Clothing and Textiles Research Journal

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Promoting Critical Thinking in Product Development: Connections between Textile

Science and Consumers' Aesthetic Value
Ann Marie Fiore, Sara J. Kadolph and Jennifer Paff Ogle
Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 2005; 23; 307
DOI: 10.1177/0887302X0502300411
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http://ctr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/23/4/307

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Promoting Critical Thinking in Product Development: Connections between Textile Science and Consumers Aesthetic Value
Ann Marie Fiore, Sara J. Kadolph, Jennifer Paff Ogle

Key Words
Aesthetics, Critical Thinking, Textiles, Value

Abstract
Educators and researchers alike have written extensively about the importance of integrating critical
thinking experiences across the undergraduate curriculum. In the present paper we discuss critical
thinking, explain the importance of critical thinking for apparel professionals involved in product
development, and provide integrative structures and applications to help students think critically
about aesthetics and textiles subject matter, both of which are central to the product development
process. Specifically, we propose a model and adopt a taxonomy to help students understand (a)
the important role played by consumer value in professional decisions, and (b) the range of benefits
culminating in the value of a product, respectively. To better prepare students for a total customer
integration approach to product development, we also propose connections between subject matter
areas of textile science and aesthetics and provide example exercises where students integrate textile
science and aesthetics subject matter. Graduates of textiles and clothing programs need to understand a total customer integration approach that entails providing the specific benefits or value in a
product desired by the customer.
Introduction

ducators and researchers alike have written

extensively about the importance of integrating critical thinking experiences across
the undergraduate curriculum (e.g., Brookfield,
1987, 1995; Chaffee, 1992; Halpern, 1997; Knight,
1992; Ruggiero, 1988). However, as instructors, we
are frustrated by undergraduate students lack of
critical thinking skills, even when these students
are graduating seniors. Our textiles and clothing
programs offer senior-level, capstone courses that
require students to synthesize information, assimilate skills mastered from prerequisite courses,
and apply the whole of this learning to develop
products and merchandise assortments for speci-

Authors Address: 1062 LeBaron Hall, Iowa State University,

Ames, IA 50011.

fied consumer target markets. Instructors for these

courses regularly confront student frustration and
impatience with the ambiguity, need to express
ones rationale, and time investment, which are part
and parcel of the critical thinking process. Each
semester, student course and instructor evaluations include comments that the instructor will
not (or could not) explain what the student needed
to do. It would be easiest to blame the student for
poor performance in and impatience with critical thinking. However, we believe students lack
of critical thinking skills may be, in part, a product of a higher education system that often (a)
reinforces dualistic thinking (i.e., the belief that a
given answer is either right or wrong), (b) offers
only superficial integration across subject matter
areas, (c) provides few visual models or structures that encourage critical thinking in a manner
appropriate to the cognitive development of the
average-aged college student, and (d) encourages

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passive learning rather than autonomous thinking

on the part of students (Chaffee, 1992; Danserau
& Newbern, 1997; Halpern, 1993; Knight, 1992;
Laughlin, 1992). In the present paper we define
and discuss critical thinking as described in
the pedagogical and andragogical (i.e., learning
theory applied to adult learners) literature. We
also explain the importance of critical thinking
for the apparel professional involved in product
development, and provide integrative structures
and applications to assist critical thinking about
aesthetics and textiles subject matter central to the
product development process.

Critical Thinking and

Its Strategies
Critical Thinking Defined
If educators expect students to think critically, they
must know what they are truly asking of students
and determine strategies to support students efforts in meeting these expectations. In an initial
search for literature on critical thinking, we
encountered over 1,500 citations in the Education
Resource Information Center (ERIC) database. In
reviewing a portion of this literature, we discovered many similarities across the definitions of
critical thinking. Stancato (2000) defined critical
thinking as making judgments about the truthfulness and worth of the statements or answers to
a problem. Similarly, Fitzpatrick (1993) defined
critical thinking as the process of determining the
value of an idea, and Kataoka-Yahiro and Saylor
(1994) stated that critical thinking is a process of
thinking without a single solution to a situation or
problem. Walters (1990) and Gallo (1989) also have
stressed the importance of creativity and imagination in critical thinking to enrich the capacity of
students to imagine alternative perspectives and/or
solutions to problems. Common to each of these
definitions is the assumption that the student is
responsible for evaluating information and making
judgments about the relative merit of an answer
or idea. Implicit here is the notion that there is no
absolute right or wrong answer, but rather shades
of gray in the merit of a response. Therefore, when

