Notes on Hermitian Matrices and Vector Spaces

1. Hermitian matrices
Defn: The Hermitian conjugate of a matrix is the transpose of its complex conjugate.
So, for example, if

1
i
M = 0
2 ,
1i 1+i
then its Hermitian conjugate M is

M =

1
i

0 1+i
2 1i

In terms of matrix elements,

[M ]ij = ([M ]ji ) .
Note that for any matrix
(A ) = A .
Thus, the conjugate of the conjugate is the matrix itself.
Defn: A square matrix M is said to be Hermitian (or self-adjoint) if it is equal to its own
Hermitian conjugate, i.e.
M = M .
For example, the following matrices are Hermitian:



1 2
1 i

,
2 4
i 1
3 5

3
5 .
6

Note that a real symmetric matrix (the second example) is a special case of a Hermitian
matrix.
Theorem: The Hermitian conjugate of the product of two matrices is the product of their
conjugates taken in reverse order, i.e.
(AB) = B A .
Proof:
X
X
[LHS]ij = ([AB]ji ) = ( [A]jk [B]ki ) =
([A]jk ) ([B]ki )
k

X
k

([B]ki ) ([A]jk ) =

[B ]ik [A ]kj = [A B ]ij = [RHS]ij .

Exercise: Check this result explicitly for the matrices

A=

1
3

2
4

B=

0 i
i 0

Theorem: Hermitian Matrices have real eigenvalues.

Proof
Ax = x
so
x Ax = x x.

(1)

Take the complex conjugate of each side:

(x Ax) = (x x) .
Now use the last theorem about the product of matrices and the fact that A is Hermitian
(A = A), giving
x A x = x Ax = x x.
(2)
Subtracting (1), (2), we have
( )x x = 0.
Since x x 6= 0, we have = 0, i.e. = . So is real. (QED).
Theorem: Eigenvectors of Hermitian matrices corresponding to different
eigenvalues are orthogonal.
Proof
Suppose x and y are eigenvectors of the hermitian matrix A corresponding to eigenvalues 1 and 2 (where 1 6= 2 ). So we have
Ax = 1 x,

Ay = 2 y.

Hence
y Ax = 1 y x,

(3)

x Ay = 2 x y.

(4)

Taking the Hermitian conjugate of (4), we have

(x Ay) = y Ax = 2 (x y) = 2 y x,
where we have used the facts that A is Hermitian and that 2 is real. So we have
y Ax = 2 y x.
2

(5)

Subtracting (5) from (3), we have

(1 2 )y x = 0,
and since we are assuming 1 6= 2 , we must have y x = 0, i.e. x and y are orthogonal.
(QED).
Example
(i) Find the the eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors of the matrix

1 0 2i
0
A= 0 2
2i 0 1
(ii) Put the eigenvectors X1 ,X2 and X3 in normalised form (i.e. multiply them by a
suitable scalar factor so that they have unit magnitude or length, Xi Xi = 1) and
check that they are orthogonal (Xi Xj , for j 6= i).
(iii) Form a 3 3 matrix P whose columns are {X1 , X2 , X3 } and verify that the matrix
P AP
is diagonal. Do you recognise the values of the diagonal elements?
Solution
(i) Find the the eigenvalues in the usual way from the characteristic equation,



 1
0
2i


 0
2
0  = 0 .

 2i
0
1 
So,

(1 )(2 )(1 ) 2i(2i(2 )) = 0

giving
(2 )(2 + 3) = 0
which has solutions = 1, 2, 3. These are the three eigenvalues of A (all real as
expected).
To get the eigenvectors, go back to the eigenvalue equation
(A I)X = 0 .
Write this out for the three eigenvalues in turn:
For 1 = 1,

2 0 2i
x
0 1

0
y = 0.
2i 0 2
z
3

This matrix equation corresponds to 3 simple linear equations (of which only 2 are independent). We easily find
z/x = i , y = 0.
So we can take

1
X 1 = n1 0
i

where n1 is a normalisation constant.

