

OR A clear definition of your terms strengthens your argument.

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Split Infinitives

The infinitive form of the verb consists of the word "to" followed by the
base form of the verb: "to be," "to serve," "to chop," etc. Inserting a word or
words between the "to" and the verb of an infinitive creates what is known
as a split infinitive. Prescriptive grammarians, who knew Latin grammar
better than English, once decreed that a split infinitive was an error, but now
it is growing increasingly acceptable even in formal writing. Nevertheless,
some careful writers still prefer to avoid splitting infinitives altogether.

In general, you should avoid placing long, disruptive modifiers between

the "to" and the verb of an infinitive. However, you must use your judgement
when it comes to single-word modifiers. Sometimes a sentence becomes
awkward if a single-word modifier is placed anywhere but between the
elements of the infinitive:

 [WRONG] The marketing team voted to, before they launched the
new software, run an anticipatory ad campaign. (disruptive -- the
infinitive should not be split)

[RIGHT] The marketing team voted to run an anticipatory ad campaign

before they launched the new software.

Dangling Modifiers

The dangling modifier, a persistent and frequent grammatical

problem in writing, is often (though not always) located at the beginning of a
sentence. A dangling modifier is usually a phrase or an elliptical clause -- a
dependent clause whose subject and verb are implied rather than expressed
-- that functions as an adjective but does not modify any specific word in the

185
sentence, or (worse) modifies the wrong word. Consider the following
example:

Raised in Nova Scotia, it is natural to miss the smell of the sea.

The introductory phrase in the above sentence looks as if it is meant to

modify a person or persons, but no one is mentioned in the sentence. Such
introductory adjective phrases, because of their position, automatically
modify the first noun or pronoun that follows the phrase -- in this case, "it."
The connection in this case is illogical because "it" was not raised in Nova
Scotia. You could revise the sentence in a number of ways:

For a person raised in Nova Scotia, it is natural to miss the smell of the
sea. (the phrase no longer functions as an adjective)

Raised in Nova Scotia, I often miss the smell of the sea. (the phrase functions
as an adjective but now automatically modifies "I," a logical connection)

A dangling modifier can also appear when you place an elliptical clause
improperly:

Although nearly finished, we left the play early because we were worried
about our sick cat.

The way this sentence is structured, the clause "Although nearly finished"
illogically modifies "we," the pronoun directly following the clause. An easy
way to rectify the problem is to re-insert the subject and verb that are
understood in the elliptical clause:

Although the play was nearly finished, we left early because we were
worried about our sick cat.

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 Building Phrases

A phrase is a group of two or more grammatically linked words

without a subject and predicate -- a group of grammatically-linked words
with a subject and predicate is called a clause.

The group "teacher both students and" is not a phrase because the words
have no grammatical relationship to one another. Similarly, the group "bay
the across" is not a phrase.

In both cases, the words need to be rearranged in order to create phrases.

The group "both teachers and students" and the group "across the bay" are
both phrases.

You use a phrase to add information to a sentence and it can perform the
functions of a subject, an object, a subject complement or object
complement, a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.

The highlighted words in each of the following sentences make up a phrase:

 She bought some spinach when she went to the corner store.

 Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky.

 They heard high pitched cries in the middle of the night.

 In early October, Giselle planted twenty tulip bulbs; unfortunately,

squirrels ate the bulbs and none bloomed.

 Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.

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 PHRASES

A phrase may function as a verb, noun, an adverb, or an adjective.

Verb Phrases

A verb phrase consists of a verb, its direct and/or indirect objects,

and any adverb, adverb phrases, or adverb clauses which happen to modify
it. The predicate of a clause or sentence is always a verb phrase:

 Lorraine is trying to decide whether she wants to go to grad

school or to go to law school.

 He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called for;
therefore, he decided to make something else.

 After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.

 We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m.

Noun Phrases

A noun phrase consists of a pronoun or noun with any associated

modifiers, including adjectives, adjective phrases, adjective clauses, and
other nouns in the possessive case.

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Like a noun, a noun phrase can act as a subject, as the object of a verb or
verbal, as a subject or object complement, or as the object of a preposition,
as in the following examples:

Subject

 Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.

Object of a verb

 To read quickly and accurately is Eugene's goal.

Object of a preposition

 The arctic explorers were caught unawares by the spring breakup.

Subject complement

 Frankenstein is the name of the scientist not the monster.

Object complement

 I consider Loki my favorite cat.

Noun Phrases using Verbals

(By David Megginson)

Since some verbals -- in particular, the gerund and the infinitive -- can act as
nouns, these also can form the nucleus of a noun phrase:

 Ice fishing is a popular winter pass-time.

However, since verbals are formed from verbs, they can also take direct
objects and can be modified by adverbs. A gerund phrase or infinitive
phrase, then, is a noun phrase consisting of a verbal, its modifiers (both
adjectives and adverbs), and its objects:

189
  Running a marathon in the summer is thirsty work.

 I am planning to buy a house next month.

Adjective Phrases

An adjective phrase is any phrase which modifies a noun or pronoun.

You often construct adjective phrases using participles or prepositions
together with their objects:

 I was driven mad by the sound of my neighbor’s constant piano

practicing.

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "of my neighbor’s constant

piano practicing" acts as an adjective modifying the noun "sound."

 My father-in-law locked his keys in the trunk of a borrowed car.

Similarly in this sentence, the prepositional phrase "of a borrowed car" acts
as an adjective modifying the noun "trunk."

 We saw Peter dashing across the quadrangle.

Here the participle phrase "dashing across the quadrangle" acts as an

adjective describing the proper noun "Peter."

 We picked up the records broken in the scuffle.

In this sentence, the participle phrase "broken in the scuffle" modifies the
noun phrase "the records."

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Adverb Phrases

A prepositional phrase can also be an adverb phrase, functioning as an

adverb, as in the following sentences.

 She bought some spinach when she went to the corner store.

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "to the corner store" acts as an
adverb modifying the verb "went."

 Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky.

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in the night sky" functions as a
adverb modifying the verb "flashed."

 In early October, Giselle planted twenty tulip bulbs; unfortunately,

squirrels ate the bulbs and none bloomed.

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in early October" acts as an

adverb modifying the entire sentence.

 We will meet at the library at 3:30 P.M.

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "at 3:30 P.M." acts as an adverb
modifying the verb phrase "will meet."

 The dogs were capering about the clown's feet.

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "about the clown's feet" acts as an
adverb modifying the verb phrase "were capering."

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 CLAUSES

Building Clauses

A clause is a collection of grammatically related words including a

predicate and a subject (though sometimes the subject is implied). A
collection of grammatically related words without a subject or without a
predicate is called a phrase.

Clauses are the building blocks of sentences: every sentence consists of one
or more clauses.

Recognizing Clauses
Consider these examples:

Clause

 Cows eat grass

This example is a clause, because it contains the subject "cows" and the
predicate "eat grass."

Phrase

 Cows eating grass

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This noun phrase could be a subject, but it has no predicate attached to it:
the adjective phrase "eating grass" show which cows the writer is referring
to, but there is nothing here to show why the writer is mentioning cows in
the first place.

Clause

 Cows eating grass are visible from the highway

This is a complete clause again. The subject "cows eating grass" and the
predicate "are visible from the highway" make up a complete thought.

Clause

 Run!

This single-word command is also a clause, even though it does seem to

have a subject. With a direct command, it is not necessary to include the
subject, since it is obviously the person or people you are talking to: in other
words, the clause really reads "[You] run!" You should not usually use direct
commands in your essays, except in quotations.