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using critical thinking skills, it is imperative that

students understand that the instructor does not
have the only answer or solution to a problem. In
addition, the student must be able to cope with the
ambiguity and controversy that may arise with the
absence of a single correct answer.
In contrast to a critical thinking approach, a
dualistic approach to education fosters students
dependence upon the instructor as the source of
irrefutable truth. Whereas a dualistic approach
offers a sense of short-term security and comfort
for the instructor and student, it negatively affects
students understanding of subject matter (e.g.,
Paul & Elder, 1995; Shanklin & Rhodes, 1989).
Consequently, a dualistic approach, or one that
does not encourage the development of students
critical thinking skills, may lead to inadequate
preparation of graduates for the textile and apparel profession (Damhorst & Meyer, 1996; Delong,
Hegland, & Nelson, 1997; Fiorito & Fairhurst,
1989; Kean, Mehlhoff, & Sorensen, 1988; Laughlin
& Kean, 1995).
Strategies Used to Promote Critical Thinking
To promote the development of critical thinking skills, scholars have suggested a number of
strategies. For example, Paul and Elder (1994;
1999a; 1999b) advocated teaching critical thinking through training students to recognize the
underlying logic of a subject matter. According to
these scholars, this would allow students to think
their way through the subject matter rather than
memorize disconnected bits of information. These
scholars wrote, Content is not fragmented bits and
pieces of information. . . but a system with a definite set of logical relationships; an organized structure of concepts, principles, and understandings;
a system that requires the asking and answering of
a certain set of questions. . . .(Paul & Elder, 1994,
p. 34). Browne, Freeman, and Williamson (2000)
stressed that critical thinking involves a systematic
evaluation of an argument. We offer a structure
(Table 1), based on the underlying logic of aesthetics and textile subject matters, that is useful for
systematic evaluation of the selection or design of
textiles during product development.

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Table 1. Aspects of textile science that influence formal elements (i.e., drape, texture, hand, luster, visual appearance, color, odor, sound) of a product.
Interactions Between Textile Science and Aesthetics
Drape

Texture

Hand

Luster

Size
Shape

Size
Structure
Surface
Shape

Size
Structure
Surface
Shape

Fiber Characteristics
Structure
Structure
Surface
Surface
Shape
Shape
Additives
Additives

Twist
Size

Twist
Size

Type
Size

Method
Density
Grain

Method

Method

Process

Type

Visual Aspect/
Appearance

Color

Odor

Sound

Absorbency
Additives

Absorbency
Processing

Absorbency
Additives

Yarn Characteristics
Type
Twist
Size

Size

Fabrication Characteristics
Method
Method
Density
Defect-free
Grain
Coloration Characteristics
Stage

Process

Parchmentized
Burned-out
Sizing
Weighting
Softeners

Shearing
Compression
Brushed
Embossed
Pleated
Flocked
Tufted
Napped
Embroidered
Pliss
Softeners
Bio-polish

Emerized
Boil-off
Caustic
Bio-polish
Abrasive wash
Chemical wash

Drape

Pilling

Stiffness

Delamination

Change in
texture

Loss of hand

Finish Characteristics
Glazed
Durable press
Cir
Wrinkle resistant
Moir
Soil release/resistant
Calendered
Softeners
Bio-polish

Method

Process
Type

Type

Resin-based
Bleaching

Resin-based
Micro-capsules

Weighting

Evaluation Procedures
Durable press
Colorfastness
Wrinkle recovery
Color-matching
Oil repellency khng du
Dimensional stability
Soil release khng bn
Seam appearance
Fabric appearance
Pile rentention s li vt thng
Snagging resistance s khng gy/ toc/ thng
Yarn slippage s k gi ng mc tiu
Crease retention s li vt nhu

Change in
luster

Care
vt nh
Shrinkage co vi
Soil or stain Odor
Differential shrinkage Color loss
Delamination phn lpBleeding ty mu
Abrasion s x / try

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mi

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Halpern (1993) stressed the importance of mental

representations when improving critical thinking
skills. According to Halpern, being able to picture
in ones mind an organization of information
may lead to an improvement in thinking skills.
To assist the development of mental representation of information by students, Danserau and
Newbern (1997) promoted the use of knowledge
maps or graphic organizers. (We will use the term
graphic organizers in the remainder of the paper.) Graphic organizers are pictorial images with
limited words that represent spatial and temporal
relationships of components of a system or topic.
These authors provided evidence for the effectiveness of graphic organizers in aiding recall and
understanding of complex relationships and guiding the performance of tasks. We propose Figure 1
and adopt Figure 2 (Fiore & Ogle, 2000) as graphic
organizers to assist students in understanding relationships and to guide decision-making involved
in product development.