For 2 = 2,

3 0 2i
x
0 0

0
y = 0.
2i 0 3
z
This gives 3x = 2iz and 2ix = 3z so, x = z = 0 and y is arbitrary. So we can take

0
X 2 = n2 1 .
0
Finally, for 3 = 3,

2
0
2i

0 2i
x
5
0 y = 0.
z
0
2

From this we deduce x = iz and y = 0, so we can take

i
X 3 = n3 0 .
1
q
(ii) The norm or magnitude of X1 is X1 X1 . Now
X1 X1 = n21 ( 1 0

i ) 0 = n21 (1 + 0 + 1) = 2n21 ,
i

so we can take n1 = 1/ 2 and get the normalised form of the first eigenvector

1
1
0 .
X1 =
2 i
Similarly we can take

0

X2 = 1
0

i
1
0 .
X3 =
2 1
4

(iii) Form the matrix

1 0
1
P =
0
2
2 i 0

i
0
1

from the normalised eigenvectors. Then

1
1

P AP =
0
2
i

1
1
=
0
2
i

0
i
1
0
2i
1
0
i

2 0 0 2
0 0
2 0
0
1
2i 0 1
i 0 1

1
0
3i
1 0 0
0 i
2 0 0 2 2
0 = 0 2 0
0
1
i
0
3
0 0 3

Note that the corresponding eigenvalues appear as the diagonal elements. Note also
that

1 0 0
P P = 0 1 0 = I .
0 0 1
A matrix satisfying this condition is said to be unitary.
2. Vector spaces
The vectors described above are actually simple examples of more general objects
which live in something called a Vector Space. (*) Any objects which one can add,
multiply by a scalar (complex number) and get a result of a similar type are also referred
to as vectors.
Defn: A set of objects (vectors) x, y, . . . is said to form a linear vector space V if:
(i) The set is closed under addition (usual commutative and associative properties apply),
i.e. if x, y V, then the sum x + y V.
(ii) The set is closed under multiplication by a scalar, i.e. if is a scalar and x V, then
x V. The usual associative and distributive properties must also apply.
(iii) There exists a null or zero vector 0 such that x + 0 = x.
(iv) Multiplication by unity ( = 1) leaves the vector unchanged, i.e. 1 x = x.
(v) every vector x has a negative vector x such that x + (x) = 0.
[Note that, in the above, as is often the case, I have not bothered to denote vectors by
bold face type. It is usually clear within the context, what is a vector and what is a
scalar!]
(*) An excellent Mathematics text book covering all of the tools we need is the book
Mathematical Methods for Physics and Engineering by Riley, Hobson and Bence, CUP
1997. Chapter 7 contains material on vectors, vector spaces, matrices, eigenvalues etc.
Chapter 15 has more on the application to functions which we describe in what follows.
5

It is immediately obvious that the usual 3-dimensional vectors form a vector space,
as do the vectors acted upon by matrices as described above in the examples.
In the context of Quantum mechanics (see Mandl 1.1), we will assume that wave
functions (x) form a vector space in the above sense. Multiplication of an ordinary
vector by a matrix is a linear operation and results in another vector in the same vector
space. Thus, if x is a column vector with n elements and A is an n n (complex) matrix,
then y = Ax is also a column vector of n elements.
It is also clear that
A(x + y) = Ax + Ay

and A(x) = (Ax)

so that multiplication by a matrix is seen to be a linear operation. A matrix is an example

of what, in the general context of vector spaces, is called a linear operator.
Turning back to the space of wave functions, we note that the operation of differentiation /x is a linear operation:

1
2
(1 (x) + 2 (x)) =
+
.
x
x
x
Inner products
As with ordinary 3-D geometrical vectors, one can often define a inner or scalar or
dot product. For ndimensional complex vectors we define

hy|xi y x =

n
X

yi xi .

i=1

So the (magnitude)2 of x is

hx|xi x x =

n
X

|xi |2

i=1

and gives a measure of distance within the vector space. In the space of wave functions,
an inner product can be defined by
Z
h1 |2 i
1 (x) 2 (x)dx .
(1)

Thus, the (norm)2 or (magnitude)2 of is given by

h|i =

|(x)|2 dx .