Using Clauses as Nouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs

If a clause can stand alone as a sentence, it is an independent clause, as

in the following example:

Independent

 the Prime Minister is in Ottawa

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Some clauses, however, cannot stand alone as sentences: in this case, they
are dependent clauses or subordinate clauses. Consider the same
clause with the subordinating conjunction "because" added to the beginning:

Dependent

 when the Prime Minister is in Ottawa

In this case, the clause could not be a sentence by itself, since the
conjunction "because" suggests that the clause is providing an explanation
for something else. Since this dependent clause answers the question
"when," just like an adverb, it is called a dependent adverb clause (or
simply an adverb clause, since adverb clauses are always dependent
clauses). Note how the clause can replace the adverb "tomorrow" in the
following examples:

Adverb

 The committee will meet tomorrow.

Adverb clause

 The committee will meet when the Prime Minister is in Ottawa.

Dependent clauses can stand not only for adverbs, but also for nouns and for
adjectives.

Noun Clauses

A noun clause is an entire clause which takes the place of a noun in another
clause or phrase. Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the subject or object of
a verb or the object of a preposition, answering the questions "who(m)?" or
"what?" Consider the following examples:

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Noun

 I know Latin.

Noun clause

 I know that Latin is no longer spoken as a native language.

In the first example, the noun "Latin" acts as the direct object of the verb
"know." In the second example, the entire clause "that Latin ..." is the direct
object.

In fact, many noun clauses are indirect questions:

Noun

 Their destination is unknown.

Noun clause

 Where they are going is unknown.

The question "Where are they going?" with a slight change in word order,
becomes a noun clause when used as part of a larger unit. Like the noun
"destination," the clause is the subject of the verb "is."

Here are some more examples of noun clauses:

 About what you bought at the mall

This noun clause is the object of the preposition "about," and answers the
question "about what."

 Whoever broke the vase will have to pay for it.

This noun clause is the subject of the verb "will have to pay," and answers
the question "who will have to pay."

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  The Toronto fans hope that the Blue Jays will win again.

This noun clause is the object of the verb "hope," and answers the question
"what do the fans hope."

Adjective Clauses

An adjective clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of

an adjective in another clause or phrase. Like an adjective, an adjective
clause modifies a noun or pronoun, answering questions like "which?" or
"what kind of?" Consider the following examples:

Adjective

 The red coat

Adjective clause

 The coat which I bought yesterday

Like the word "red" in the first example, the dependent clause "which I
bought yesterday" in the second example modifies the noun "coat." Note
that an adjective clause usually comes after what it modifies, while an
adjective usually comes before.

In formal writing, an adjective clause begins with the relative pronouns

"who(m)," "that," or "which." In informal writing or speech, you may leave
out the relative pronoun when it is not the subject of the adjective clause,
but you should usually include the relative pronoun in formal, academic
writing:

Informal

 The books people read were mainly religious.

Formal
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  The books that people read were mainly religious.

Informal

 Some firefighters never meet the people they save.

Formal

 Some firefighters never meet the people whom they save.

Here are some more examples of adjective clauses:

 The meat which they ate was tainted

This clause modifies the noun "meat" and answers the question "which
meat."

 About the movie which made him cry

This clause modifies the noun "movie" and answers the question "which
movie."

 They are searching for the one who borrowed the book

The clause modifies the pronoun "one" and answers the question "which
one."

 Did I tell you about the author whom I met?

The clause modifies the noun "author" and answers the question "which
author."

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Adverb Clauses

An adverb clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of an

adverb in another clause or phrase. An adverb clause answers questions
such as "when," "where," "why.", "with what goal/result," and "under what
conditions."

Note how an adverb clause can replace an adverb in the following example:

Adverb

The premier gave a speech here.

Adverb clause

 The premier gave a speech where the workers were striking.

Usually, a subordinating conjunction like "because," "when(ever),"

"where(ever)," "since," "after," and "so that," will introduce an adverb clause.
Note that a dependent adverb clause can never stand alone as a complete
sentence:

Independent clause

 They left the locker room

Dependent adverb clause

 After they left the locker room

The first example can easily stand alone as a sentence, but the second
cannot. The reader will ask what happened "after they left the locker room".
Here are some more examples of adverb clauses expressing the
relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and condition:

Cause

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  Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle because the uncle had murdered
Hamlet's father.

The adverb clause answers the question "why."

Effect

 Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle so that his father's murder would
be avenged.

The adverb clause answers the question "with what goal/result."

Time

 After Hamlet's uncle Claudius married Hamlet's mother, Hamlet

wanted to kill him.

The adverb clause answers the question "when." Note the change in word
order. An adverb clause can often appear either before or after the main part
of the sentence.

Place

 Where the whole Danish court was assembled, Hamlet ordered a

play in an attempt to prove his uncle's guilt.

The adverb clause answers the question "where."

Condition

 If the British co-operate, the Europeans may achieve monetary

union.

The adverb clause answers the question "under what conditions."

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 SENTENCE

The Parts of the Sentence

The parts of the sentence are a set of terms for describing how
people construct sentences from smaller pieces. There is not a direct
correspondence between the parts of the sentence and the parts of speech --
the subject of a sentence, for example, could be a noun, a pronoun, or even
an entire phrase or clause. Like the parts of speech, however, the parts of
the sentence form part of the basic vocabulary of grammar, and it is
important that you take some time to learn and understand them.

Subject and Predicate

Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a

predicate. The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about, while the
predicate tells something about the subject. In the following sentences, the
predicate is enclosed in braces ({}), while the subject is highlighted.

 Judy {runs}.

 Judy and her dog {run on the beach every morning}.

To determine the subject of a sentence, first isolate the verb and then make
a question by placing "who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer is the subject.

 The audience littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled
popcorn.

The verb in the above sentence is "littered." Who or what littered? The
audience did. "The audience" is the subject of the sentence. The predicate

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(which always includes the verb) goes on to relate something about the
subject: what about the audience? It "littered the theatre floor with torn
wrappings and spilled popcorn."

Unusual Sentences

Imperative sentences (sentences that give a command or an order)

differ from conventional sentences in that their subject, which is always
"you," is understood rather than expressed.

 Stand on your head. ("You" is understood before "stand.")

Be careful with sentences that begin with "there" plus a form of the verb "to
be." In such sentences, "there" is not the subject; it merely signals that the
true subject will soon follow.

There were three stray kittens cowering under our porch steps this
morning.

If you ask who? or what? before the verb ("were cowering"), the answer is
"three stray kittens," the correct subject.

Simple Subject and Simple Predicate

Every subject is built around one noun or pronoun (or more) that, when
stripped of all the words that modify it, is known as the simple subject.
Consider the following example:

 A piece of pepperoni pizza would satisfy his hunger.

The subject is built around the noun "piece," with the other words of the
subject -- "a" and "of pepperoni pizza" -- modifying the noun. "Piece" is the
simple subject.

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Likewise, a predicate has at its centre a simple predicate, which is always
the verb or verbs that link up with the subject. In the example we just
considered, the simple predicate is "would satisfy" -- in other words, the verb
of the sentence.

A sentence may have a compound subject -- a simple subject consisting of

more than one noun or pronoun -- as in these examples:

 Team pennants, rock posters and family photographs covered the

boy's bedroom walls.

 Her uncle and she walked slowly through the Inuit art gallery and
admired the powerful sculptures exhibited there.

The second sentence above features a compound predicate, a predicate

that includes more than one verb pertaining to the same subject (in this
case, "walked" and "admired").