State of the Apparel Industry

and the Importance of
Critical Thinking
According to many scholars (e.g., Gallo, 1989; Paul
& Elder, 2001), critical thinking entails listening to,
understanding, and evaluating the viewpoints of
others. Delong, Hegland, and Nelson (1997) echoed
this perspective; they explored the synergistic
relationship between critical thinking and aesthetics in textiles and clothing education. These authors
stressed the role of values and preferences in shaping consumers aesthetic responses to textile and
apparel products. They suggested that educators
should help students develop critical thinking skills
that will lead to a better understanding of aesthetic
preferences of others. These authors proposed that
critical thinking related to aesthetic preferences
prepares students to make professional decisions
that support the ultimate goal of consumer satisfaction. We concur with DeLong et al. (1997); critical
thinking is important in the product development
process because of the integrative nature of the apparel industry and its focus on customers to achieve
the goal of customer satisfaction.

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A number of contemporary approaches to customer satisfaction go beyond simply trying to

measure the satisfaction of end-use consumers in
order to incorporate needed changes (aesthetic,
fashion, product characteristics, quality expectations, and performance demands) into the next
phase of the evolving product. One contemporary
approach, total customer integration (TCI), requires that concerns or desires of the target market
be integrated into many multidimensional and
integrative aspects of decision-making processes.
Desires of the target market, consisting of current
customers and others of a similar description who
are not yet customers, are considered during all
phases in the decision-making process, ranging
from initial decisions about product conceptualization, design, and development to post-purchase service and warranty program development
(Naumann & Shannon, 1992). As such, the TCI
approach requires that when making decisions
affecting the product, a multitude of professionals
keep foremost in their minds the value desired by
the end-use consumer. A similar emphasis on the
customer/consumer is a major component of total
quality management (Goetsch & Davis, 1994) that
has been embraced by a growing number of firms
in recent years (Kadolph, 1998). Mass customization, a third approach, is a hybrid of mass production and customization and is defined as the mass
production of individually customised goods and
services (Pine, 1993, p. 48). In mass customization, the individual customer selects from a range
of style preference options and/or provides body
measurement information to affect the design and/
or fit of the product (Fiore, Lee, Kunz, & Campbell, 2001). This information is used to manufacture a product meeting the specific desires of that
individual consumer. Hence, within all three of
these approaches, desires of the end-use consumer
become integral to and inseparable from the product development process.
According to Naumann and Shannon (1992),
the underlying philosophy of TCI is one where
customers are not identified as the target for the
firms marketing efforts, but instead, are recognized
as partners with whom the firm must work to enhance the delivered value of the product or service.

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Within the TCI framework, the concept of customer includes more than the end-use consumer;
the concept also includes any firm such as marketing research firms, manufacturers, advertising
agencies, distributors, and retailers that contribute
to the decision-making processes regarding the
value of the product or service.

The end-use consumer provides information to

the firm about the desired value of the product or
service and the products ability to meet the desired
value. Other TCI constituents are involved in the
generation of the product or service to ensure the
desired value of the finished product or service is
delivered. In product development, for instance,
textile suppliers are considered customers who

Product

Professional Decisions
* Developing

Activities

* Formal

Sensual Pleasure

creation
selection
evaluating

visual
tactile

xc giac

auditory nghe

testing
care

olfactory

ngi

Means
physical characteristics
chemical processes
mechanical processes

Elements
fiber
yarn
fabrication
coloration
finish

Consumer Value
* Aesthetic
* Instrumental

Figure 1. Serviceability model connecting textile science and aesthetics.

