Aviation Mechanic Series: Airframe Systems

Aviation Mechanic Series: Airframe Systems

Fourth Edition

Based on the original text by Dale Crane

Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.

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Newcastle, Washington 98059

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None of the material in this book supersedes any operational documents or procedures issued by the Federal Aviation Administration, aircraft and avionics manufacturers, flight schools, or the operators of aircraft.

ASA-AMT-SYS4-EB

ISBN 978-1-64425-176-8

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Photo credits—Cover: Media_Works/stock.adobe.com. Figures 1-82 and 1-83: Keith Anderson. Figures 1-88 and 1-90: Simpson Electric Company. Figure 1-89: John Fluke Manufacturing Company, Inc. Figure 4-64: courtesy of RAPCO Inc. Figure 4-69: courtesy of Cessna Aircraft Co. Figure 4-71: iStock.com/hasansanci. Figure 5-29: courtesy of Lowrance Avionics, Inc. Figure 5-30: courtesy of Garmin International, Inc. Figure 5-35: courtesy of L-3 Communications Avionics Systems. Figure 5-44: courtesy of Rockwell Collins. Figure 5-45: iStock.com/atosan. Figure 5-51: courtesy of Dayton-Granger, Inc. (Kuflic Photography). Figure 5-52: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wingletdetail.jpg, by Dennis N., public domain. Figures 5-54 and 5-56: courtesy of D47ayton-Granger, Inc. (Ring Photography). Figure 9-4: icholakov—stock.adobe.com. Figure 9-5: Siraves Vorayos/Shutterstock.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Crane, Dale, author. | Crane, Dale. Aviation mechanic series.

Title: Aviation mechanic series. Airframe systems / Dale Crane.

Other titles: Airframe systems

Description: Fourth edition. | Newcastle, Washington : Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc., [2022] | Series: Aviation mechanic series | Includes index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2021044394 (print) | LCCN 2021044395 (ebook) | ISBN 9781644251744 (hardback) | ISBN 9781644251768 (epub) | ISBN 9781644251775 (pdf) | ISBN 9781644251751

Subjects: LCSH: Airframes--Maintenance and repair.

Classification: LCC TL671.9 .C66468 2022 (print) | LCC TL671.9 (ebook) | DDC 629.134/6--dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021044394

LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021044395

About the Editorial Team

Fourth Edition

Based on the original text by:

Dale Crane

Dale Crane was involved in aviation for more than 50 years. His credentials include Airframe and Powerplant Mechanic, Designated Mechanic Examiner, Commercial Pilot, Flight Instructor (airplanes), and Advanced and Instrument Ground Instructor.

Dale began his career in the U.S. Navy as a mechanic and flight engineer in patrol bombers (PBYs). After World War II, he attended Parks Air College. After college, he worked as an instrument overhaul mechanic, instrument shop manager, and flight test instrumentation engineer. He spent the following 16 years as an instructor and then became director of an aviation maintenance school.

For 30 years, Dale was active as a writer of aviation technical materials and a consultant in developing aviation training programs. He participated with the FAA in the Aviation Mechanic Occupation Study and the Aviation Mechanic Textbook Study. ATEC presented to Dale Crane their special recognition award for his contribution to the development of aviation technicians as a prolific author of specialized maintenance publications.

Dale Crane also received the FAA’s Charles Taylor Master Mechanic Award for 50 years of service in and contributions to the aviation maintenance industry, and the recognition of his peers for his excellence in aircraft maintenance as a leader, educator, and aviation safety advocate.

Keith Anderson

LeTourneau University

Keith Anderson is an Associate Professor in the Applied Aviation Science Department in the College of Aviation and Aeronautical Science at LeTourneau University. He obtained his A&P certificate in 1983 and received his Inspection Authorization (IA) rating in 1997. He is a commercial pilot with Instrument Rating and is a certified flight instructor. He has an Associate Degree in Aviation Technology, a Bachelor of Science Degree in Electrical Engineering Technology, Aviation Option from LeTourneau University, and an MBA with Management Certificate from Corban University. He has been employed as a mechanic and director of maintenance at several maintenance facilities, including shops operating under Part 135 and Part 121. In addition to his maintenance experience, he flew for eight years for a non-profit mission organization in Venezuela and Guatemala and additionally served as chief inspector for one year for a non-governmental organization (NGO) in Uganda.

Following his overseas experiences, he was employed as a design engineer, director of engineering, and director of customer service for a company developing a new single-engine turboprop utility airplane, with additional duties as an Administrative Designated Engineering Representative (DER), and he was the primary point of contact with the FAA Aircraft Certification Office for the successful certification of the aircraft. Keith later became the vice president of engineering for a well-known company that developed supplemental type certificates (STCs) for corporate aircraft and also served as the director of engineering for an aircraft simulation company.

In addition to serving as technical editor for Airframe Systems, Keith is also the technical editor of the Aviation Mechanic Series General textbook and the Aviation Mechanic Handbook.

Linda S. Classen

Metro Tech, Instructor and Mechanic

Linda Classen is an Aviation Maintenance Instructor at Metro Technology Center in Oklahoma City. She has Private Pilot, Commercial, Instrument, and Certified Flight Instructor certificates. She holds a degree in journalism, and is a member of the Association for Women in Aviation Maintenance (AWAM), and the Professional Aviation Maintenance Association (PAMA).

