Sudacad Telecomm Diploma

Telecomm Principles

Basic Communication Model

Tx

Carries data

Receiver the person, group or organization that is receiving the

information.

Converts data into transmittable signals

Transmission System

generates data to be transmitted

Transmitter

Rx

Source the person or group or organization sending out the

message/information.

Channel

Converts received signal into data

Destination

Takes incoming data

Simplified Communications Model

Communications: Tasks

Transmission System Utilization: refers to the need to make efficient use of

transmission
Interfacing
Signal Generation
Synchronization
Exchange Management
Error detection and correction
Addressing and routing
Recovery
Message formatting: each message contains the following three basic
elements (header ,data &Footer )
Security
Network Management

Communications: Tasks
Transmission system utilization refers to the need to make efficient use of
Transmission facility that are typically shared among a number of communication
devices various of techniques ( referred to as multiplexing) are used to allocate
the total capacity of transmission medium among a number of users .congestion
control techniques may be required to assure that the system is not overloaded.
Interface to communicate a device must interface with transmission system .all forms
of communication depend on use of electromagnetic signals propagated over
transmission medium ,thus once an interface is established signal generation is
required for communication the properties of signal such as formed intensity ,
must be propagated through transmission system but must be some form of
synchronization between transmitter and receiver . Exchange management if
data are to be exchange in both direction over period of time two parities must
corporate. Error detection and correction flow control is required to assure that
the source does not over whelm the destination by sending a lots faster than can
be processed and absoved.

Address and routing when transmission facility is shared by more than two devices ,a
source system must indicate the identity the destination .the transmission system
must assure that the destination and only that system ,receive the data.
Recovery is concept distinct that of error correction. Recovery techniques are needed
in situation in which an information exchange ,such as dta base transaction or file
transfer, is interrupted due to the fault somewhere in the system.
Message formatting has to do with an agreement between tow parties as to the form
of data to be exchanged or transmitted ,such as the binary code for characters.
It is important to provide some measure of security in data communication system
The sender of data may wish to be assured that only the intendedreciver acutly
receives the data
Network management capabilities are need to configure the system .monitor its
status, react to failure and overload.

Primary Network Layers

Logical Network

Teletraffic
Switching Systems
Transmission Systems

Physical Network

Cables

Radio Systems

Ducts

Frequencies
Geography

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Large geographical area

Crossing public rights of way
Rely in part on common carrier circuits
Alternative technologies

Circuit switching
Packet switching
Frame relay
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is a high-performance switching technology
that organizes digital data into 53-byte units called cells. Cells are processed
independently of each other, and related cells do not necessarily travel down
the network together. For this reason, the technology is asynchronous. ATM
was designed to use identically sized packets so that switching and routing
hardware could be optimized for speed. All the cells are the same size,
meaning each switching operation is the same as the next. ATM operates at
either 155.520 Mbps or 622.080 Mbps using standard rates and frequencies.
Speeds on ATM networks can reach as high as 10 Gbps.
ATM can carry many different types of traffic such as high-speed LAN traffic,
connections between LANs, voice, video, and other multimedia applications.
Traffic is sorted for priority (which cell travels first) by setting certain bits that
indicate whether a cell is eligible to be dropped.

Switching
Circuit Switching
Dedicated communications path established for the duration of the
conversation, e.g. telephone network

Packet Switching

Data sent out of sequence

Small chunks (packets) of data at a time
Packets passed from node to node between source and destination
Used for terminal to computer and computer to computer
communications

Local Area Network (LAN)

Smaller scope
Building or small campus

Usually owned by same organization as attached devices

Data rates much higher
Usually broadcast systems
Now some switched systems and ATM are being introduced

WAN vs LAN

Network ownership and service type

Private
Owned by individual or corporation
Restricted to owners use
Typically used by large corporations
+ve
Complete control
-ve
Installation and operation costs
Public
Owned by a common carrier
Individuals or corporations can subscribe
Public refers to availability not data
+ve
No need for staff to install/operate network
-ve
Dependency on carrier
Subscription fee

Views on a Network
...
User View

Economic View

services!

profit

Planner View
long-term
short-term

Network
Management View
company

Technological View
innovation

...