Objects and Complements

Objects

A verb may be followed by an object that completes the verb's

meaning. Two kinds of objects follow verbs: direct objects and indirect
objects. To determine if a verb has a direct object, isolate the verb and
make it into a question by placing "whom?" or "what?" after it. The answer, if
there is one, is the direct object:

Direct Object

 The advertising executive drove a flashy red Porsche.

Direct Object

 Her secret admirer gave her a bouquet of flowers.

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The second sentence above also contains an indirect object. An indirect
object (which, like a direct object, is always a noun or pronoun) is, in a sense,
the recipient of the direct object. To determine if a verb has an indirect
object, isolate the verb and ask to whom?, to what?, for whom?, or for what?
after it. The answer is the indirect object.

Not all verbs are followed by objects. Consider the verbs in the following
sentences:

 The guest speaker rose from her chair to protest.

 After work, Randy usually jogs around the canal.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Verbs that take objects are known as transitive verbs. Verbs not followed
by objects are called intransitive verbs.

Some verbs can be either transitive verbs or intransitive verbs, depending on

the context:

Direct Object

 I hope the Blue Eagles win the next game.

No Direct Object

 Did we win?

Subject Complements

In addition to the transitive verb and the intransitive verb, there is a third
kind of verb called a linking verb. The word (or phrase) which follows a
linking verb is called not an object, but a subject complement.

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The most common linking verb is "be." Other linking verbs are "become,"
"seem," "appear," "feel," "grow," "look," "smell," "taste," and "sound,"
among others. Note that some of these are sometimes linking verbs,
sometimes transitive verbs, or sometimes intransitive verbs, depending on
how you use them:

Linking verb with subject complement

 He was a radiologist before he became a full-time yoga instructor.

Linking verb with subject complement

 Your homemade chili smells delicious.

Transitive verb with direct object

 I can't smell anything with this terrible cold.

Intransitive verb with no object

 The interior of the beautiful new Buick smells strongly of fish.

Note that a subject complement can be either a noun ("radiologist",

"instructor") or an adjective ("delicious").

Object Complements

An object complement is similar to a subject complement, except

that (obviously) it modifies an object rather than a subject. Consider this
example of a subject complement:

 The driver seems tired.

In this case, as explained above, the adjective "tired" modifies the noun
"driver," which is the subject of the sentence.

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Sometimes, however, the noun will be the object, as in the following
example:

 I consider the driver tired.

In this case, the noun "driver" is the direct object of the verb "consider," but
the adjective "tired" is still acting as its complement.

In general, verbs which have to do with perceiving, judging, or changing

something can cause their direct objects to take an object complement:

 Paint it black.

 The judge ruled her out of order.

 I saw the Prime Minister sleeping.

In every case, you could reconstruct the last part of the sentence into a
sentence of its own using a subject complement: "it is black," "she is out of
order," "the Prime Minister is sleeping."

Building Sentences

Some English sentences are very basic:

 Shakespeare was a writer.

 Einstein said something.

 The Inuit are a people.

You could write an entire essay using only simple sentences like these:

William Shakespeare was a writer. He wrote plays. It was the Elizabethan

age. One play was Hamlet. It was a tragedy. Hamlet died. The court died too.

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It is not likely, however, that your essay would receive a passing grade. This
chapter helps you learn to recognise different types of sentences and to use
them effectively in your own writing.

Why Sentence Structure Matters

Although ordinary conversation, personal letters, and even some types

of professional writing (such as newspaper stories) consist almost entirely of
simple sentences, your university or college instructors will expect you to be
able to use all types of sentences in your formal academic writing. Writers
who use only simple sentences are like a truck drivers who do not know how
to shift out of first gear: they would be able to drive a load from Montréal to
Calgary (eventually), but they would have a great deal of trouble getting
there.

If you use phrases and clauses carefully, your sentences will become
much more interesting and your ideas, much clearer. This complex sentence
develops a major, central idea and provides structured background
information:

Since it involves the death not only of the title character but of the entire
royal court, Hamlet is the most extreme of the tragedies written by the
Elizabethan playwrite William Shakespeare.

Just as a good driver uses different gears, a good writer uses different types
of sentences in different situations:

• a long complex sentence will show what information depends on what

other information;
• a compound sentence will emphasise balance and parallelism;
• a short simple sentence will grab a reader's attention;
• a loose sentence will tell the reader in advance how to interpret your
information;

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 • a periodic sentence will leave the reader in suspense until the very
end;
• a declarative sentence will avoid any special emotional impact;
• an exclamatory sentence, used sparingly, will jolt the reader;
• an interrogative sentence will force the reader to think about what you
are writing;
• an imperative sentence will make it clear that you want the reader to
act right away.

The Structure of a Sentence

Remember that every clause is, in a sense, a miniature sentence. A simple

sentences contains only a single clause, while a compound sentence, a
complex sentence, or a compound-complex sentence contains at least two
clauses.

The Simple Sentence

The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence, which contains
only one clause. A simple sentence can be as short as one word.

 E.g.
 Run!

Usually, however, the sentence has a subject as well as a predicate and both
the subject and the predicate may have modifiers. All of the following are
simple sentences, because each contains only one clause:

 Melt!

 Ice melts.

 The ice melts quickly.

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  The ice on the river melts quickly under the warm March sun.

 Lying exposed without its blanket of snow, the ice on the river melts
quickly under the warm March sun.

As you can see, a simple sentence can be quite long -- it is a mistake

to think that you can tell a simple sentence from a compound sentence or a
complex sentence simply by its length.

The most natural sentence structure is the simple sentence: it is the

first kind which children learn to speak, and it remains by far the most
common sentence in the spoken language of people of all ages. In written
work, simple sentences can be very effective for grabbing a reader's
attention or for summing up an argument, but you have to use them with
care: too many simple sentences can make your writing seem childish.

When you do use simple sentences, you should add transitional phrases to
connect them to the surrounding sentences.

The Compound Sentence

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (or

simple sentences) joined by coordinating conjunctions like "and," "but," and
"or."

E.g.

Simple Simple

Canada is a rich country. + Still, it has many poor people.

= Compound

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Canada is a rich country, but still it has many poor people.

Compound sentences are very natural for English speakers; small

children learn to use them early on to connect their ideas and to avoid
pausing (and allowing an adult to interrupt).

 Today at school Mr. Moore brought in his pet rabbit, and he showed it
to the class, and I got to pet it, and Kate held it, and we coloured
pictures of it, and it ate part of my carrot at lunch, and ...

Of course, this is an extreme example, but if you over-use compound

sentences in written work, your writing might seem immature.

A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to create a sense of

balance or contrast between two (or more) equally-important pieces of
information.

E.g.

 Montéal has better clubs, but Toronto has better cinemas.

Special Cases of Compound Sentences

There are two special types of compound sentences which you might want to
note. First, rather than joining two simple sentences together, a coordinating
conjunction sometimes joins two complex sentences, or one simple sentence
and one complex sentence. In this case, the sentence is called a compound-
complex sentence.

1. Compound-complex

 The package arrived in the morning, but the courier left before I could
check the contents.

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The second special case involves punctuation. It is possible to join two
originally separate sentences into a compound sentence using a semicolon
instead of a co-ordinating conjunction:

 Sir John A. Macdonald had a serious drinking problem; when sober,

however, he could be a formidable foe in the House of Commons.

Usually, a conjunctive adverb like "however" or "consequently" will appear

near the beginning of the second part, but it is not required:

 The sun rises in the east; it sets in the west.