Jerry Lee Foulk

LeTourneau University Instructor, FAA Designated Mechanic Examiner

Jerry Foulk has been an instructor of aviation maintenance since 1976, first at the Pittsburgh Institute of Aeronautics in Pennsylvania, at Moody Aviation in Elizabethton, Tennessee, and currently at LeTourneau University’s School of Aeronautical Sciences in Longview, Texas (starting in 2003). He earned his B.S. degrees in Bible and in Aviation Technology from LeTourneau in 1976, and has also been an FAA Designated Mechanic Examiner since 1993. Jerry also was Technical Editor for the second and third editions of ASA’s Aviation Mechanic Series Powerplant textbook by Dale Crane.

Stephen Roth

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University

Stephen Roth earned a B.S. (Engineering Physics) at Cornell University and M.S. (Applied Physics) at Stanford University, then worked for several years as an engineer in ultrahigh vacuum and radiation detection. He returned to school to earn an M.D. Following a many-decade hiatus from flying, he became a private pilot and proceeded to earn the CFI certificate. After retiring from medical practice, he returned to school at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University to earn an A&P. For the past several years he has taught courses in AMT, Human Factors and Computer Science at ERAU and has earned his commercial glider and seaplane ratings. Recently he joined the Aerospace Engineering and Research Center at ERAU, Eagle Works as Associate Director.

Donald Shaffer

Duncan Aviation

Don Shaffer attended Northwestern Michigan College, Western Michigan University and received a B.S. in Aviation Technology, and also Kalamazoo Valley Community College for an A.S. in Pre-Engineering. Don holds a commercial pilot license with ME/INST ratings. He has worked at Duncan Aviation for 17 years; eight of those years have been as a systems engineer designing avionics interface and modifications.

Peter A. Vosbury

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University

Peter Vosbury attended Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University from 1968 to 1969 and completed the airframe and powerplant certification program there. From 1970 to 1973 he served on the carrier U.S.S. Forrestal as a turbine engine mechanic for the U.S. Navy. After the Navy, Peter went back to school and completed a Masters Degree in Education at the University of Central Florida. In 1976 he began teaching at Embry-Riddle in the AMT Department and in 2000 transferred to the Air Science Department, now teaching turbine engines and aircraft systems to professional pilot students. Peter Vosbury is the author of several books covering topics in math and physics, aviation regulations, weight and balance, and turbine engines, and has also participated in writing answers and explanations to the FAA A&P exams.

1

AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Contents

An Introduction to Aircraft Electrical Systems

Electrical System Requirements

Review of Terms

Direction of Current Flow

Electrical System Components

DC Power Source

Electrical Load

Basic Electrical Circuit

Circuit Control Devices

Switches

Semiconductor Diodes

Zener Diodes

Relays and Solenoids

Bipolar Transistors

Silicon Controlled Rectifier

Circuit Arrangement

Series Circuits

Parallel Circuits

Complex Circuits

Study Questions: An Introduction to Aircraft Electrical Systems

Aircraft Electrical Power Circuits

Battery Circuits

Circuit Protection Devices

Induced Current Protection

Ground-Power Circuit

Power Generating Systems

The DC Alternator Circuit

Twin-Engine Alternator System Using a Shared Voltage Regulator

Twin-Engine Alternator System Using Individual Voltage Regulators

The DC Generator Circuit

Simple Light-Aircraft Generator System

Twin-Engine Generator System Using Vibrator-Type Voltage Regulators

Twin-Engine Generator System Using Carbon-Pile Voltage Regulators

Turbine-Engine Starter-Generator System

Voltage and Current Indicating Circuits

Study Questions: Aircraft Electrical Power Circuits

Aircraft Electrical Load Circuits

The Starter Circuit

Navigation Light Circuit

Landing and Taxi Light Circuit

Landing Gear Actuation and Indicating Circuit

Antiskid Brake System

Electrical Propeller Deicing System

Turbine-Engine Autoignition Circuit

Reciprocating-Engine Starting and Ignition Circuit

Split-Bus Circuits for Avionics Protection

Study Questions: Aircraft Electrical Load Circuits

Electrical Power Systems for Large Aircraft

Study Questions: Electrical Power Systems for Large Aircraft

Inverters

Study Questions: Inverters

Aircraft Electrical System Installation

Electrical Wire

Selection of Wire Size

Special Types of Wire

Soldering

Terminal and Connector Installation

Quick-Disconnect Connectors

Terminal Strips

Wire Terminals

Wire Splices

Wire Identification

Wire Bundling

Junction Boxes

Wiring Installation

Circuit Control and Protection Devices

Switches

Fuses and Circuit Breakers

Study Questions: Aircraft Electrical System Installation

Electrical Systems Inspection and Maintenance

General Inspection Procedures

DC Generators

Operational Check of Aircraft Exterior Lights

Study Questions: Electrical Systems Inspection and Maintenance

Electrical System Troubleshooting

Rules for Systematic Troubleshooting

An Example of Systematic Troubleshooting

Troubleshooting Voltage Rectifiers

Troubleshooting Review

Logic Flow Charts for Troubleshooting

Troubleshooting Tools

Continuity Light

Multimeters

Digital Multimeter

Clamp-on Ammeter

Oscilloscopes

Study Questions: Electrical System Troubleshooting

Appendix A—Electrical Symbols

Answers to Chapter 1 Study Questions

An Introduction to Aircraft Electrical Systems

An aviation mechanic (also referred to as an aviation maintenance technician or AMT) must have a solid foundation in basic electrical principles and a good working knowledge of the way these principles apply to complex systems. Electrical systems provide the muscle for retracting landing gears and starting engines and serve as the brains for electronic flight control and monitoring systems.