Operational View
quality

Life Cycle of a Network

Idea

Study Phase
Decision
Implementation Phase

Launch
Operative Phase
Break-up

Dynamic of a Network
Operative Phase
Motivation for a
Network Reconstruction
or Extension by:

Growing Demand
High Network Cost
Technological Innovation
Low Quality of Service
New Services

New
Study Phase

Implementation
Phase of the
Network Reconstruction or
Extension

>>> Decision

Basic Topologies

Ring

Tree with Center

Tree

Stars with Centers

Partly-meshed

Rings with Centers

Protocols
Used for communications between entities in a system
is the special set of rules that end points in
a telecommunication connection use when they communicate
Must speak the same language
Entities
User applications
e-mail facilities

Systems
Computers
Remote sensors

Standards
Required to allow for interoperability between equipment
Advantages
Ensures a large market for equipment and software
Allows products from different vendors to communicate

Disadvantages
Freeze technology
May be multiple standards for the same thing

Standards Organizations

Internet Society
ISO
ITU-T (formally CCITT)
ATM forum
ETSI
ANSI
IEEE
IETF
3GPP

standards bodies
ITU - International Telecommunication Union
http://www.itu.org
IETF - Internet Engineering Task Force.
http://www.ietf.org
ETSI - European Telecommunications Standards Institute
http://www.etsi.org/tiphon
ANSI - American National Standards Institute
http://www.ansi.org
TIA - Telecommunications Industry Association
http://www.tiaonline.org
IEEE - Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers
http://www.ieee.org

IEEE (Institute of Electrical & Electronic Engineers

It provides standards for the network hardware so that the hardware equipment by
various network hardware manufacturers can be connected with each other. The IEEE
LAN standard is the leading LAN standard nowadays. It mainly defines the 802 protocol
stack, in which 802.3 is the Ethernet standard protocol stack, 802.5 is the token ring
network, and 802.11 is the wireless network standard.
ANSI (America National Standard Institute):
ANSI is a voluntary organization composed of people from companies, government and
other organizations, which mainly defines standard for the fiber distributed data
interface (FDDI).
EIA/TIA (Electronic Industries Association/Telecom Industries Association):
It defines standards for the network connection cable such as RS232, CAT5, HSSI and
V.24. In addition, it also defines laying standards for the cable such as EIA/TIA568B.
ITU (International Telecom Union):
It defines standards for the telecom network oriented to wide area connection such
X.25 and Frame Relay.
INTERNET Action Board (IAB):
It is affiliated with the Internet engineering task force, Internet task force and the
Internet committee for number allocation for definition of various INTERNET standards,
which is the most influential international standardization organization.

Terms
Service Provider (SP)
Telecom Operator/Carrier
Internet Service Provider (ISP)
Grade of Service (GoS)
Quality of Service (QoS)
Class of Service (CoS)
Quality of Experience (QoE)
Network classification: access, regional, backbone, metro, core,..
Service Level Agreement (SLA)
Leased Line
Jitter
Dark Fiber: dedicated fiber link assigned for you (not shared), connecting
end points without running through a transmission network
Bit Error Rate (BER)
Operation & Maintenance Center (OMC)
Network Operations Center (NOC)
Operations Support System (OSS)
Business Support System (BSS)

Transmission Schemes
Baseband transmission
Uses only low frequencies
Encodes data directly

Broadband transmission
Uses multiple carriers
Can use higher frequencies
Achieves higher throughput
Hardware more complex and expensive

Baseband& broadband
The terms baseband and broadband are used to
distinguish the number of channels that a wire can
carry. The term baseband describes
acommunications system in which the media carries
one signal only. That signal may have many
components, but from the perspective of the wire
or fiber, there is only one signal. A broadband
communications system, on the other hand, lets
more than one signal use the wire at one time. For
example, a plain old telephone system (POTS)
circuit is a baseband system. Adding a DSL signal to
the line, however, makes it a broadband system.

Local loop
Telephone terminology
Refers to connection between residence/business and central
office
Originally for analog POTS
Plain Old Telephone Service

Crosses public right-of-way

A right of way which permits the public to travel over it, such as a
street, road, sidewalk, or footpath

Strategic Planning
to give the network operator the answer
about

Which Telecommunication Equipment

in which Quantity
at which Location
at which Time

has to be installed in order to reach a given

strategic objective ...

Network Management
Configuration Management
to manage network resources (hardware, software, systems)
Fault Management
to detect and overcome failures
Performance Management
to measure the traffic
to maintain quality of service
Accounting Management
to get the service usage data
Security Management
to protect against fraud application

Load and Capacity

Capacity

Load

Demand

Loads are a measure for the

demand that is actually realised by
a network element.
Capacities are a measure for the
maximum demand that can be
realised by this element.
Spare Load= capacity - Load

Utilization

(Mean) Load
Utilization =
Maximum Load
<=
Load Maximum
Load !!

Decimal:
0 .. 1
percentile: 0% .. 100%
0,2
20%

0,6
60%

1,0
100%

Busy Hour (Peak Hour)

Hourly Traffic Profile

Traffic Value (Erl)

14.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
0

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

Hour

Time section of the day of four subsequent quarter hours in which the traffic value
of a trunk group averaged over several working days reaches its maximum.