The Complex Sentence

A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least

one dependent clause. Unlike a compound sentence, however, a complex
sentence contains clauses which are not equal. Consider the following
examples:

Simple

 My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.

Compound

 My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.

Complex

 Although my friend invited me to a party, I do not want to go.

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 In the first example, there are two separate simple sentences: "My
friend invited me to a party" and "I do not want to go." The second example
joins them together into a single sentence with the co-ordinating conjunction
"but," but both parts could still stand as independent sentences -- they are
entirely equal, and the reader cannot tell which is most important. In the
third example, however, the sentence has changed quite a bit: the first
clause, "Although my friend invited me to a party," has become incomplete,
or a dependent clause.

A complex sentence is very different from a simple sentence or a

compound sentence because it makes clear which ideas are most important.
When you write, My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go,
or even, My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go. The
reader will have trouble knowing which piece of information is most
important to you. When you write the subordinating conjunction "although"
at the beginning of the first clause, however, you make it clear that the fact
that your friend invited you is less important than, or subordinate, to the
fact that you do not want to go.

The Order of a Sentence

Not all sentences make a single point. Compound sentences,

especially, may present several equally-important pieces of information but
most of the time, when you write a sentence, there is a single argument,
statement, question, or command which you wish to get across.

When you are writing your sentences, do not bury your main point in
the middle; instead, use one of the positions of emphasis at the beginning
or end of the sentence.

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The Loose Sentence

If you put your main point at the beginning of a long sentence, you are
writing a loose sentence.

Loose

 I am willing to pay slightly higher taxes for the privilege of

living in Canada, considering the free health care, the cheap tuition
fees, the low crime rate, the comprehensive social programs, and the
wonderful winters.

The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in
Canada, and the writer makes the point at the very beginning: everything
which follows is simply extra information. When the readers read about the
free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime rate, the
comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful winters, they will already
know that these are reasons for living in Canada, and as a result, they will be
more likely to understand the sentence on a first reading.

Loose sentences are the most natural for English speakers, who almost
always talk in loose sentences: even the most sophisticated English writers
tend to use loose sentences much more often than periodic sentences. While
a periodic sentence can be useful for making an important point or for a
special dramatic effect, it is also much more difficult to read, and often
requires readers to go back and reread the sentence once they understand
the main point.

Finally, it is important to remember that you have to structure a loose

sentence as carefully as you would structure a periodic sentence: it is very
easy to lose control of a loose sentence so that by the end the reader has
forgotten what your main point was.

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The Periodic Sentence

If your main point is at the end of a long sentence, you are writing a
periodic sentence.

Periodic

 Considering the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime
rate, the comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful winters, I
am willing to pay slightly higher taxes for the privilege of
living in Canada.

The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in
Canada. At the beginning of this sentence, the reader does not know what
point the writer is going to make: what about the free health care, cheap
tuition fees, low crime rate, comprehensive social programs, and wonderful
winters? The reader has to read all of this information without knowing what
the conclusion will be.

The periodic sentence has become much rarer in formal English writing
over the past hundred years, and it has never been common in informal
spoken English (outside of bad political speeches). Still, it is a powerful
rhetorical tool. An occasional periodic sentence is not only dramatic but
persuasive: even if the readers do not agree with your conclusion, they will
read your evidence first with open minds. If you use a loose sentence with
hostile readers, the readers will probably close their minds before
considering any of your evidence.

Finally, it is important to remember that periodic sentences are like

exclamatory sentences: used once or twice in a piece of writing, they can be
very effective; used any more than that, they can make you sound dull and
pompous.

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 The Purpose of a Sentence

The other classifications in this chapter describe how you construct

your sentences, but this last set describes why you have written the
sentences in the first place. Most sentences which you write should simply
state facts, conjectures, or arguments, but sometimes you will want to give
commands or ask questions.

The Declarative Sentence

The declarative sentence is the most important type. You can, and
often will write entire essays or reports using only declarative sentences, and
you should always use them far more often than any other type. A
declarative sentence simply states a fact or argument, without requiring
either an answer or action from the reader. Punctuate your declarative
sentences with a simple period.

E.g.
 Ottawa is the capital of Canada.
 The distinction between deconstruction and post-modernism eludes
me.

 He asked which path leads back to the lodge.

Note that the last example contains an indirect question, "which path
leads back to the lodge." An indirect question does not make a sentence into
an interrogative sentence -- only a direct question can do that.

The Interrogative Sentence

An interrogative sentence asks a direct question and always ends in a

question mark.

E.g.

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  Who can read this and not be moved?

 How many roads must a man walk down?

 Does money grow on trees?

Note that an indirect question does not make a sentence interrogative:

Direct/Interrogative

 When was Lester Pearson prime minister?

Indirect/Declarative

 I wonder when Lester Pearson was prime minister.

A direct question requires an answer from the reader, while an indirect

question does not.

The Rhetorical Question

Normally, an essay or report will not contain many regular direct
questions, since you are writing it to present information or to make an
argument. There is, however, a special type of direct question called a
rhetorical question -- that is, a question which you do not actually expect
the reader to answer.
E.g.
 Why did the War of 1812 take place? Some scholars argue that it was
simply a land-grab by the Americans ...

If you do not overuse them, rhetorical questions can be a very effective

way to introduce new topics or problems in the course of a paper; if you use
them too often, however, you may sound patronizing and/or too much like a
professor giving a mediocre lecture.

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The Exclamatory Sentence
An exclamatory sentence, or exclamation, is simply a more forceful
version of a declarative sentence, marked at the end with an exclamation
mark.
E.g.
 The butler did it!

 How beautiful this river is!

 Some towns in Upper Canada lost up to a third of their population

during the cholera epidemics of the early nineteenth century!

Exclamatory sentences are common in speech and (sometimes) in

fiction, but over the last 200 years they have almost entirely disappeared
from academic writing. You will (or should) probably never use one in any
sort of academic writing, except when you are quoting something else
directly. Note that an exclamation mark can also appear at the end of an
imperative sentence.

The Imperative Sentence

An imperative sentence gives a direct command to someone. This
type of sentence can end either with a period or with an exclamation mark,
depending on how forceful the command is.
E.g.
 Sit! Read this book for tomorrow.

You should not usually use an exclamation mark with the word "please"

 Wash the windows! not Please wash the windows!

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 Normally, you should not use imperative sentences in academic
writing. When you do use an imperative sentence, it should usually contain
only a mild command, and thus, end with a period.
E.g.

 Consider the Incas.

PARAGRAPH

Writing Paragraphs
Start with an Outline

A brief outline will make it easier to develop topic sentences and to arrange
your paragraphs in the most effective order.

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You should begin your outline by stating the thesis of your paper.

Example of a thesis statement:

 The English Civil War was caused by a combination of factors, including

the empowerment and organization of Puritan forces, the absolutist
tendencies of James I and the personal ineptitude of his son Charles I.

Next, list the topic sentences for each of the paragraphs (or sections) of the
paper.

Possible topic sentences from the given thesis statement above:

1. The war and its aftereffects lasted twenty years.

2. Historically, the Protestants had believed themselves persecuted.
3. In the 1620s Protestants dominated Parliament and attempted to enact
legislation which would provide guidelines for both religious worship
and political representation.
4. During his reign in the early 1600s, James I had attempted to silence
Puritan protests and to solidify the role of the monarchy as
unquestioned head of state.
5. Charles I's lack of personal diplomacy and his advisers' desire for
personal power gave the Puritans the excuses they needed to declare
war on the monarchy.