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Value Derived from Products

Aesthetic

Formal

Expressive

Instrumental

Symbolic

Formal

Expressive

Symbolic

sensual
pleasure

aroused
emotion

identity

physical
comfort

elevated
emotion

self-acceptance

beauty

creative
expression

alternative
existence

physical
protection
and safety

reflected
emotion

social acceptance
and affiliation

cognitive
challenge

quality

spiritual
ecstasy

status

efficiency

spiritual protection

attractiveness
to opposite
or same sex

quest for knowledge

Figure 2. Taxonomy of value derived from textile and apparel products.

create materials that are then selected, tested, and

(care) labeled by manufacturers to ensure the product will meet end-use consumers expectations.
Unfortunately, in some areas of the textile and
apparel industry this partnering with suppliers
is a relatively new concept (Kadolph, 1998). Yet,
the Internet and Intranet appear to be accelerating
partnerships within the apparel industry (Glock &
Kunz, 2000).
The interdependence among industry and end-use
customers in a TCI approach suggests that for textile and clothing students to become valued members of industry partnerships, students should (a)
understand the important role played by consumer
value in professional decisions, (b) understand the
potential benefits or value desired by the end-use
consumer, and (c) integrate across subject matter
areas to determine how their decisions may affect
the benefits the end user derives from the product.
Meeting these three outcomes may enable students

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to more effectively communicate and justify the

reasoning behind their decisions to professionals
from other firms (i.e., other TCI customers). Effective communication of rationale is a vital skill of
critical thinking (Paul & Elder, 2001).
In this paper we discuss three graphic organizers
that can be used to encourage students to think
critically during the product development process when using a TCI approach. Specifically, we
propose a model (Figure 1) and adopt a taxonomy
(Figure 2) that may help students understand
the important role played by consumer value in
professional decisions and the range of benefits
culminating in the value of a product, respectively.
We also propose connections between subject
matter areas of textile science and aesthetics to
better prepare the student for a TCI approach to
developing a product. The consumer value based
model illustrates the importance of shared understanding of materials among professionals involved

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TEXTILES AND AESTHETICS: ANALYSIS OF A SOFT-GOODS PRODUCT

Learning Objectives:
1. to evaluate the textile and aesthetic properties of a soft-goods product
2. to consider the linkages between textiles science and aesthetics and how decisions related to each of these areas may affect
the characteristics of a finished (mass-produced) soft-goods product and the value that a consumer may derive from use
of that product.
Directions: Work in small groups of three or four students to fill in the blanks in the following table. The instructor will
provide each group with a mass produced soft-goods product to analyze. First, using the Interactions Between Textile Science and Aesthetics Table as a guide, describe the identified textile properties of your soft-goods product. Second, explain
how these properties impact the aesthetics of the product. Third, describe the various types of consumer value that may be
affected by the textile properties and resulting aesthetics, including formal, expressive, and symbolic value (see the Taxonomy of Value Derived from Textile and Apparel Products). Finally, applying your knowledge of textile science and product
development, write a brief explanation of why the manufacturer may have selected the textile property described for the
production of this soft-good. Groups will present results of their analyses orally to members of the class on [DATE].

Textile Properties

Impact on Aesthetics

Impact on
Consumer Value

Possible Reasons for

Product Development
Decision

Fiber:__________
Fiber Characteristics:

Yarn:__________
Yarn Characteristics:

Structure:__________
Fabrication Characteristics:

Finishes:__________
Finish Characteristics:

Figure 3. Sample exercise for sophomore level apparel production students.

in developing a product to meet desired aesthetic

value. We specify how elements of materials may
tangibly affect the particular aesthetic qualities of
a product in an identifiable manner (Table 1). Two
learning activities designed to assist students with

the integration of aesthetics and textile science are

included as examples. Figure 3 presents an activity for an introductory product development class.
Figure 4 presents an activity for an upper level
product development course. Unless our textiles

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TEXTILES AND AESTHETICS: DEVELOPMENT OF A SOFT-GOODS PRODUCT

Learning Objectives:
1. To understand consumer expectations related to the textile and aesthetic properties of a soft-goods product
2. To translate consumer expectations into material and product specifications and standards
3. To apply critical thinking to product development activities
Directions: Work in small groups of three or four students. The Interactions Between Textile Science and Aesthetics Table
will help in completing this assignment. Groups might want to consult the table in preparing for consumer interviews and in
writing specifications and standards for materials.
a. Define a target market and product type.
b. Interview consumers who represent the defined target market to gather information about their preferences related to
aesthetics for the product type. Sample questions to address these preferences might include What kind of texture would
you like for X (the product type)? How flexible would you prefer the fabric to be? How soft would you like the fabric to be?
How lustrous would you like the fabric to be? What color(s) do you prefer? Is there a specific sound youd like the fabric
to make during its use? Is there a specific odor you would like for the fabric? An alternate approach would be to provide a
variety of sample fabrics representing a range of texture, drape, flexibility, luster, and color. Ask consumers to select one or
more fabrics that include characteristics they would like for the product. Ask the consumer if the fabric would be ideal for
the product or what they would like to change about the fabric(s).
c. Summarize the information about aesthetic preferences from working with consumers. Based on the summary, write material specifications for the following fabric parameters: fiber content (qualitative and quantitative), fiber size (especially for
manufactured and synthetic fibers), yarn type, yarn size, yarn twist, fabrication method, fabric density or count, appropriate
finishes, color, and coloration method. When consumer expectations conflict, i.e., some consumers prefer a stiff fabric while
others prefer a softer fabric, consider how this conflict can be resolved.
d. In a written paper, include fabric specifications and standards and explain how the specified fabric would meet the target
markets expectations for aesthetics. When addressing opposing consumer preferences, explain how you resolved the conflict when developing material and product specifications and standards.

