F

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN MEKANIKAL

Program: Bachelor of Mechanical (Hons) Mechanical (EM220)

Course : Dynamic and Materials Lab 1
Code : MEC 424

Lab 2
Microstructures Study of Ferrous and Non Ferrous Alloys Treated Under Various
Compositions and Treatment Condition

Name
: Haziman Bin Abdullah
I/D Student: 2007126805
Group
: EMD4M5
Lecture
: Pn. Koay Mei Hyie

Lab Session

: 28 JULY 2008
(Date)

Report Submission

: 4 AUGUST 2008
(Date)

4.0 FINDINGS
4.1 Find out why microstructures study is important in materials science/engineering.
- The discipline of material science/engineering involves investigating the relationships
that exist between the structures and properties of materials. In contrast, materials
engineering is, on the basis of these structure- property correlations, designing or
engineering the structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties.
Microstructures study is extremely important in today's world where metals, ceramics,
polymers, and composites are used to improve our everyday lives by insuring safety
and reliability in the products that we use. In order, to correctly analyze these
microstructures, proper specimen preparation is required to eliminate preparation
induced microstructures artifacts. By knowing the physical properties of the material
such as hardness, recrystallization temperature, fracture toughness, an appropriate
specimen preparation procedure can be developed. In general, minimizing the damage
early in the microstructural preparation stage by choosing the correct abrasive,
lubricant, and equipment parameters, the steps required to highlight the representative
materials microstructure obtained by following the basic preparation guidelines.
Microstructural features, such as grain size, inclusions, impurities, second phases,
porosity, segregation or surface effects, are a function of the starting material and
subsequent processing treatments. The microstructures features of metals are well
defined and documented, and understood to be the result of specific treatments.

4.2 Discuss the importance of ferrous and non-ferrous alloys in engineering application.
- Metal alloys, by virtue of composition, are often grouped into two classes- ferrous and
nonferrous. Ferrous alloy, those in which iron is the principal constituent, includes
steels and cast irons. The nonferrous ones- all alloys that are not iron based. Carbon is
the important commercial steel alloy. Increasing carbon content increases hardness and
strength and improves hardenability. But carbon also increases brittleness and reduces
weld ability because of its tendency to form martensite. This means carbon content can
be both a blessing and a curse when it comes to commercial steel.
The ferrous alloys are classified based on the percentages of carbon present in the
ferrous. Mostly the contain of carbon in steel is less than 2%. Mean while the carbon
contain in cast iron is about 2% to 4.3%. When the contain of carbon in steel is less that
0.76%, it is called hypoeutectoid steel. While the contain of carbon in range 0.76 to 2%
which is called hypereutectoid steel. In classs ferrous alloy, can divide many category
steel like steel and cast iron. Category low alloy in classs steel.

Engineering application in classs steel example low carbon steels. It has less than 0.3%
carbon and is unresponsive to head treatment intended to form martensite. Usually a
microstuctures consist of ferrite and pearlite, and the material is generally used as it
comes from the cold work processes. Low carbon steels typical uses 0.1-0.2% carbon
for automotive panels, rivets, nails, wire and pipelines. 0.2-0.3% carbon for concrete
reinforcing bars, structural shapes.
The term non-ferrous alloy is used for those alloys which do not have iron as the base
element. Generally, the non-ferrous alloys commonly used in engineering application
are aluminium alloys, copper alloys, magnesium alloys, and titanium alloys etc.
Application metal from class non-ferrous example Titanium and its Alloys is used for
chemical plant component, surgical implants, marine, aircraft engine part, steam turbine
blades and rocket motor cases. Titanium is an expensive metal, its cost reflecting the
difficulties experienced in the extraction and formation of the material.
The advantages of ferrous alloys over non-ferrous alloys, firstly ferrous alloys greater
strength, greater stiffness example larges values of Young Modules and it better for
welding. The advantages used non-ferrous alloys over ferrous alloys, it good rsistance
to corrosion without special processes having to be carried out. Most non-ferrous alloys
have a much low density and hence lighter weight components can be produced. In
casting process is often easier because of the greater ductility and higher thermal and
electrical conductivities.

Classification Scheme for The Various Ferrous Alloys

4.3 Comment on the effects of different composition and heat treatment methods on
the microstructures of the specimens.
- Conventional heat treatment procedures for producing martensitic steels ordinarily
continuous and rapid cooling of an austenitized specimen in some type of quenching
medium, such as water, oil or air. The optimum properties of steel that has been
quenched and then tempered can be realized only if, during the quenching heat
treatment, the specimen has been converted to a high content of martensite. The
formation of any pearlite and or bainite will result in order than the best combination of
mechanical characteristic. During the quenching treatment, it is impossible to cool the
specimen at auniform rate throughout- the surface will always cool more rapidly than
interior regions. Therefore, the austernite will transform over a range of temperatures,
yielding a possible variation of microstructure and properties with position within a
specimen.
The successful heat treating of steel to produce a predominantly martensite
microstructure throughout the cross section depends mainly on three factor
The composition of the alloys.
The type and character of the quenching medium.
The size and shape of specimen.
The rate of heating determines where the changes will occur in the material as it is
heated. Increasing the rate of heating raises the temperatures at which the
transformations occur. Within certain limits, the faster the material is heated, the higher
its transformation temperatures will be. The temperatures to which the material is raised
and the time it is held at that temperature affect the size of the grains in the final
structure. The rate of heating also partially determines whether or not stresses will be
set up in the material by the process of heating.