You might notice that the topic sentences derive directly from the thesis, and
explain, prove, or expand on each of the thesis' claims.

Once you have an outline at hand, you can follow three steps to help you
write your paragraphs effectively:

1. Use your thesis to help you organise the rest of your paper.

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 2. Write a list of topic sentences, and make sure that they show how the
material in each paragraph is related to your thesis.
3. Eliminate material that is not related to your thesis and topic
sentences.

Writing a Strong Thesis Statement

A thesis statement:

• tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject
matter under discussion.
• is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to
expect from the rest of the paper.
• directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an
interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The
subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a
thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel.
• makes a claim that others might dispute.
• is usually a single sentence somewhere in your first paragraph that
presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body
of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the
reader of the logic of your interpretation.

How to Write a Strong Thesis Statement

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1. A strong thesis statement takes some sort of stand.

Remember that your thesis needs to show your conclusions about a subject.
For example, if you are writing a paper for a class on fitness, you might be
asked to choose a popular weight-loss product to evaluate. Here are two
thesis statements:

There are some negative and positive aspects to the

Banana Herb Tea Supplement.

This is a weak thesis statement. First, it fails to take a stand. Second, the
phrase negative and positive aspects is vague.

Because Banana Herb Tea Supplement promotes rapid

weight loss that results in the loss of muscle and lean
body mass, it poses a potential danger to customers.

This is a strong thesis because it takes a stand, and because it's specific.

2. A strong thesis statement justifies discussion.

Your thesis should indicate the point of the discussion. If your assignment is
to write a paper on kinship systems, using your own family as an example,
you might come up with either of these two thesis statements:

My family is an extended family.

This is a weak thesis because it merely states an observation. Your reader

won’t be able to tell the point of the statement, and will probably stop
reading.

While most American families would view consanguineal

marriage as a threat to the nuclear family structure,
many Iranian families, like my own, believe that these

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 marriages help reinforce kinship ties in an extended
family.

This is a strong thesis because it shows how your experience contradicts a

widely-accepted view. A good strategy for creating a strong thesis is to show
that the topic is controversial. Readers will be interested in reading the rest
of the essay to see how you support your point.

3. A strong thesis statement expresses one main idea.

Readers need to be able to see that your paper has one main point. If your
thesis statement expresses more than one idea, then you might confuse
your readers about the subject of your paper. For example:

Companies need to exploit the marketing potential of the

Internet, and Web pages can provide both advertising
and customer support.

This is a weak thesis statement because the reader can’t decide whether the
paper is about marketing on the Internet or Web pages. To revise the thesis,
the relationship between the two ideas needs to become more clear. One
way to revise the thesis would be to write:

Because the Internet is filled with tremendous marketing

potential, companies should exploit this potential by
using Web pages that offer both advertising and
customer support.

This is a strong thesis because it shows that the two ideas are related. Hint:
a great many clear and engaging thesis statements contain words like
because, since, so, although, unless, and however.

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4. A strong thesis statement is specific.

A thesis statement should show exactly what your paper will be about, and
will help you keep your paper to a manageable topic. For example, if you're
writing a seven-to-ten page paper on hunger, you might say:

World hunger has many causes and effects.

This is a weak thesis statement for two major reasons. First, world hunger
can’t be discussed thoroughly in seven to ten pages. Second, many causes
and effects is vague. You should be able to identify specific causes and
effects. A revised thesis might look like this:

Hunger persists in Glandelinia because jobs are scarce

and farming in the infertile soil is rarely profitable.

This is a strong thesis statement because it narrows the subject to a more

specific and manageable topic, and it also identifies the specific causes for
the existence of hunger.

Writing Topic Sentences

A topic sentence (also known as a focus sentence) encapsulates or

organises an entire paragraph, and you should be careful to include one in
most of your major paragraphs. Although topic sentences may appear
anywhere in a paragraph, in academic essays they often appear at the
beginning.

It might be helpful to think of a topic sentence as working in two

directions simultaneously. It relates the paragraph to the essay's thesis, and
thereby acts as a signpost for the argument of the paper as a whole, but it
also defines the scope of the paragraph itself. For example, consider the
following topic sentence:

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  Many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a special
ingredient called "forget sauce" to their foods.

If this sentence controls the paragraph that follows, then all sentences in the
paragraph must relate in some way to fast food, profit, and "forget sauce":

 Made largely from edible oil products, this condiment is never listed on
the menu.

This sentence fits in with the topic sentence because it is a description of the
composition of "forget sauce."

 In addition, this well-kept industry secret is the reason why ingredients

are never listed on the packaging of victuals sold by these restaurants.

The transitional phrase "In addition" relates the composition of "forget

sauce" to secret fast-food industry practices.

 "Forget sauce" has a chemical property which causes temporary

amnesia in consumers.

Now the paragraph moves on to the short-term effect on consumers:

 After spending too much money on barely edible food bereft of any
nutritional value, most consumers swear they will never repeat such a
disagreeable experience.

This sentence describes its longer-term effects:

 Within a short period, however, the chemical in "forget sauce" takes

effect, and they can be depended upon to return and spend, older but
no wiser.

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Finally, I finish the paragraph by "proving" the claim contained in the topic
sentence, that many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a
special ingredient called "forget sauce" to their foods.

Analyzing a Topic Sentence

Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements. Like a thesis
statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort. As the thesis
statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic sentence must be
the unifying force in the paragraph. Further, as is the case with the thesis
statement, when the topic sentence makes a claim, the paragraph which
follows must expand, describe, or prove it in some way. Topic sentences
make a point and give reasons or examples to support it.

Consider the last paragraph about topic sentences, beginning with the topic
sentence itself:

 Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements.

This is my claim, or the point I will prove in the following paragraph. All the
sentences that follow this topic sentence must relate to it in some way.

Like a thesis statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort.

As the thesis statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic
sentence must be the unifying force in the paragraph.

These two sentences show how the reader can compare thesis statements
and topic sentences: they both make a claim and they both provide a focus
for the writing which follows.

Further, as is the case with the thesis statement, when the topic sentence
makes a claim, the paragraph which follows must expand, describe, or prove
it in some way.

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Using the transitional word "further" to relate this sentence to those
preceding it, I expand on my topic sentence by suggesting ways a topic
sentence is related to the sentences that follow it.

Topic sentences make a point and give reasons or examples to support it.

Finally, I wrap up the paragraph by stating exactly how topic sentences act
rather like tiny thesis statements.

Dividing your Argument

Starting a new paragraph is a signal to your reader that you are

beginning a new thought or taking up a new point. Since your outline will
help you divide the essay into sections, the resulting paragraphs must
correspond to the logical divisions in the essay. If your paragraphs are too
long, divide your material into smaller, more manageable units; if they're too
short, find broader topic sentences that will allow you to combine some of
your ideas.

Look at the list of sentences below:

 In preparation for study some students apportion a negligible period of

time to clearing off a desk, a table, a floor; others must scrub all
surfaces and clean all toilet bowls within 50 meters before the
distraction of dirt disappears.

 Some eat or pace while they work.

 Some work with deep concentration, others more fitfully.
 Students might smoke, or chew their nails, or stare blankly at walls or
at computer screens.
 If asked what space is reserved for learning, many students would
suggest the classroom, the lab or the library.
 The kitchen, and the bedroom function as study spaces.