Basic electrical principles are covered in the General textbook of the Aviation Mechanic Series. In the General text, electricity is discussed from a theoretical point of view, with emphasis on its laws. Circuit analysis considers the variables in both AC and DC circuits.

The Airframe Structures and Airframe Systems textbooks of the Aviation Mechanic Series take up where the General text leaves off, including a brief review of electrical terms and facts, followed by the practical application of basic electrical principles to aircraft electrical systems.

The Powerplant textbook of the Aviation Mechanic Series covers practical aspects of the generation of electricity and some of the heavy-duty applications, such as engine starting systems.

Aircraft electrical systems covered here range from the simplest component schematics to logic flow charts used for systematic troubleshooting. The intent of this section is to present aircraft electrical systems in their most practical form.

No specific aircraft electrical schematics are used in this text, but the systems used have been adapted from actual aircraft. The procedures discussed are general in their nature, and this text must be considered as a reference document, not a service manual. Information issued by the aircraft manufacturer takes precedence over any procedure mentioned in this text.

One of the fundamental rules of aviation maintenance is that you must use the latest approved information, such as that furnished by the aircraft manufacturer when servicing any part of an aircraft. This is particularly true of electrical systems, as these systems and their components are far too expensive to risk damage as the result of improper servicing procedures. There are limits as to what an aircraft mechanic or technician can do in the repair of certain electrical or electronic components. Some of these can be repaired only by the manufacturer or by a repair station specifically authorized for this work.

To begin this study, we will examine the requirements for an aircraft electrical system and then review some terms and facts.

Electrical System Requirements

Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 23—Airworthiness Standards: Normal Category Airplanes—provides requirements and guidance for the certification of electrical systems in general aviation aircraft. The Normal Category includes aircraft of up to 19 passengers and maximum certificated takeoff weights of 19,000 pounds or less. Basic requirements for aircraft electrical systems include:

• A power generation system that will supply the required power during all intended operating conditions.

• Design considerations so that no single failure of any power supply, distribution path, or system component will prevent the system from providing essential power for a continued safe flight and landing.

• Sufficient system capacity so that, should the primary power generation source fail, the essential loads will continue to operate long enough for a continued safe flight and landing.

• Lights that are installed so that they do not interfere with the flight crew.

• Position lights that are of the correct colors and intensities to provide sufficient visibility to allow other aircraft time to avoid collisions.

• Taxi and landing lights that allow for safe night operation.

• Riding lights on seaplanes and amphibian aircraft that include a white light that is visible in clear weather.

• Built-in lightning protection for critical systems.

• Electrical protection from high-intensity radiated fields (HIRF), which can occur near ground-based radio transmitters.

Review of Terms

Though by now you have a working knowledge of basic electricity, a brief review of some of the terms most commonly used in aircraft electrical systems should prove useful.

bus—A point in an aircraft electrical system supplied with power from the battery or the generator/alternator and from which the various circuits get their power.

conductor—A material that allows electrons to move freely from one atom to another within the material.

current—The assumed flow of electricity that is considered to move through an electrical circuit from the positive side of a battery to its negative side. This is opposite to the flow, or movement, of electrons. Current is measured in amperes (amps) and its symbol is the letter I. Current follows the arrowheads in the diode and transistor symbols.

When current flows through a conductor, three things happen: heat is produced in the conductor, a magnetic field surrounds the conductor, and voltage is dropped across the conductor.

diode—A solid-state device that acts as an electron check valve. Electrons can flow through a diode in one direction, but cannot flow through it in the opposite direction.

electrons—Invisible negative electrical charges that actually move in an electrical circuit.

resistance—Opposition to the flow of current. The unit of resistance is the ohm, and its symbol is R.

voltage—Electrical pressure. The unit of voltage is the volt, and its symbol is either V (used in this text) or E (electromotive force).

voltage drop—The decrease in electrical pressure that occurs when current flows through a resistance.

electron current. The actual flow of electrons in a circuit. Electrons flow from the negative terminal of a power source through the external circuit to its positive terminal. The arrowheads in semiconductor symbols point in the direction opposite to the flow of electron current.

Direction of Current Flow

One of the things that adds confusion to the study of electricity is the way electricity flows in a circuit.

Before much was known about electricity, its flow was compared to the flow of water in a river and was therefore called current. As water currents flow from high to low, electrical current was considered to flow from positive (+) to negative (–­). This was a reasonable conclusion, but was later determined to be wrong. Negatively charged electrons actually flow from negative to positive. This discovery was made only after countless textbooks about electricity had been written and symbols had been decided upon. Because of this, electrons in a circuit actually flow in the opposite direction to the way the arrowheads in the diode symbols point. This can be quite confusing.