Schematic diagram illustrating the relation between the S-curve, continuous cooling curves,
and resulting microstructures of eutectoid carbon steels.

A theoretical S-curve on which are superimposed five theoretical cooling curves.

Curves A to E represent successively slower rates of cooling that would be obtained,
for instance, by cooling in (A) iced brine, (B) water, (C) oil, (D) air, and (E) the
furnace. Steel cooled according to curve E begins to transform at temperature t1 and
completes transformation at t2; the final product is coarse pearlite with relatively low
hardness. When the steel is cooled according to curve D, transformation begins at t 3 and
is complete at t4; the final product is fine pearlite and its hardness is greater than that of
the steel cooled according to curve E. When the steel is cooled according to curve C,
transformation begins at t5 and is only partially complete when temperature t6 is
reached. The product of this partial transformation is very fine pearlite. The remainder
of the austenite does not decompose until the Ms Temperature is reached. Then it begins
to transform to martensite, and completes this transformation at the Mf temperature. The
final structure is then a mixture of fine perlite and martensite (typical of improperly
quenched steel) with a higher hardness than was obtained with the steel cooled
according to curve D. The rate of cooling represented by curve B is just sufficient to
intersect the nose of the S-curve.
Consequently, only a minute amount of austenite decomposes into fine pearlite at
temperature t7; the remainder of the austenite is unchanged until the martensite
transformation range is reached. If the steel is cooled at a slightly faster rate, so no
transformation takes place at the nose of the S-curve, the steel is completely hardened.
This particular rate is termed the critical cooling rate and is defined as the slowest rate
at which the steel can be cooled and yet be completely hardened. Since this rate cannot
be directly determined, the rate indicated by curve B, producing only a trace of fine
pearlite, is frequently used as the critical cooling rate. The hardness of the resultant
martensite is equivalent to the maximum that can be obtained. Samples cooled at a
faster rate, such as that indicated by curve A, are also completely martensitic but arc no
harder than the sample cooled according to the critical cooling rate.

4.4 How do different phase exits in an alloy during microstructures studies.

(Figure 1) Cooling curve for pure iron (Allotropic behaviors of pure iron)

(Figure 2) Iron-iron carbide phase diagram

A study of the microstructure of all steels usually starts with the iron-carbon (Fe-C) binary
phase diagram (Figure 2). It provides an invaluable foundation on which to build
knowledge of both carbon steels and alloy steels, as well as a number of various heat
treatments they are usually subjected to (hardening, annealing, etc).
The Fe-C phase diagram shows which phases are to be expected at metastable equilibrium
for different combinations of carbon content and temperature. The metastable Fe-C phase
diagram was calculated with Thermo-Calc, coupled with PBIN thermodynamic database.
At the low-carbon end of the metastable Fe-C phase diagram, we distinguish ferrite (alphairon), which can at most dissolve 0.028 wt. % C at 738 C, and austenite (gamma-iron),
which can dissolve 2.08 wt. % C at 1154 C. The much larger phase field of gamma-iron
(austenite) compared with that of alpha-iron (ferrite) indicates clearly the considerably
grater solubility of carbon in gamma-iron (austenite), the maximum value being 2.08 wt. %
at 1154 C. The hardening of carbon steels, as well as many alloy steels, is based on this
difference in the solubility of carbon in alpha-iron (ferrite) and gamma-iron (austenite).At
the carbon-rich side of the metastable Fe-C phase diagram we find cementite (Fe3C). Of
less interest, except for highly alloyed steels, is the delta-ferrite at the highest temperatures.
The vast majority of steels rely on just two allotropes of iron: (1) alpha-iron, which is bodycentered cubic (BCC) ferrite, and (2) gamma-iron, which is face-centered cubic (FCC)
austenite. At ambient pressure, BCC ferrite is stable from all temperatures up to 912 C
(the A3 point), when it transforms into FCC austenite. It reverts to ferrite at 1394 C (the
A4 point). This high-temperature ferrite is labeled delta-iron, even though its crystal
structure is identical to that of alpha-ferrite. The delta-ferrite remains stable until it melts at
1538 C.
Regions with mixtures of two phases (such as ferrite + cementite, austenite + cementite,
and ferrite + austenite) are found between the single-phase fields. At the highest
temperatures, the liquid phase field can be found, and below this are the two-phase fields
(liquid + austenite, liquid + cementite, and liquid + delta-ferrite). In heat treating of steels,
the liquid phase is always avoided.
The steel portion of the Fe-C phase diagram covers the range between 0 and 2.08 wt. % C.
The cast iron portion of the Fe-C phase diagram covers the range between 2.08 and 6.67
wt. % C. The steel portion of the metastable Fe-C phase diagram can be subdivided into
three regions: hypoeutectoid (0 < wt. % C < 0.68 wt. %), eutectoid (C = 0.68 wt. %), and
hypereutectoid (0.68 < wt. % C < 2.08 wt. %).
A very important phase change in the metastable Fe-C phase diagram occurs at 0.68 wt. %
C. The transformation is eutectoid, and its product is called pearlite (ferrite + cementite):
Gamma-iron (austenite) > alpha-iron (ferrite) + Fe3C (cementite).