It follows from the definition of the inner product (1) that

h1 |2 i = h2 |1 i .
6

(2)

A vector space of this form, with an inner product, is sometimes referred to as a

Hilbert Space (e.g. Mandl, Chapter 12).
Properties of Hermitian linear operators
We can now generalise the above Theorems about Hermitian (or self-adjoint) matrices,
which act on ordinary vectors, to corresponding statements about Hermitian (or selfadjoint) linear operators which act in a Hilbert space, e.g. the space of wave functions in
Quantum Mechanics.
For completeness, I rewrite the above Theorems (and Proofs) using the more general
notation to describe scalar products. In this context, one often talks about eigenfunctions
rather that eigenvectors if the vectors happen to be functions or, specifically in our case,
wave functions.
Defn: The Hermitian conjugate A of a linear operator A is defined by
hy|Axi = hx|A yi .
An equivalent definition is given by
hAx|yi = hx|A yi .
This follows using property (2) above of the inner product.
Thus, if A is a Hermitian operator (A = A), we must have
hAx|yi = hx|Ayi .
Exercise: Check that this definition agrees with that given when A is a complex matrix.

Theorem: The Hermitian conjugate of the product of two linear operators is the product
of their conjugates taken in reverse order, i.e.
(AB) = B A .
Proof: For any two vectors x and y,
hy|ABxi = h(AB) y|xi .
But also
hy|ABxi = hA y|Bxi = hB A y|xi .
So we must have
(AB) = B A .
7

Theorem: Hermitian (linear) operators have real eigenvalues.

Proof
Ax = x
so
hx|Axi = hx|xi.

(1)

Take complex conjugate:

hx|Axi = hx|xi
so, using the definition of Hermitian conjugation (see above)
hx|A xi = hx|xi.
Now A is hermitian, so this means
hx|Axi = hx|xi.

(2)

Subtracting (1), (2), we have

( )hx|xi = 0.
Since hx|xi =
6 0, we have = 0, i.e. = . So is real.
Theorem: Eigenvectors (eigenfunctions) of Hermitian operators corresponding
to different eigenvalues are orthogonal.
Proof
Suppose x and y are eigenvectors (eigenfunctions) of the hermitian operator A corresponding to eigenvalues 1 and 2 (where 1 6= 2 ). So we have
Ax = 1 x,

Ay = 2 y.

Hence
hy|Axi = 1 hy|xi,

(3)

hx|Ayi = 2 hx|yi.

(4)

Taking the complex conjugate of (4), we have

hx|Ayi = hy|A xi = 2 hx|yi = 2 hy|xi,
where we have used the facts that hx|yi = hy|xi, and that 2 is real. Then, since A is
hermitian, it follows that
hy|Axi = 2 hy|xi.
(5)
Subtracting (5) from (3), we have
(1 2 )hy|xi = 0,
8

and since we are assuming 1 6= 2 , we must have hy|xi = 0, i.e. x and y are orthogonal.
Example
The linear operator
d2
dx2
acts on the vector space of functions of the type f (x) (L x L) such that
K=

f (L) = f (L) = 0 .
(i) Show that K is Hermitian.
(ii) Find its eigenvalues and eigenfunctions.
Solution
(i) We need to check if
hg|Kf i = hf |Kgi ,
for any functions f and g in the given space. We have
Z


f
df L
LHS = hg|Kf i =
g
dx
=
g

+
dx2
dx L
L
Z L
dg df
=
dx
L dx dx

dg df
dx
dx dx

where we have used integration by parts. Similarly

Z


g
dg L
RHS = hf |Kgi =
f
dx
=
f

+
dx2
dx L
L
Z L
df dg
=
dx
L dx dx

df dg
dx
dx dx

= LHS .
Hence we conclude K is Hermitian.
(ii) We require to solve the differential equation
Kf = f,

i.e.

d2 f
= f ,
dx2

subject to the boundary conditions f (L) = f (L) = 0. The eigenvalue equation is

therefore
d2 f
= f
dx2
which has the general solution (simple harmonic oscillator!)

f (x) = A cos( x) + B sin( x) .