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  Some people need to engage in sports or other physical activity before
they can work successfully.
 Being sedentary seems to inspire others.
 Although most classes are scheduled between 8:30 and 22:00, some
students do their best work before the sun rises, some after it sets.
 Some need a less flexible schedule than others, while a very few can
sit and not rise until their task is completed.
 Some students work quickly and efficiently, while others cannot
produce anything without much dust and heat.

When these sentences simply combined they would yield nothing but a long
list of facts, not obviously related to one another, except that they all refer to
students and the way we study. There is too much information here to
include in one paragraph. The solution is to develop two topic sentences
under which all (or most) of the above information will fit.

Topic Sentence:

• For most students the process of studying involves

establishing a complex set of rituals which come to be
repeated, with little variation, every time a task is assigned
by a professor.

If we add the first five sentences to this topic sentence we have a

unified but general description of the types of "rituals" or study patterns
which are such an important part of academic life.

 For most students the process of studying involves

establishing a complex set of rituals which come to be repeated,
with little variation, every time a task is assigned by a professor.
In preparation for study some students apportion a negligible
period of time to clearing off a desk, a table, a floor; others must

226
 scrub all surfaces and clean all toilet bowls within 50 meters
before the distraction of dirt disappears. Some eat or pace while
they work. Some work with deep concentration, others more
fitfully. Students might smoke, or chew their nails, or stare
blankly at walls or at computer screens.

The rest of the sentences are more specific. They concern the distribution of
individual time, space and effort, and relate the rituals involved in study to
those less commonly associated with school. A possible topic sentence for
the rest of the sentences is underlined in the paragraph below:

 Work tends, therefore, to be associated with non-work-

specific environments, activities, and schedules. If asked what
space is reserved for learning, many students would suggest the
classroom, the lab or the library. What about the kitchen? The
bedroom? In fact, any room in which a student habitually studies
becomes a learning space, or a place associated with thinking.
Some people need to engage in sports or other physical activity
before they can work successfully. Being sedentary seems to
inspire others. Although most classes are scheduled between
8:30 and 22:00, some students do their best work before the sun
rises, some after it sets. Some need a less flexible schedule than
others, while a very few can sit and not rise until their task is
completed. Some students work quickly and efficiently, while
others cannot produce anything without much dust and heat.

Some organization and a couple of topic sentences have transformed a long

and undifferentiated listing of student activities into two unified paragraphs
with a logical division between them.

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 Developing Unified and Coherent Paragraphs

A paragraph is unified when every sentence develops the point made

in the topic sentence. It must have a single focus and it must contain no
irrelevant facts. Every sentence must contribute to the paragraph by
explaining, exemplifying, or expanding the topic sentence. In order to
determine whether a paragraph is well developed or not, ask yourself: "What
main point am I trying to convey here?" (topic sentence) and then "Does
every sentence clearly relate to this idea?"

There are several ways in which you can build good, clear paragraphs.
This section will discuss three of the most common types of paragraph
structure: development by detail, comparison and contrast, and process.
Finally, it will suggest that most paragraphs are built of a combination of
development strategies.

Paragraph Development by Detail

This is the most common and easiest form of paragraph development:

you simply expand on a general topic sentence using specific examples or
illustrations. Look at the following paragraph (you may have encountered it
before):

 Work tends to be associated with non-work-specific

environments, activities, and schedules. If asked what space is
reserved for learning, many students would suggest the
classroom, the lab or the library. What about the kitchen? The
bedroom? In fact, any room in which a student habitually studies
becomes a learning space, or a place associated with thinking.
Some people need to engage in sports or other physical activity
before they can work successfully. Being sedentary seems to
inspire others. Although most classes are scheduled between

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 8:30 and 22:00, some students do their best work before the sun
rises, some after it sets. Some need a less flexible schedule than
others, while a very few can sit and not rise until their task is
completed. Some students work quickly and efficiently, while
others cannot produce anything without much dust and heat.

The topic sentence makes a general claim: that school work tends not to be
associated only with school. The rest of the sentences provide various
illustrations of this argument. They are organised around the three
categories, “environment, activities, and schedules," enumerated in the topic
sentence. The details provide the concrete examples which your reader will
use to evaluate the credibility of your topic sentence.

Paragraph Development by Comparison and Contrast

You should consider developing your paragraph by comparison and

contrast when you are describing two or more things which have something,
but not everything, in common. You may choose to compare either point by
point (X is big, Y is little; X and Y are both purple.) or subject by subject (X is
big and purple; Y is small and purple.). Consider, for example, the following
paragraph:

 Although the interpretation of traffic signals may seem

highly standardized, close observation reveals regional variations
across this country, distinguishing the East Coast from Central
Canada and the West as surely as dominant dialects or political
inclinations. In Montreal, a flashing red traffic light instructs
drivers to careen even more wildly through intersections heavily
populated with pedestrians and oncoming vehicles. In startling
contrast, an amber light in Calgary warns drivers to scream to a
halt on the off chance that there might be a pedestrian within
500 meters who might consider crossing at some unspecified

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 time within the current day. In my home town in New Brunswick,
finally, traffic lights (along with painted lines and posted speed
limits) do not apply to tractors, all terrain vehicles, or pickup
trucks, which together account for most vehicles on the road. In
fact, were any observant Canadian dropped from an alien space
vessel at an unspecified intersection anywhere in this vast land,
he or she could almost certainly orient him-or-herself according
to the surrounding traffic patterns.

This paragraph compares traffic patterns in three areas of Canada. It

contrasts the behaviour of drivers in the Maritimes, in Montreal, and in
Calgary, in order to make a point about how attitudes in various places
inform behaviour. People in these areas have in common the fact that they
all drive; in contrast, they drive differently according to the area in which
they live.

It is important to note that the paragraph above considers only one

aspect of driving (behaviour at traffic lights). If you wanted to consider two or
more aspects, you would probably need more than one paragraph.

Paragraph Development by Process

Paragraph development by process involves a straightforward

step-by-step description. Those of you in the sciences will recognise it as the
formula followed in the "method" section of a lab experiment. Process
description often follows a chronological sequence:

 The first point to establish is the grip of the hand on the

rod. This should be about half-way up the cork handle, absolutely
firm and solid, but not tense or rigid. All four fingers are curved
around the handle, the little finger, third finger and middle finger
contributing most of the firmness by pressing the cork solidly

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 into the fleshy part of the palm, near the heel of the hand. The
forefinger supports and steadies the grip but supplies its own
firmness against the thumb, which should be along the upper
side of the handle and somewhere near the top of the grip. (from
Roderick Haig-Brown, "Fly Casting")

The topic sentence establishes that the author will use this paragraph
to describe the process of establishing the "grip of the hand on the rod," and
this is exactly what he does, point by point, with little abstraction.

Paragraph Development by Combination

Very often, a single paragraph will contain development by a

combination of methods. It may begin with a brief comparison, for example,
and move on to provide detailed descriptions of the subjects being
compared. A process analysis might include a brief history of the process in
question. Many paragraphs include lists of examples:

 The broad range of positive characteristics used to define

males could be used to define females too, but they are not. At
its entry for woman Webster's Third provides a list of "qualities
considered distinctive of womanhood": "Gentleness, affection,
and domesticity or on the other hand fickleness, superficiality,
and folly." Among the "qualities considered distinctive of
manhood" listed in the entry for man, no negative attributes
detract from the "courage, strength, and vigor" the definers
associate with males. According to this dictionary, womanish
means "unsuitable to a man or to a strong character of either
sex."

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 This paragraph is a good example of one which combines a comparison
and contrast of contemporary notions of "manliness" and "womanliness" with
an extended list of examples.