Some important boundaries at single-phase fields have been given special names. These
include:
A1 - The so-called eutectoid temperature, which is the minimum temperature for
austenite.
A3 - The lower-temperature boundary of the austenite region at low carbon contents; i.e.,
the gamma / gamma + ferrite boundary.
Acm - The counterpart boundary for high-carbon contents; i.e., the gamma / gamma +
Fe3C boundary.
Sometimes the letters c, e, or r is included:
Accm - In hypereutectoid steel, the temperature at which the solution of cementite in
austenite is completed during heating.
Ac1 - The temperature at which austenite begins to form during heating, with the c being
derived from the French chauffant.
Ac3 - The temperature at which transformation of ferrite to austenite is completed during
heating.
Aecm, Ae1, Ae3 - The temperatures of phase changes at equilibrium.
Arcm - In hypereutectoid steel, the temperature at which precipitation of cementite starts
during cooling, with the r being derived from the French refroidissant.
Ar1 - The temperature at which transformation of austenite to ferrite or to ferrite plus
cementite is completed during cooling.
Ar3 - The temperature at which austenite begins to transform to ferrite during cooling.
Ar4 - The temperature at which delta-ferrite transforms to austenite during cooling.
If alloying elements are added to an iron-carbon alloy (steel), the position of the A1, A3,
and Acm boundaries, as well as the eutectoid composition, are changed. In general, the
austenite-stabilizing elements (e.g., nickel, manganese, nitrogen, copper, etc) decrease the
A1 temperature, whereas the ferrite-stabilizing elements (e.g., chromium, silicon,
aluminum, titanium, vanadium, niobium, molybdenum, tungsten, etc) increase the A1
temperature.
The carbon content at which the minimum austenite temperature is attained is called the
eutectoid carbon content (0.68 wt. % C in case of the metastable Fe-C phase diagram). The
ferrite-cementite phase mixture of this composition formed during slow cooling has a
characteristic appearance and is called pearlite and can be treated as a microstructural entity
or microconstituent. It is an aggregate of alternating ferrite and cementite lamellae that
coarsens (or "spheroidizes") into cementite particles dispersed within a ferrite matrix after
extended holding at a temperature close to A1.Finally, we have the martensite start
temperature, Ms, and the martensite finish temperature, Mf:
Ms - The highest temperature at which transformation of austenite to martensite starts
during rapid cooling.
Mf - The temperature at which martensite formation finishes during rapid cooling.

5.0 DISCUSSION
Often a material problem is really one of selecting the material that has the right
combination of characteristic for a specific application. Therefore, the people who are
involved in the decision making should have some knowledge of the available options. The
first portion of this chapter provides an abbreviated overview of some of the commercial
alloys, their general properties, and limitations.
Materials selection decision may also be influenced by the ease with which metal alloys
may be formed or manufactured into useful components. Alloy properties are altered by
fabrication process and in addition, further property alterations may be included by the
employment of appropriate heat treatments. Metal alloys, by virtue of composition are
often grouped into two classes, Ferrous and Non-ferrous.

6.0 CONCLUSION
From this experiment we had totally understand and achieve the entire objective:
To understand the different between ferrous and non-ferrous alloys from the
metallurgical point view.
Understand the phase diagram of iron- carbon and alloys system that enables for heat
treating and step in each treatment involved.
The principal engineering properties and industrial application of ferrous and non-ferrous
alloy.
Totally this experiment also is successfully done and the microstructure of the sample
heat treatment is can see on the microscope after through the process begin with cutting
process until etching process.
Beside that from this experiment we can see that microstructure of the sample little
bit different from the theory, this is because may be because of the temperature of
the heating sample is not exactly is not same to the theory temperature due to the
power supply problem in lab.
In fact, even that phenomenon is occurring; the microstructure is of the sample still
can be seen. As we known the combination of the various microstructure shown
give the several of the mechanical properties like strength, ductile and etc.

7.0 REFERENCES

Lab sheet : Microstructures Study of Ferrous and Non Ferrous Alloys Treated
Under Various Compositions and Treatment Condition.

Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction, 6th edition, William D. Calliter,

Jr., Wiley International Edition.