Figure 4. Sample exercise for senior level apparel production students.

and clothing students apply critical thinking

skills to the development of products that meet a
customers value expectations, the industry will
not fulfill their obligation of satisfying customers.
It is the consumer who ultimately determines the
success or failure of a product, a line, or a firm.
Graduates need to bring this understanding and
integration to the market in order to secure careers
in product development.

Graphic Organizers for Encouraging Critical Thinking About

the Product Development Process
The process model (Figure 1) illustrates that professional decisions affect the products ability to meet
desired consumer value, which according to the
TCI approach, is a factor considered throughout
the product development process. This model was

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framed using the concept of serviceability, and

thus, emphasizes meeting the desired needs of
the consumer. Consumer value is conceptualized
as the perceived benefit derived by the consumer
from acquisition (e.g., purchase), ownership, use,
or appreciation of the product. Consumers try
to optimize the value received from the product.
Products are defined as material goods, such as
apparel or towels, with physical properties that can
be experienced repeatedly. Value is derived from
the products formal, expressive, and symbolic qualities. For example, the textural form of a T-shirt
may affect perceived comfort and durability (value)
whereas an embroidered logo may be perceived as
a symbol of status (value).
Perceived consumer value derived from the product is the outcome of technical, managerial, and
creative professional decisions during development, gatekeeping or selection, and promotion of

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products. In this model, we focus on professional

decisions involved in or related to developing the
product. Developing involves decisions related to
the creation of the product, including the initiation, contribution, and presentation of ideas; the
selection or production and analysis of fabrics
and other materials, the perfection of the design;
and finally, the completion of production (Glock
& Kunz, 2000). Thus, many professionals make
decisions that ultimately determine the product
and its perceived value. Within developing are
decisions regarding creation, selection, evaluation,
testing, and care labeling of materials for specific products and customers/consumers. These
decisions are based upon physical characteristics, chemical processes, and physical-mechanical
processes that determine the elements of materials,
identified as fiber, yarn, fabrication, coloration,
and finish (Kadolph & Langford, 1998). A shared
understanding of the elements of materials
facilitates the development of a product to meet
desired consumer value.
Physical characteristics describe the tangible elements that are incorporated in a textile product.
Each element can be described in terms of its
dimensions, features, and structure. For example,
a fiber has length and cross sectional dimensions.
Fibers may have such regular features along their
lengths as convolutions or scales, or they may have
an absence of unique features (synthetic fibers like
polyester). The structure of a fiber relates to its
chemical structure (generic type) and its physical
structure, such as molecular arrangement (oriented
and crystalline or amorphous). Yarns, fabrications,
colorants, and finishes also possess physical characteristics that can be described by dimensions,
features, and structures.
Chemical processes describe a change in one of the
elements due to a chemical reaction. These changes
include descriptions of alterations in terms of fibercolorant bonds, fiber-finish bonds, or other changes
in the chemistry of one of the elements due to a
chemical reaction. For example, a burned-out finish
dissolves one generic fiber in specific areas to create
a unique visual and textural characteristic.