In the General textbook, the term electron flow or electrical current was used to explain the basic principles of electricity. This Airframe Systems textbook (and many other modern texts on practical electricity) uses conventional current, or simply current. This is an assumed flow rather than an actual flow, and it travels from positive to negative, which allows us to visualize the flow in the direction of the arrowheads in the diode and transistor symbols. Considering the flow in this direction makes aircraft electrical systems much easier to understand. See Figure 1-1.

conventional current. An assumed flow of electricity that is said to flow from the positive terminal of a power source, through the external circuit to its negative terminal. The arrowheads in semiconductor symbols point in the direction of conventional current flow.

Figure 1-1. Conventional current flows in the direction of the arrowheads of semiconductor diodes. Electron flow is in the opposite direction.

Electrical System Components

The most important tool for understanding an aircraft electrical system is the schematic diagram. This road map of the electrical system uses standardized symbols to represent the various components, arranged in a logical sequence with regard to the circuit operation. However, their placement in the schematic tells nothing about their physical location in the aircraft.

schematic diagram. A diagram of an electrical system in which the system components are represented by symbols rather than drawings or pictures of the actual devices.

This text uses standard symbols to show the way aircraft electrical circuits are built. Chapter 1’s Appendix A shows the most common symbols used in schematic diagrams of aircraft electrical systems.

DC Power Source

Figure 1-2 is the symbol for a battery. Conventional current leaves the positive (+) end and flows through the circuit to the negative (–) end. The long line is always the positive end of the battery.

Figure 1-2. Battery, or voltage source.

Electrical Load

Figure 1-3 is the symbol for a resistor, or an electrical load. It may be an actual component, or it may be part of some other device. The filament in a light bulb and the heater element in a soldering iron are both resistances.

Figure 1-3. Resistor, or an electrical load.

When current flows through a circuit, three things happen:

• A magnetic field surrounds the conductors that carry the current.

• Some of the energy used to push the current through the load is changed into heat, light, and/or mechanical energy.

• Some of the voltage is dropped across the load.

All conductors have some resistance, but in this study, the resistance of the system conductors is disregarded.

Basic Electrical Circuit

Figure 1-4 shows a complete electrical circuit. The battery (VB) supplies an electrical pressure (voltage) that forces current through the resistor (R). The arrows in the diagram show the direction of conventional current.

Note: In the symbols used in electricity, voltage is normally represented by the letter E, for electromotive force, but modern practice is to use the symbol V for voltage. As stated earlier, this text uses V, so don’t be disturbed when you see E used for voltage in other books. The subscript B denotes battery voltage.

The current furnished by the battery follows the arrows. The resistor gets hot, and all of the voltage, or electrical pressure, from the battery is used up (dropped) across the resistor.

electromotive force (EMF). The force that causes electrons to move from one atom to another within an electrical circuit. Electromotive force is an electrical pressure, and it is measured in volts.

current. A general term used in this text for conventional current. See conventional current.

conductor. A material that allows electrons to move freely from one atom to another within the material.

All electrical circuits must have three things:

• A source of electrical energy—the battery

• A load to change the electrical energy into mechanical energy, heat, and/or light—the resistor

• Conductors, or wires, that join the source and the load

In addition to these components, switches and fuses may be added for current control and circuit protection.

Figure 1-4. A complete electrical circuit.

Circuit Control Devices

Circuit control devices are those components which start or stop the flow of current, direct it to various parts of the circuit, or increase or decrease the amount of its flow. These components may be mechanical, or—more frequently the case—semiconductor devices.

Switches

Figure 1-5 shows the symbols for some of the more common switches used in aircraft electrical systems. When a switch is open, current cannot flow in the circuit, but when it is closed, current can flow.

Figure 1-5. Switch symbols.

In Figures 1-6 and 1-7, the symbol for a light bulb has replaced the resistor as the electrical load. Rays coming from the bulb show that current is flowing. When there are no rays, current is not flowing.

Figure 1-6. This is an open circuit. No current is flowing and the light is off. All of the battery voltage is dropped across the open switch.

Figure 1-7. This is a closed circuit. The circuit is complete, current is flowing, and the light is lit. No voltage is dropped across the closed switch. All of the voltage is dropped across the light.

Semiconductor Diodes

A semiconductor diode is an electron check valve that allows electrons to flow through it in one direction but blocks their flow in the opposite direction. Conventional current follows the direction of the arrowheads in the symbol. See Figure 1-8.

Figure 1-8. A semiconductor diode controls current flow in an electrical circuit in the same way a check valve controls fluid flow in a hydraulic system. It allows flow in one direction but prevents its flow in the opposite direction. Conventional current flows through a diode in the direction shown by the arrowhead.

When a diode is installed in a circuit in such a way that its anode is more positive than its cathode, it is forward-biased and current can flow through it. A diode causes a voltage drop across it as current flows through it, but, unlike with a resistor, this voltage drop does not change with the amount of current. A silicon diode has a relatively constant voltage drop of approximately 0.7 volt across it when current flows through it. The voltage drop across a germanium diode is about 0.3 volt.

semiconductor diode. A two-element electrical component that allows current to pass through it in one direction, but blocks its passage in the opposite direction. A diode acts in an electrical system in the same way a check valve acts in a hydraulic system.

reverse bias. A voltage placed across the PN junction in a semiconductor device with the positive voltage connected to the N-type material and the negative voltage to the P-type material.

forward bias. A condition of operation of a semiconductor device such as a diode or transistor in which a positive voltage is connected to the P-type material and a negative voltage to the N-type material.