9

The boundary conditions then imply

f (L) = 0

f (L) = 0

A cos( L) + B sin( L) = 0

A cos( L) B sin( L) = 0 .

There are two typesof eigenfunctions

odd: A = 0 and sin( L) = 0, so

L = n,

(n = 0, 1, 2 . . .)

giving eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of K as

=

n2 2
,
L2

fn(o) (x) = Bn sin

even: B = 0 and cos( L) = 0, so

L = (n + 1/2),

nx

,
L

(n = 0, 1, 2 . . .)

(n = 0, 1, 2 . . .)

giving eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of K as

=

(n + 1/2)2 2
,
L2

fn(e) (x) = An cos

(n + 1/2)x

,
L

(n = 0, 1, 2 . . .)

If you are feeling really keen, you could check that all these eigenfunctions are
indeed orthogonal, i.e.
(q)
hfn(p) |fm
i=0
whenever m 6= n, for p = o, e and q = o, e.
Basis vectors In dealing with any vector space V, it is very convenient to choose a set
of basis vectors in terms of which any of the vectors in V can be written. The number of
these needed is called the dimension of the vectors space (maximum number of linearly
independent vectors in V). (Recall the discussion of such things in MATH102!)
For example, in ordinary 3D (Euclidean) space, we are all used to adopting i, j and k
as basis vectors. There are, of course, 3 of them and they are clearly linearly independent.
Actually, they are orthogonal and unit ( orthonormal). We dont have to use these as a
basis. They dont even have to be orthogonal! For example we could change basis to
e1 = i + j ,

e2 = i j ,

e3 = i + j + k .

The important thing about a basis is that an arbitrary vector can always be written
as a linear combination of the basis vectors. Thus if V and {i }, i = 1, 2 . . . N is a
basis of V, we can write
N
X
=
ci i .
i=1

10

It is often convenient to choose the basis vectors to be the eigenvectors of some linear
operator which acts on the space. In Quantum Mechanics, we will do this all the time!
Example
The matrix

1 0 2i
A= 0 2
0
2i 0 1

(see page 3) acts on the 3D space of column vectors of the form

x
y .
z
Construct a basis for this 3D space consisting of the eigenvectors of A. How do you know
the 3 vectors are linearly independent? Express the vector

a

v = b
c
in terms of these basis vectors.
Solution
See example on page 3, for the extraction of eigenvectors of A:

1
1
0 ,
X1 =
2 i

X2 = 1 ,
0

i
1
X3 =
0 .
2 1

Since there are 3 of them and they are linearly independent, they form a basis. We
know they are linearly independent because they are orthogonal (correspond to different
eigenvalues). Now let




3
1
0
i
a
X
c3
c1

0 + c2 1 +
0 .
v= b =
ci Xi =
2 i
2 1
i=1
0
c
There are two ways to solve this
(a) Equate components on each side of this vector equation, so finding 3 linear simultaneous equations in c1 , c2 and c3 . Solve for these.
(b) Use the fact that the Xi are orthonormal to show that
cj = Xj v .
11

Try (a) as an exercise. Now look at method (b) in more detail. We want
v=

3
X

ci Xi ,

i=1

where
Xj Xi

= ij =

1 if i = j,
.
0 if i 6= j

Left multiply both sides of the equation for v by Xj :

Xj v

3
X

ci Xj Xi

i=1

3
X

ci ij = cj .

i=1

Thus we can calculate, for example

1
c1 = X1 v = ( 1 0
2

a
1

i ) b = (a ic) .
2
c

Similarly, we find
c2 = b ,

1
c3 = (c ia) .
2

12