Physical-Mechanical processes describe a physical

change in one of the elements caused by mechanical action to that element. Mechanical actions
include: (a) application of a pulling force (tentering that alters the physical structure of the fabric),
(b) pressure (embossing that changes yarn or fiber
structure), (c) heat (heat setting or ciring that
alters fiber or yarn structure), (d) friction (friction
calendering that alters yarn or fabric structure),
and (e) abrasion (emerizing or abrasive washes that
modify fiber, yarn, or fabric structure).
The goal of professional decisions is to achieve the
right mix of benefits culminating in product value,
as interpreted by the consumer and for the firm to
meet business objectives. The taxonomy presented
in Figure 2 identifies and categorizes benefits (see
Fiore & Kimle, 1997; Fiore & Ogle 2000) desired
by the end-use consumer and affected by professional decisions about materials. These benefits
are categorized as either aesthetic or instrumental, similar to Holbrooks (1994) intrinsic versus
extrinsic dimension of value. Aesthetic benefits are
non-instrumental; they are rewarding and pleasurable in and of themselves. Instrumental benefits are
rewarding because they help attain such specific
external goals as social or economic gain (Berlyne,
1974; Holbrook, 1987).
As the taxonomy (Figure 2) shows, aesthetic and
instrumental benefits may be generated by formal,
expressive, and symbolic qualities of the product.
Formal qualities refer to the perceivable (sensory) features of the structural composition of the
object. For instance, the formal qualities of apparel
include color, texture, line, shape, balance, rhythm,
proportion, and kinesthetic tension. Sensual
pleasure is the result of pleasant sensory stimulation from formal qualities and the focus of this
paper. Formal qualities have the ability to express
or evoke emotion (Arnheim, 1986, 1988; Gibson,
1979; Lindauer, 1984), allowing the creator or appreciator to feel the emotion. Form and the resulting expressiveness contribute to symbolic qualities, which culminate in meaning or content and
communicate an idea about the world. Symbols
are things intended to stand for or represent something else. Regarding textile and apparel products,

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words (e.g., store or brand names, witticisms or

slogans on tee shirts), animal trademark emblems
(Morgado, 1993), the colors of national flags, the
letter X, and mental images fostered by products in
promotional environments are symbols intended
to stand for something else.
The focus of the model (Figure 1) is on the formal
qualities that are central to aesthetics and textile
science subject matter (Ogle & Fiore, 2000). It is
the materials and their manipulation that become
the physical means of creating the aesthetics of the
textile product. Although the materials used and
their manipulation also influence expressive and
symbolic qualities of products, these qualities are
not the focus of this paper and are not included
within the serviceability model.
Both textile science and aesthetics courses sharpen
perception and enhance the knowledge of and appreciation for perceivable qualities of the product.
However, textile science helps the professional
understand or integrate the contributing nature
of physical characteristics, chemical processes, and
physical-mechanical processes of materials to these
perceivable qualities. Elements of the materials
may influence visual, tactile, auditory, or olfactory
qualities of the product.
Table 1 explores connections between aesthetics
and textile science subject matter. Elaborating
on one tactile characteristic, hand illustrates the
utility of this graphic organizer. Hand is the tactile
sensation produced by the interaction of the body
(skin surface) and the materials in a product
(Kawabata & Niwa, 1995). Hand is influenced by
each element in the material (Kadolph, 1997).
The characteristics of hand can be assessed or
evaluated such that the hand can be replicated at
another time or in another product or end use.
In addition, hand can be destroyed or negatively
modified by such chemical and physical-mechanical processes as cleaning.
Fiber aspects that influence hand include fiber size
(fine or coarse), structure (stiff or pliable), surface
(smooth or rough), and shape (uniform or irregular). Yarn type and size affect hand. Large yarns

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produce a different hand than fine yarns. Smooth

regular yarns affect hand differently from novelty
yarns like boucl or slub yarns. A variety of fabric
structures are used in products, in part because
hand can be controlled by fabrication method such
and related characteristics as fabric density. For
instance, the hand of velvet and taffeta are totally
different though both fabrics may be made from
polyester filament yarns.
The coloration process also can influence hand. For
instance, pigment prints stiffen fabrics. Finishing of
fabric is an important means used to adjust hand to
meet desired characteristics. Many finishes (emerizing, abrasive washes, chemical washes, boil-off of
silk, caustic finishes of polyester, and biopolishing
of cellulosics) have been developed to modify the
hand of fabrics after they have been produced. In
some cases, these finishes are applied to products
so that the hand of the product itself is modified
after all materials have been combined.
Procedures that evaluate stiffness and standard
protocols to measure hand or dimensions of hand
have been developed to allow quality assurance
divisions to quantify hand. By measuring hand
we make it possible to replicate a specific hand. In
addition, measurements help ensure that company
specifications or standards regarding hand can
be satisfied repeatedly at different times and with
different products. The care a product receives
from the consumer can also adversely affect hand.
Special additives or modifications of detergents can
be used to minimize loss of hand when the product
is used and cleaned by the consumer.
When making decisions related to the development
of textile and apparel products, professionals must
consider aspects of materials to ensure the aesthetic value of sensual pleasure for the consumer
is created and maintained in the product. For
instance, technical decisions about fiber type and
yarn structure must result in fulfilled consumerbased aesthetic desires extended for the reasonable
life of the product, as specified by a designer and
ensured by quality assurance professionals within a
manufacturing firm.