When a diode is installed in a circuit in such a way that its anode is more negative than its cathode, it is reverse-biased and current flow is blocked. No current can flow through it until the voltage across it reaches a value, called the peak inverse voltage. At this voltage, the diode breaks down and conducts current in its reverse direction. When this happens, an ordinary diode is normally destroyed.

Figure 1-9. A forward-biased diode acts as a closed switch, and current flows through it. There is a constant voltage drop of approximately 0.7 volt across a silicon diode.

Figure 1-10. A reverse-biased diode acts as an open switch. No current flows through it, and all of the battery voltage is dropped across the diode.

Zener Diodes

Though an ordinary diode can be destroyed when current flows through it in its reverse direction, a zener diode is designed to have a specific breakdown voltage and to operate with current flowing through it in its reverse direction.

zener diode. A special type of solid-state diode designed to have a specific breakdown voltage and to operate with current flowing through it in its reverse direction.

Figure 1-11. A zener diode.

A reverse-biased zener diode is used as the voltage controlling component in an electronic voltage regulator used with a DC alternator. In Figure 1-12, the zener diode holds a load voltage constant as the input voltage changes. A 5-volt zener diode is installed in a 12-volt DC circuit in series with a resistor so that its cathode is more positive than its anode.

Figure 1-12. A zener diode is used as a voltage-sensing unit.

As soon as the voltage across the zener diode rises to 5 volts, it breaks down and conducts current to ground. Seven volts are dropped across the resistor, and the voltage across the zener diode and the electrical load remains constant at 5 volts. If the source voltage drops to 11 volts, the voltage drop across the zener diode remains at 5 volts and the resistor now drops 6 volts. If the input voltage rises to 13 volts, the voltage across the zener still remains at 5 volts, but the voltage across the resistor rises to 8 volts.

A zener diode must always have a resistor in series with it to limit the current allowed to flow through it when it is conducting in its ­reverse direction, since its resistance drops to an extremely low value when it breaks down.

Relays and Solenoids

A relay is a magnetically operated switch that is able to carry a large amount of current through its contacts. It takes only a small amount of current flowing through the coil to produce the magnetic pull needed to close the contacts.

relay. An electrical component which uses a small amount of current flowing through a coil to produce a magnetic pull to close a set of contacts through which a large amount of current can flow. The core in a relay coil is fixed.

solenoid. An electrical component using a small amount of current flowing through a coil to produce a magnetic force that pulls an iron core into the center of the coil. The core may be attached to a set of heavy-duty electrical contacts, or it may be used to move a valve or other mechanical device.

Any time current flows in a wire, a magnetic field surrounds the wire. If the wire is formed into a coil of many turns wound around a core of soft iron, the magnetic field is concentrated enough that just a small amount of current produces a pull strong enough to close the contacts of the relay. As soon as the current stops flowing through the coil, a spring snaps the contacts open. See Figure 1-13.

Figure 1-13. An electromagnetic relay is a remotely operated switch that has a fixed core.

A solenoid is similar to a relay, except that its core is movable. Solenoid switches, also called contactors, are used in circuits that carry large amounts of current. The main battery contactor and the starter solenoid are both solenoid switches. A heavy cable carries the current from the battery through the starter solenoid contacts to the starter motor, but only a small wire is needed between the solenoid coil and the starter switch in the cockpit to cause the solenoid contacts to close.

contactor. A remotely actuated, heavy-duty electrical switch. Contactors are used in an aircraft electrical system to connect the battery to the main bus.

Solenoid-operated valves are used in hydraulic and fuel systems. They can be opened or closed by a small switch located at some distance from the fluid lines themselves.

Figure 1-14. A battery contactor is a remotely operated switch with a movable core. It connects the battery to the battery bus and is controlled by a very small flow of current through the master switch and the contactor coil.

Bipolar Transistors

One of the most important developments in the field of electricity and electronics is the transistor. Transistors take the place of vacuum tubes and electromechanical relays. They do the same job, but do it better, use much less power, are more rugged, have a longer life, and are far less expensive.

bipolar transistor. A solid-state component in which the flow of current between its emitter and collector is controlled by a much smaller flow of current into or out of its base. Bipolar transistors may be of either the NPN or PNP type.

There are two types of bipolar transistors, NPN and PNP, which differ in their construction and the way they are installed in electrical circuits. Figure 1-15 shows the symbols for these two types of transistors.

Figure 1-15. Bipolar transistors.

Transistors can be connected into a circuit so that they act much like a relay. Figure 1-16 shows a typical relay circuit, and the way an NPN transistor connected in a similar circuit performs the same functions as a relay.

The emitter of the NPN transistor in Figure 1-16 is connected to the negative terminal of the battery through the load, and the collector is connected to the positive terminal. When switch S1 is closed, the base is connected to a voltage that is more positive than the emitter. A very small current flows into the base, and this causes a large current to flow through the collector and emitter and the load. When switch S1 is open and no current is flowing through the base, there is no collector-emitter current to flow through the load.

NPN transistor. A bipolar transistor made of a thin base of P-type silicon or germanium sandwiched between a collector and an emitter, both of which are made of N-type material.

Figure 1-16. A transistor acts much like an electrical relay.

It is easy to remember how a transistor acts as a switch: When the base and collector have the same polarity, the switch is ON; when there is no voltage on the base, or when its polarity is the same as that of the emitter, the switch is OFF.