Measurement Unit: the Erlang

An important measurement unit of the traffic value is Erlang (Erl)

1 Erlang = 1 holding hour per time hour

One service element can carry a maximum traffic value of

1 Erl, two service elements max. 2 Erl, etc.

0,1h

1 Erlang:
1h
1h

0,5h

0,5h
1h

0,4h

0,3h
0,2h

1h

Network Availability (1)

4 x 2Mbit/s

Load Sharing

Protection

2 x 2Mbit/s

4 x 2Mbit/s
100%

50%
2 x 2Mbit/s

50%

4 x 2Mbit/s
100%

99.999: network should be unavailable only for 5 min/year

Network Availability (2)

Protection
Redundant resources are fixed and pre-assigned
quite simple mechanisms to switch over from a failed 'working' element to an intact
'protection' element
Restoration

Redundant resources which are not pre-assigned and have to be 'discovered' by

some network intelligence

usually controlled by the (centralized) network management

requires more complicated implementation than protection, but more efficient

resource management

Protection
Dedicated Protection

Shared Protection

Working Path

Working Path

Splitter

Protection Path

Switch

1+1

very short detection time of failures

(< 10ms in physical media)
very short recovery time
(< 50ms in SDH and WDM)

Switch
1:1

Protection Path
(possible with Switch
additional load)

N:1
possible
extension

short detection time of failures

(< 10ms in physical media)
but increased recovery time

Transmission

Sending an information (signals: analog or digital, electrical or optical)

from one end to another; i.e., communication
In telecommunications, transmission is the forwarding of signal traffic over
long distances
In general information theory transmission is taken to mean the complete
process of communication of information via a channel
The channel
Tx Line, Tx channel, Tx Link, Tx Medium
Guided: Copper ( STP, UTP, simple pair,.) ,Coax, Optical Fiber, Wave
Guide.
Unguided: water, air, space

Data transmission: Energy Forms

Electric current
Audible sounds
Omni-directional electromagnetic waves
Radio Frequency
InfraRed

Directional electromagnetic waves

Point-to-point satellite channel

Limited broadcast (spot beam)
Microwave
Laser beam

 Delay

Fundamental measures

The amount of time required for a bit of data to

travel from one end to the other

Throughput
The number of bits per second that can be
transmitted
Related to underlying hardware bandwidth

Bandwidth
Maximum times per second the signal can change

Bandwidth
When discussing signals on networks, the speed at which the signals travel and the
type of transmission are important to keep in mind. The speed of the signals is
called bandwidth while the type of transmission can be either baseband or
broadband. This section discusses both issues. Bandwidth is the width of a band of
electromagnetic frequencies. It is used to describe the speed at which data flows
on a given transmission path and the range of frequencies that a signal occupies on
a given medium. Simply put, bandwidth is proportional to the amount of data that
can be transmitted or received in a certain amount of time. For example, it takes
more bandwidth to download a photograph in one second than it takes to
download a page of text in one second. Large sound files, computer programs, and
animated videos require still more bandwidth for acceptable system performance.
Virtual reality (VR) and full-length three-dimensional audio/visual presentations
require the most bandwidth of all.
A digital or analog signal has a bandwidth. Today this is expanded to include fiber-optic
based light impulses. Typically the amount of bandwidth is measured by the
amount of data that can be transferred in a fixed amount of time. For digital
devices, the bandwidth is usually expressed in bits per second (bps) . For analog
devices, the bandwidth is expressed in cycles per second, or hertz (Hz).
The term bandwidth is also used when discussing the various types of telephonybased networking.

Delay

Propagation delay
Time required for signal to travel across media
Constant for one link, depends on distance and propagation speed
Propagation speed depends on cable material
, e.g., electromagnetic radiation travels through space at the speed of
light (c=3x108 m/s)
Glass Fiber: ~200 000 km/s
Metallic Conductor: ~ 180 000 240 000 km/s
Switching delay
Fixed or nearly constant
Queuing delay
Variable , depends on throughput

Throughput-Bandwidth Relationship
Nyquists theorem
D = 2Blog2K

D: maximum data rate

B: hardware bandwidth
K: number of values used to encode data

Shannons Theorem
Gives capacity in presence of noise
C = Blog2(1 + S/N)

C: the effective channel capacity

B: hardware bandwidth
S: the average signal power
N: noise power
S/N: signal-to-noise ratio

Channel Capacity
Data rate
In bits per second
Rate at which data can be communicated

Bandwidth
In cycles per second of Hertz
Constrained by transmitter and medium

Any transmission system has a limited band of frequencies,

and this limits the data rate that can be carried

Delay-Throughput Relationship
When network idle
Queuing delay is zero

As load on network increases

Queuing delay rises

Load defined as ratio of throughput to capacity

Called utilization

Delay-Utilization relationship

Define
D0: propagation and switching delay
U: utilization (0 U 1)
D: total delay
Then
D = D0 / (1-U)
High utilization known as congestion