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Applications for Critical Thinking

about Textiles and Aesthetics in
Product Development
The prospect of introducing critical thinking
skills in a curriculum is challenging. However,
strategies for recognizing the underlying logic
of a subject matter (Paul & Elder, 1994; 1999a;
1999b) and building mental representations via
graphic organizers (Danserau & Newbern, 1997)
can be facilitated by introductory texts. These
information sources commonly introduce logical
relationships, and some provide graphic organizers that not only identify the basic concepts
and principles, but also (graphically) present an
underlying logic of a subject matter. While it is
essential for students to possess a basic knowledge
of the concepts, principles, and understandings of
a subject matter, many beginning students do not
see the underlying logic of a given subject matter
(Browne, Freeman, and Williamson, 2000). Perhaps the problem lies in the introductory courses
emphasis on memorization of factual information
and the de-emphasis on grasping the underlying logic of a subject matter. Charts, diagrams,
and tables in texts are presented to demonstrate
the organization of information and connections
among concepts. Instructors may use these charts
and diagrams not only to organize their lectures,
but also to introduce concepts that help students
improve their understanding of underlying logic
and, thus, their critical thinking skills.
Instructors can require students to read the preface
to their texts so that they understand the author(s)
intentions and underlying logic and structure of
the text. For example, many textbooks on textiles
are organized by essential components of fiber,
yarn, fabric, and finish. Typically, authors explain that organization and connections among
those components in the preface. Within the text,
charts and diagrams organize the information and
connect concepts. Unfortunately, textile students
often read only the assigned text and pay little
attention to charts, diagrams, and other non-text
components. Students become frustrated and
overwhelmed when they attempt to memorize the
thousands of bits of information in the text, instead

of developing an understanding of the logic of the

material. Lecture and lab activities often reinforce
this focus on facts rather than help students see
how they can think their way through the subject
matter. It is unfair to expect students not only to
recognize logic of one subject matter area, but
also to build linkages with the underlying logic of
another subject matter area unless curricula are
designed to facilitate such linkages. In this section
of the paper, we present examples that suggest ways
instructors can assist students to grasp the logical
relationships for each subject matter. A student
who has an understanding of the relationships, can
focus on systematic evaluation of an argument or
solution, essential to critical thinking.
In introductory textile science courses, lab activities can focus on systematic evaluation of basic
concepts to derive a solution. To focus on fabrication, for example, the instructor can use sample
fabrics or products with the same fabric structure,
but different weight, fiber, or yarn type to help students assess ways that similarities and differences
among fabrics change the aesthetics and end use
of the fabric. Leading questions to help students
understand the concepts and underlying assumptions work well in this situation (Knight, 1992;
Ruggiero, 1988). The instructor provides guidance
with a series of leading questions, while allowing
students to work out solutions and explanations
for themselves. Questions would focus on aspects
related to fiber content, fabric structure, and yarn
type, density, and size. Sample questions or instructions could include:
Arrange the fabric in order from lightest to
heaviest.
Identify the structure (or type or density or size)
of the yarns in each of these fabrics.
Identify the weave or knit structure of these
fabrics.
How are these fabrics similar or dissimilar
based on their structure, weight, or yarn type?
Based on the macroscopic characteristics of
these fabrics (or the information provided by
the instructor), what is the ber content of these
fabrics?
How does the ber content inuence the appearance/aesthetics of these fabrics?