Figure 1-17. A PNP transistor can work in the same way as the NPN transistor in Figure 1-16 if the battery polarity is reversed.

A PNP transistor can be connected into the same kind of circuit as just seen, but the battery must be reversed so that the emitter is positive and the collector is negative. When the switch is closed, a small amount of current flows through the base, and a much larger current flows between the emitter and the collector. When the switch is opened, no base current flows, and no load current flows.

A transistor can be used not only as a switch, but also as a variable resistor. The switch circuit in Figure 1-16 can be replaced with a potentiometer across the voltage source, with the wiper connected to the base of the transistor, as shown in Figure 1-18.

PNP transistor. A bipolar transistor made of a thin base of N-type silicon or germanium sandwiched between a collector and an emitter, both of which are made of P-type material.

base. The electrode of a bipolar transistor between the emitter and the collector. Controlling a small flow of electrons moving into or out of the base controls a much larger flow of electrons between the emitter and the collector.

potentiometer. A variable resistor having connections to both ends of the resistance element and to the wiper that moves across the resistance.

Figure 1-18. A transistor varies the load current when its base current is varied. The greater the base-emitter current, the greater the collector-emitter, or load, current.

This is an NPN transistor, and its base must be positive, the same as the collector, for it to conduct. When the wiper is at the bottom of the resistance element, the base of the transistor is negative, the same as the emitter. No current flows into the base, and no load current flows between the collector and the emitter.

When the wiper is moved to the top of the resistance, the base becomes positive, and the transistor conducts the maximum amount of load current. The amount of load current can be controlled by moving the wiper across the resistance. This kind of circuit is called an amplifier, because a very small change in base current can control a much larger change in load current.

amplifier. An electronic circuit in which a small change in voltage or current controls a much larger change in voltage or current.

Silicon Controlled Rectifier

A silicon controlled rectifier, or SCR, is a solid-state device that acts much like a diode that can be turned on with a short pulse of current.

silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). A semiconductor electron control device. An SCR blocks current flow in both directions until a pulse of positive voltage is applied to its gate. It then conducts in its forward direction, while continuing to block current in its reverse direction.

The SCR has an anode, a cathode, and a gate. Current cannot flow through the SCR from the cathode to the anode or from the anode to the cathode until a pulse of positive current is sent into it through its gate. A positive pulse applied to the gate causes the SCR to conduct between its anode and its cathode. See Figure 1-19.

Figure 1-19. A silicon controlled rectifier.

A holding coil, such as the one in Figure 1-20, requires only a pulse of current to close it. It remains closed until the main power circuit is momentarily opened.

Figure 1-20. A silicon controlled rectifier acts as a holding relay.

When switch S2 is closed, current flows through the relay coil to ground. This closes the contacts. As soon as the contacts are closed, current flows from the relay contact through the coil, and switch S2 may be opened. The relay contacts remain closed with current flowing through the load until switch S1 is momentarily opened. This breaks the ground to the relay coil and the relay contacts open, stopping all current through the load. See Figure 1-20.

An SCR does the same thing as a holding relay. Switch S1 is normally closed, and voltage source VB biases the SCR properly for it to conduct, but the SCR blocks all current until it is triggered by a momentary closing of switch S2 in the gate circuit. When S2 is closed, current flows through the gate resistor RG into the gate of the SCR. Only a very short positive current pulse is needed to trigger the SCR into conducting. When the SCR conducts, current flows from the battery, through the SCR and the load, and back into the battery. Switch S2 can be opened as soon as the SCR begins to conduct, and load current will continue to flow until switch S1 is opened to stop it. Once the current is interrupted, no more can flow until S2 is again closed.

holding relay. An electrical relay that is closed by sending a pulse of current through the coil. It remains closed until the current flowing through its contacts is interrupted. Also known as a latching relay.

An SCR can also act as a switch in an AC circuit. Figure 1-21 shows a simple circuit that allows a large amount of current to flow through the electrical load. This large load current can be controlled by a very small control current, which can be carried through a small wire and controlled with a small switch.

Figure 1-21. An SCR installed in an AC circuit acts as a high-current half-wave rectifier for the load current.

The waveform of the input AC in the circuit shows that it rises from zero to a peak value in the positive direction, and then it changes direction and goes through zero to a peak value in the negative direction. Since an SCR blocks current flow in both directions before it is triggered, no current flows through the SCR as long as switch S1 is open.

When switch S1 is closed, diode D1 allows current to flow to the gate during the half of the AC cycle when the current is positive. This small pulse of positive current triggers the SCR into conducting, and load current flows during the entire positive half of the cycle. The SCR stops conducting as soon as the AC drops to zero. No current flows during the negative half-cycle, but it starts to conduct again at the beginning of the positive half-cycle.

Circuit Arrangement

There are three types of electrical circuits used in an aircraft and each has its own unique characteristics. A series circuit is one in which there is only one path for the current to flow in from one side of the battery to the other. A parallel circuit has more than one complete path between the battery terminals. A complex circuit has some components in series and others in parallel.

series circuit. A method of connecting electrical components in such a way that all of the current flows through each of the components. There is only one path for current to flow.

series-parallel circuit. An electrical circuit in which some of the components are connected in parallel and others are connected in series.

parallel circuit. A method of connecting electrical components so that each component forms a complete path from one terminal of the source of electrical energy to the other terminal.