DICTION

Your diction is simply your choice of words. There is no single, correct

diction in the English language; instead, you choose different words or
phrases for different contexts:

To a friend

"a screw-up"

To a child

"a mistake"

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To the police

"an accident"

To an employer

"an oversight"

All of these expressions mean the same thing. That is, they have the
same denotation -- but you would not likely switch one for the other in any of
these three situations: a police officer or employer would take "screw-up" as
an insult, while your friends at the bar after a hockey game would take
"oversight" as an affectation.

Catch Phrases

Under pressure to create (usually against a deadline), a writer will

naturally use familiar verbal patterns rather than thinking up new ones.
Inexperienced writers, however, will sometimes go further, and string
together over-used phrases or even sentences. Consider the following
example:

 When all is said and done, even a little aid can go a long way in a
country suffering from famine.

The argument is commendable, but its written expression is poor and

unoriginal. First, consider the phrase "when all is said and done." Once, this
phrase was clever and original, but so many millions of writers and speakers
have used it so many times over so many years that the phrase has become
automatic and nearly meaningless. This type of worn-out phrase is called a
catch phrase, and you should always avoid it in your writing, unless you are
quoting someone else: you own, original words are always more interesting.

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 A particularly stale catch phrase -- especially one which was once
particularly clever -- is a cliché. In the example given above, the phrase "a
little aid can go a long way" fits into the formula "a little *** can go a long
way," seriously lowers the quality of the writing. Essentially, a cliché is a
catch phrase which can make people groan out loud, but the difference
between the two is not that important. Just remember that neither usually
belongs in your writing.

Here are some more sample clichés and catch phrases from students'
essays:

 the dictionary defines *** as ...

 key to the future

 facing a dim future

 drive a wedge between

 starving students

 enough (for ***) to handle

 in today's world

 the *** generation

 the impossible dream

 enough to worry about without ...

 putting the cart before the horse

 a bird in the hand

 glitzy, high-tech world

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 There is no simple formula that you can apply to decide what is a
cliché or a catch phrase, but the more you read, the better your sense of
judgement will become. Remember, though if you think that a phrase in your
writing is clever, and you know that someone has used the phrase before,
then you are best rewriting it into your own words.

Special Considerations for Catch Phrases

While clichés and catch phrases have no place in academic essays,

there are some times of writing where you should use pre-existing formulas.
Such documents include scientific papers, legal briefs, maintenance logs,
and police reports (to name a few) -- these are highly repetitive and largely
predictable in their language, but they are meant to convey highly technical
information in a standard, well-defined format, not to persuade or entertain a
reader -- creativity in an auditor's report, for example, would not be highly
prized.

On the other hand, catch phrases are not appropriate in less technical
areas. Journalists, especially, are under a pressure to produce a large
amount of writing quickly, and those who are less talented or unable to meet
the pressure will often end up writing entire articles made up of over-used
catch phrases like "war-torn Bosnia," "grieving parents," or "besieged
capital."

Connotations and Denotations

The relationship between words and meanings is extremely

complicated, and belongs to the field of semantics. For now, though, what
you need to know is that words do not have single, simple meanings.
Traditionally, grammarians have referred to the meanings of words in two
parts:

denotation

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 • a literal meaning of the word

connotation

• an association (emotional or otherwise) which the word

evokes

For example, both "woman" and "chick" have the denotation "adult female"
in North American society, but "chick" has somewhat negative connotations,
while "woman" is neutral.

For another example of connotations, consider the following:

negative

 There are over 2,000 vagrants in the city.

neutral

 There are over 2,000 people with no fixed address in the city.

positive

 There are over 2,000 homeless in the city.

All three of these expressions refer to exactly the same people, but they will
invoke different associations in the reader's mind: a "vagrant" is a public
nuisance while a "homeless" person is a worthy object of pity and charity.
Presumably, someone writing an editorial in support of a new shelter would
use the positive form, while someone writing an editorial in support of anti-
loitering laws would use the negative form.

In this case, the dry legal expression "with no fixed address" quite
deliberately avoids most of the positive or negative associations of the other
two terms -- a legal specialist will try to avoid connotative language
altogether when writing legislation, often resorting to archaic Latin or French

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terms which are not a part of ordinary spoken English, and thus, relatively
free of strong emotional associations.

Many of the most obvious changes in the English language over the past few
decades have had to do with the connotations of words which refer to groups
of people. Since the 1950's, words like "Negro" and "crippled" have acquired
strong negative connotations, and have been replaced either by words with
neutral connotations (ie "black," "handicapped") or by words with
deliberately positive connotations (ie "African-Canadian," "differently-able)

SPELLING

Spell checkers will catch some kinds of errors, but not all. For example,
they tend to miss homonyms -- words which are pronounced the same way
but spelled differently, such as site/ sight, there/ their/ they're, and its/ it's.
Most spell-checkers, for example, would report no error in the following
sentence, despite the fact that there are three serious spelling mistakes:

Their looking for a new sight when the gopher can build it's home.

The joint influence of British and American spelling on Canadian usage

has provided an additional challenge to Canadian students: Canadians tend
to follow standard British spelling for certain words (axe, cheque), to follow

237
American spelling for others (connection, tire), and to allow either for yet
more (programme/ program, labour/ labor, neighbour/ neighbor). The
important thing to remember is to be consistent in usage and to follow a
regular pattern when you spell. Don't mix neighbour with labor, for example.
Choose one or the other pattern, and follow it closely. The best way to avoid
problems with mixed British and American spelling is to keep a dictionary
handy that shows Canadian usage.

Although spelling correctly is largely a matter of practice and the

common-sense use of reference materials, there are four standard spelling
rules. Although each has exceptions, if you study these rules carefully, you
will be able to avoid most common errors, even without a spell-checker.

Spelling words with "ei" and "ie"

When the sound is a long "e" (as in feed), write "i" before "e", except after
"c". After "c" reverse the spelling ("ei"):

After other letters

 believe, yield, reprieve

After c

 ceiling, perceive, conceit

The problem with this rule is that it works only when "ei"/"ie" sounds like the
"ee" in feet. If it has any other sound, you should write "ei" even after letters
other than "c":

 foreign

 vein

 freight

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 Spelling final "y" before a suffix

When a word ends in "y" preceded by a consonant, you should usually

change the "y" to "i" before adding the suffix:

 curly becomes curlier

 party becomes parties

 thirty becomes thirties, thirtieth

However, if the suffix already begins with "i", keep the "y" (except before the
suffix "-ize"):

 thirty becomes thirtyish

 fry becomes frying

 agony becomes agonize

 memory becomes memorize

When the ending "y" is preceded by a vowel ("a" "e" "i" "o" or "u"), "y" does
not change to "i":

 journey becomes journeying

 trolley becomes trolleys

Final Silent "e"

If a word ends in a consonant followed by a silent "e", drop the "e" before
endings beginning with a vowel, but keep the "e" before endings beginning
with a consonant:

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  engage becomes engaging but engagement

 care becomes caring but careful

 fate becomes fatal but fateful

 scarce becomes scarcity but scarcely

Spelling Words with Double Consonants

Double the final consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel if both of
the following are true: the consonant ends a stressed syllable or a one-
syllable word, and the consonant is preceded by a single vowel:

 drag becomes dragged

 wet becomes wetter

 occur becomes occurred, occurring

 refer becomes referral, referring

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 MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

Word Formation

The basic part of any word is the root; to it, you can add a prefix at
the beginning and/or a suffix at the end to change the meaning. For
example, in the word "unflattering," the root is simply "flatter," while the
prefix "un-" makes the word negative, and the suffix "-ing" changes it from a
verb into an adjective (specifically, a participle).