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A more complex, integrative learning activity

could require sophomore-level apparel production students (i.e., those who have completed basic
textiles science and an aesthetics/design appreciation course) to explore the relationships between
various textile properties of a finished soft-goods
product and different forms of aesthetic value.
Here, the instructor would provide small groups
of students with finished soft-goods products to
analyze. An example exercise that could be used in
such an activity is presented in Figure 3. Figures 1
and 2 and Table 1 could be presented as a graphic
organizers for this activity to help focus student effort in lab and lead to a better understanding of the
contribution that textiles make to a products aesthetic features. Such activities will engage students
in their learning and help them develop the skills
that contribute to critical thinking.
To stress the underlying logic of aesthetics, Figure
2 should be reintroduced in the aesthetics course
with the elements and principles of design. The
instructor may propose the underlying multi-sensory nature of aesthetic experience and require
students to synthesize information throughout the
semester to determine the multi-sensory nature of
fabrics predicted to be fashionable for an upcoming
season. Reintroducing Table 1 may help students
systematically evaluate means for creating these
textiles. When focusing on textural qualities identified by Kawabata and Niwa (1995), such as density
and extensibility of these fabrics, the instructor
should require students to communicate how elements of materials (fiber, yarn, fabrication, coloration, and finish), chemical processes, and mechanical processes could create the fashionable textural
qualities. Figure 3 is an example of an activity for a
sophomore-level class.
Figures 1 and 2 and Table 1 become useful in a
senior synthesis course where students take on the
roles of varied TCI partners to develop products
and merchandise assortments for a specified consumer target market. Figure 1 provides a graphic
organizer to reinforce the mental representation
of the integrative product development process
students need to undertake, including quality assurance testing and care labeling activities. Table

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1 assists the student in selecting or designing and

communicating about the technical details of
textiles to achieve the aesthetic effect desired. Each
student, as a TCI partner, must understand the effects their decisions have on the products ability to
meet the desired value of the target market. Figure
2 provides a structure useful in the critical analysis
of the potential value desired by the target market
and a structure to check against once the product
or line is developed. For example, Figure 2 can be
useful in alerting the student that selection of a less
costly fabric may increase efficiency (i.e., decrease
cost of the product) but have a negative impact
on consumer value from sensual pleasure, quality,
status, and/or social acceptance. Figure 4 provides
an example of a learning activity for a senior level
class that combines a TCI approach with the integration of textile science and aesthetics.

Concluding Remarks
Textile and clothing students who will become
valuable members of TCI partnerships in the textile and apparel industry, must be able to integrate
across subject matter areas and determine ways
their decisions affect benefits derived from the
product by the end user. In other words, textile
and clothing students must enlist critical thinking
skills in complex and multi-faceted decision-making processes where there is not one single solution
to a situation or problem involving the product.
Critical thinking skills are especially important
in upper level capstone and synthesis courses,
where students are required to integrate across
subject matter areas and demonstrate autonomous
thinking as they work in teams to solve complex
problems similar to those that they will encounter
as industry professionals. However, to prepare
students to engage in this complex and multi-faceted decision-making, it is important that lower
division courses, which often emphasize a dualistic
approach to teaching and learning, also incorporate opportunities for students to develop and hone
critical thinking skills.
The graphic organizers we present support critical
thinking by orienting students to elements of a TCI

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approach to product development. These organizers illustrate the importance of consumer value in
professional decisions and the potential benefits or
value desired by the end-use consumer. They also
provide a structure for integration across subject
matter areas. Figure 1 is proposed to assist development of critical thinking skills by orienting students to the underlying process of product development. Figure 2 organizes potential value derived
by the consumer from a product. Table 1 maps the
connections between aesthetics and textile science
that affect value derived from the product. Because
of the integrative nature of the textile and apparel
industry and its focus on customer satisfaction,
an understanding of the linkages between subject
matter areas and consumer value helps students articulate their decision making criteria a vital skill
for critical thinking processes (Paul & Elder, 2001).

cal thinking development. For example, students

may be asked to perform a critical thinking activity
(e.g., that outlined in Figure 4) before and after
working with the proposed structures. A faculty
committee may then review differences in complexity of critical thinking demonstrated before
and after the structures were introduced, perhaps
referencing widely acknowledged hallmarks of
critical thinking (e.g., Brookfield, 1987) as criteria
for this evaluation. Future research could explore
types of graphic organizers most useful in development of autonomous and critical thinking skills.
Results could inform curriculum decisions and better prepare graduates to contribute meaningfully to
the textiles and apparel industry.

Educators need to help students understand that

the consumer should be the focus of their professional activities so that they provide the consumer
with the right mix of benefits that culminate in
product value desired by the consumer. To foster
this understanding, educators must set a good example by working together to bridge gaps between
such subject matter areas. We have begun to make
connections between textile science and aesthetics; further efforts to illustrate the expressive and
symbolic qualities derived from materials of the
product will enhance this connection.

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