Series Circuits

Figure 1-22 shows a series circuit. All of the components are connected in series, so all of the current must flow through each one of them. Voltage drops across each component until the sum of all of the voltage drops equals the voltage of the battery.

There is virtually no voltage drop across the closed switch S. The resistor changes some of the electrical energy from the battery into heat, and it drops some of the voltage. This voltage drop is called VR.

The light changes energy from the battery into light and heat, and it drops voltage. This voltage drop is called VL.

In a series circuit, the sum of all of the voltage drops is equal to the voltage of the battery.

VR + VL = VB

Current is represented in an electrical formula with the letter I. In a series circuit, the current is the same everywhere in the circuit.

IB = IR = IL

Figure 1-22. In this closed series circuit, the sum of the voltage drops across the resistor and the light equals the voltage of the battery.

Parallel Circuits

In the parallel circuit in Figure 1-23, there are two complete paths for current to flow between terminals of the battery. When the current leaves the battery, it divides so that some flows through the resistor and some through the light. The voltage across the resistor (VR) and the voltage across the light (VL), are both the same as the voltage of the battery (VB).

VR = VL = VB

Figure 1-23. In this closed parallel circuit, current from the battery divides, some flowing through the resistor and the rest flowing through the light.

The current in a parallel circuit flowing through the battery (IB) is equal to the sum of the currents flowing through the resistor (IR) and the light (IL).

IB = IR + IL

Complex Circuits

Many circuits in an aircraft electrical system are complex rather than simple series or parallel circuits. These circuits have some components in series and some in parallel. In Figure 1-24, the switch and resistor R1 are in series with the parallel circuit consisting of the light and resistor R2.

Figure 1-24. In this complex circuit, the battery, switch, and resistor R1 are in series with the parallel arrangement of resistor R2 and the light.

To better understand the voltage, current, and resistance relationships that exist in a complex circuit, review the section on series-parallel circuits in the General textbook of the Aviation Mechanic Series.

Study Questions: An Introduction to Aircraft Electrical Systems

Answers are provided at the end of this chapter.

1. The letter symbol used to represent electrical current is __________ .

2. The letter symbol used to represent electrical pressure is ___________ or ___________ .

3. The letter symbol used to represent electrical resistance is __________ .

4. The point in an aircraft electrical system from which the various circuits get their power is called a/ an ____________ .

5. Three things that happen in an electrical circuit when current flows through it are:

a. __________________________________________

b. __________________________________________

c. __________________________________________

6. The longer line in the symbol for a battery indicates the _________________ (positive or negative) terminal.

7. Electrons flowing in an electrical circuit flow in the _________________ (same or opposite) direction as the arrowheads in a semiconductor diode symbol.

8. Conventional current in an electrical circuit is assumed to flow in the _____________ (same or opposite) direction as the arrowheads in a semiconductor diode symbol.

9. Three things that must be included in all complete electrical circuits are:

a. __________________________________________

b. __________________________________________

c. __________________________________________

10. If the bar in the symbol for a semiconductor diode is connected to the negative terminal of a battery, the diode is _________________ (forward or reverse) biased.

11. A forward-biased diode act as a/an ________________ (open or closed) switch.

12. The voltage drop across a forward-biased silicon diode is approximately ___________ volt.

13. The voltage drop across a forward-biased silicon diode _______________ (does or does not) vary with the current flowing through it.

14. A semiconductor device that can be used as a voltage control is a/an ____________________ .

15. A zener diode used as a voltage regulator is ________________ (forward or reverse) biased.

16. An electrical relay has a ______________ (fixed or movable) core.

17. A solenoid has a ________________ (fixed or movable) core.

18. When the base of an NPN transistor has the same polarity as the collector, the transistor acts as a/an _______________ (open or closed) switch.

19. When a transistor is connected in an amplifier circuit, bringing its base polarity closer to that of the collector ___________________ (increases or decreases) the collector-emitter current.

20. A semiconductor device that acts in the same way as a holding relay is a _____________________________________ .

21. In a complete series circuit, the sum of the voltage drops is the same as the applied voltage. This sentence is _____________ (true or false).

22. The voltage drop across an open switch in a series circuit is _______________________ (zero volts or battery voltage).

23. The voltage drop across a closed switch in a series circuit is ___________________ (zero volts or battery voltage).

24. The amount of current that flows through each path of a parallel circuit is determined by the ___________________ of the path.

25. The voltage across each path of a parallel circuit is equal to the ________________ voltage.

Aircraft Electrical Power Circuits

Aircraft electrical systems are divided into two main classifications of circuits: power circuits and load circuits. Power circuits consist of the battery circuits, ground-power circuits, generator and alternator circuits, and distribution circuits up to the power buses.

Battery Circuits

All aircraft electrical circuits must have a complete path from one side of the battery through the load to the other side of the battery. Airplanes use a single-wire electrical system. In this type of system, one side of the battery, almost always the negative side, is connected to the structure of the aircraft with a heavy cable. All of the components are connected to the positive side of the battery through the proper circuit breakers and switches, and the circuit is completed by connecting the negative connection of the component to the metal of the aircraft structure.

In electrical schematics, the symbol that shows several parallel lines forming an inverted pyramid like that in Figure 1-25, is used to show that this point is connected to the aircraft structure. In American English, this is called ground; the British call it earth. It is the reference from which all voltage measurements in the aircraft are made.