English itself does not use prefixes as heavily as it once did, but many
English words come from Latin, which uses prefixes and suffixes (you can
use the word affix to refer either to a prefix or a suffix) quite extensively. For

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example, the words "prefix," "suffix," and "affix" themselves are all formed
from "fix" by the used of prefixes:

 "ad" (to) + "fix" (attached) = "affix"

 "pre" (before) + "fix" = "prefix"
 "sub" (under) + "fix" = "suffix"

Note that both the "-d" of "ad" and the "-b" of "sub" change the last letter.

Here are some of the most common Latin affixes :

Latin
prefix Basic meaning Example words

co- together coauthor, coedit, coheir

away, off; generally indicates deactivate, debone, defrost,

de-
reversal or removal in English decompress, deplane

disbelief, discomfort, discredit,

dis- not, not any
disrepair, disrespect

international, interfaith, intertwine,

inter- between, among
intercellular, interject

nonessential, nonmetallic,
non- not nonresident, nonviolence, nonskid,
nonstop

postdate, postwar, postnasal,

post- after
postnatal

preconceive, preexist, premeditate,

pre- before
predispose, prepossess, prepay

rearrange, rebuild, recall, remake,

re- again; back, backward
rerun, rewrite

sub- under submarine, subsoil, subway,

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 subhuman, substandard

trans- across, beyond, through transatlantic, transpolar

Latin
suffix Basic meaning Example words

forms adjectives and

-able,
means “capable or likable, flexible
-ible
worthy of”

creation, civilization, automation,

-ation forms nouns from verbs
speculation, information

forms verbs and means

-fy, -ify “to make or cause to purify, acidify, humidify
become”

entertainment, amazement, statement,

-ment forms nouns from verbs
banishment

subtlety, certainty, cruelty, frailty, loyalty,

forms nouns from
-ty, -ity royalty; eccentricity, electricity, peculiarity,
adjectives
similarity, technicality

Here are some of the most common Greek affixes:

Greek
prefix Basic meaning Example words

a-, an- without achromatic, amoral, atypical, anaerobic

opposite;
anti-, ant- anticrime, antipollution, antacid
opposing

auto- self, same autobiography, automatic, autopilot

life, living
bio-, bi- biology, biophysics, biotechnology, biopsy
organism

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 geography, geomagnetism, geophysics,
geo- Earth; geography
geopolitics

excessive,
hyper- hyperactive, hypercritical, hypersensitive
excessively

micro- small microcosm, micronucleus, microscope

mono- one, single, alone monochrome, monosyllable, monoxide

neonatal, neophyte, neoconservatism,

neo- new, recent
neofascism, neodymium

panorama, panchromatic, pandemic,

pan- all
pantheism

thermo-,
heat thermal, thermometer, thermostat
therm-

Greek
suffix Basic meaning Example words

forms nouns and means “the

-ism criticism, optimism, capitalism
act, state, or theory of”

forms agent nouns from verbs

-ist ending in -ize or nouns ending in conformist, copyist, cyclist
-ism and is used like -er

formalize, jeopardize, legalize,

forms verbs from nouns and
-ize modernize, emphasize, hospitalize,
adjectives
industrialize, computerize

something written or drawn, a

-gram cardiogram, telegram
record

-graph something written or drawn; an monograph, phonograph,

instrument for writing, drawing, seismograph

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 or recording

-logue,
speech, discourse; to speak monologue, dialogue, travelogue
-log

discourse, expression; science,

-logy phraseology, biology, dermatology
theory, study

-meter, spectrometer, geometry,

measuring device; measure
-metry kilometer, parameter, perimeter

forms adjectives and nouns and

-oid means “like, resembling” or humanoid, spheroid, trapezoid
“shape, form”

one that loves or has a strong

-phile audiophile, Francophile
affinity for; loving

one that fears a specified thing;

-phobe, agoraphobe, agoraphobia,
an intense fear of a specified
-phobia xenophobe, xenophobia
thing

sound; device that receives or

homophone, geophone, telephone,
-phone emits sound; speaker of a
Francophone
language

Apposition

When two words, clauses, or phrases stand close together and share the
same part of the sentence, they are in apposition and are called
appositives.

In fact, an appositive is very much like a subject complement, only without

the linking verb:

Subject Complement

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  My brother is a research associate.

Appositive

 My brother the research associate works at a large polling firm.

Subject Complement

 Jean became a magistrate.

Appositive

 I have never met Jean the magistrate.

Noun and Pronoun Characteristics

In addition to their various classifications, nouns pronouns have three major

characteristics: case, number, and gender.

Noun and Pronoun Case

The case of a noun or pronoun determines how you can use it in a

phrase or clause. There are three cases in Modern English (as opposed to
eight in Classical Latin, four in German, and only two in French):

Subject

You use the subject case for a noun or pronoun which stands alone, is the
subject of a clause, is the subject complement, or stands in apposition to any
of these.

Object

You use the object case for the object of a preposition, a verb, or a verbal,
or for any noun or pronoun which stands in apposition to one of these.

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Possessive

You use the possessive case for any noun or pronoun which acts an an
adjective, implicitly or explicitly modifying another element in the sentence.

Nouns always take the same form in the subject case and the object case,
while pronouns often change their form. Both nouns and pronouns usually
change their form for the possessive case:

Subject Case

 The man travelled to Newfoundland.

 He travelled to Newfoundland.

Object Case

 The taxi drove the man to the airport.

 The taxi drove him to the airport.

Possessive Case

 The baggage handlers lost the man's suitcase.

 The baggage handlers lost his suitcase.

Noun and Pronoun Number

The number of a noun or pronoun is either singular, if it refers to one thing,

or plural, if it refers to more than one thing (if the noun or pronoun is the
subject, then its number will also affect the verb). Note the difference in
number in the following examples:

Singular

 That woman is concerned about this issue.

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  She is concerned about this issue.

Plural

 Those women are concerned about this issue.

 They are concerned about this issue.

It is important to note that the pronoun "they" is in the processing of

becoming singular as well as plural. For example, one might say

 A person called and they did not leave their name.

This construction allows the speaker to avoid identifying the gender of a

person, and it has been common in speech for decades, if not for centuries.
Be aware, however, that some people still consider it unacceptable for formal
writing.

Noun and Pronoun Gender

Unlike the Romance languages (such as French, Spanish, and Italian),

English has three genders for nouns and pronouns: masculine, feminine,
and neuter.

Generally, the English language uses natural gender rather than

grammatical gender -- that is, the gender of a word is usually based on its
biology (so there is little need to remember whether a word is masculine or
feminine). A noun that refers to something with male sexual organs is
masculine, a noun that refers to something with female sexual organs is
feminine and most other nouns are neuter by default.

There was a time when you could use the masculine gender by default
when you did not know a person's natural gender, but very few people
accept this usage any longer.

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There are, moreover, a few tricky points. First, you may refer to all animals in
the neuter gender, or you may refer to them by their natural gender:

Neuter

 What a beautiful dog! Does it bite?

Natural Gender

 What a beautiful dog! Does she bite?

Second, you usually assign mythical beings (such as gods) to a natural

gender, even if you do not believe that the beings have actual sexual organs:

 God is great. God is good. Let us thank her for our food.

Finally, people sometimes assign natural gender to inanimate objects,

especially if they live or work closely with them. When engineers were
mostly men, for example, they tended to refer to large machines in the
feminine:

 She is a fine ship.

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