Figure 1-25. The ground symbol indicates that the electrical component is connected to the metal structure of the aircraft so it will form a return path for the current to the battery. Ground is considered to have zero electrical potential, and voltage measurements, both positive and negative, are referenced from it.

In the circuit shown in Figure 1-26, the negative side of the battery is connected to ground and the positive side is connected to one of the contacts of the battery contactor and to one end of the contactor coil. The other end of the coil connects to ground through the master switch.

ground. The voltage reference point in an aircraft electrical system. Ground has zero electrical potential. Voltage values, both positive and negative, are measured from ground. In the United Kingdom, ground is spoken of as earth.

master switch. A switch in an aircraft electrical system that can disconnect the battery from the bus and open the generator or alternator field circuit.

Figure 1-26. A typical battery circuit as found on a light airplane.

When the master switch is closed, current flows through the coil and produces a magnetic pull that closes the contacts. With the contacts closed, current flows to the battery bus, the point in the aircraft from which all other circuits get their power. The circuits are all connected to the bus through circuit breakers.

Circuit Protection Devices

Previous certification requirements, and generally accepted aircraft design conventions, utilize a device to open the circuit in the event of excessive current flow. This can be done with a current limiter, a fuse, or a circuit breaker. The primary function of a circuit protection device is to protect the wiring in the circuit. It should open the circuit before enough current flows to cause the insulation on the wire to melt or smoke. Some new aircraft designs are beginning to use electronic circuit breaker units (ECBUs) to protect circuits. The ECBU is a solid-state device that senses current flow and opens the circuit if it senses too much current. The advantage of an ECBU is that it has much faster response times and can greatly reduce weight due to fewer components and wiring.

current limiter. An electrical component used to limit the amount of current a generator can produce. Some current limiters are a type of slow-blow fuse in the generator output. Other current limiters reduce the generator output voltage if the generator tries to put out more than its rated current.

Figure 1-27 shows the symbols used for circuit protection devices. Any time too much current flows, these devices open the circuit and stop the current.

Figure 1-27. Electrical symbols used for circuit-protection devices.

Some circuit breakers have an operating handle or button that allows them to be used as a switch to open or close a circuit manually. Other circuit breakers have only a button, which pops out when the circuit is overloaded but can be pushed back in to restore the circuit. Depending on the design of the button, these push-to-reset circuit breakers may, or may not, be used to manually open a circuit. All circuit breakers have some means of showing when they have opened a circuit.

circuit breaker. An electrical component that automatically opens a circuit any time excessive current flows through it.

A circuit breaker may be reset to restore the circuit after the fault causing the excessive current has been corrected.

Some commercial and industrial motors are protected by automatic-reset circuit breakers that are opened by heat when excessive current flows. When the motor windings and the circuit breaker cool down, the circuit breaker automatically resets and allows current to flow again. Automatic-reset circuit breakers are not permitted in aircraft electrical circuits.

Circuit breakers approved for use in aircraft electrical circuits must be of the trip-free type and must require a manual operation to restore service after tripping. Trip-free circuit breakers cannot be manually held closed if a fault exists in the circuit they are protecting. All fuses and circuit breakers that protect circuits that are essential to flight must be located and identified so that they are replaceable or resettable in flight.

trip-free circuit breaker. A circuit breaker that opens a circuit any time an excessive amount of current flows regardless of the position of the circuit breaker’s operating handle.

Some circuits are protected by fuses instead of circuit breakers. A fuse is simply a strip of low-melting-point wire enclosed in a small glass tube with a metal terminal on each end. When too much current flows through the fuse, the heat caused by the current melts the fuse wire and opens the circuit. A new fuse must be installed before current can flow again.

If fuses are used, there must be one spare fuse of each rating or 50% spare fuses of each rating, whichever is greater.

Current limiters are high-current, slow-blow fuses that allow transient high currents, such as during motor starting, but will open when subjected to an excessive continuous current.

slow-blow fuse. An electrical fuse that allows a large amount of current to flow for a short length of time but melts to open the circuit if more than its rated current flows for a longer period.

Induced Current Protection

Fuses and circuit breakers are installed in a circuit to protect the wiring; many electrical components have built-in fuses to protect them from an excessive amount of current.

There is another type of circuit hazard in aircraft that carry a large amount of electronic equipment. Solid-state electronic equipment is extremely vulnerable to spikes of high voltage that are induced into a circuit when a current flow is interrupted.

induced current. Electrical current produced in a conductor when the current through the conductor changes, or when it is moved through or crossed by a magnetic field.

Before going too much further, let’s review some very important facts about the magnetic field that surrounds a wire when current flows through it.

• Any time current flows through a conductor, it causes a magnetic field to surround the conductor. The more current there is, the stronger the magnetic field.

• Any time a conductor is crossed by a changing magnetic field, or is moved through a stationary magnetic field, a voltage is induced in it that causes current to flow through it. This is called induced current.

• When the current flowing in a conductor changes, the magnetic field surrounding the conductor changes. As it builds up or collapses, it cuts across the conductor and generates a voltage that causes an induced current to flow.

• The amount of induced current is determined by the rate at which the magnetic field cuts across the conductor. The faster the current changes, the greater the induced current.

• Induced current