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Austrian Diplomats from the Vienna Oriental Academy on the Balkan Peninsula During the
Second Half of the Eighteenth Century, in Maria Baramova, Plamen Mitev, Ivan Parvev, Vania
Racheva (Eds.), Power and Influence in South-Eastern Europe, 16th-19th century, Berlin 2013,
329-338.

Boro Bronza
Department of History
Faculty of Philosophy
University of Banja Luka

AUSTRIAN DIPLOMATS FROM THE VIENNA ORIENTAL ACADEMY ON THE


BALKAN PENINSULA DURING THE SECOND HALF OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

The extremely adverse outcome of the military efforts against Turkey in the years 17371739 prompted leading circles in Austria to a radical re-examination of all aspects of its policy
towards South-Eastern Europe. Especially after the eight-year-long experience of the War of
Austrian Heritage (1740-1748), when the new government of Maria Theresa finally had the
chance to implement the necessary reform of internal government systems and and new
strategies in the field of foreign policy, adequate conditions were created for the resources and
institutions to focus on the question of the general regulation of diplomatic policy, an which
would be of primary importance in the coming decades and mostly directed towards the Ottoman
Empire, with its emphasis on its Balkan possessions. In this context it was especially important
to underline the institution of the State Chancellery as a separate administrative body in 1742 as
another huge step forward in the field of state reforms. In a very short period this institution grew
into the most powerful part of the complex Viennese political system. Chancellor Wenzel Anton
von Kaunitz (1711-1794) made sure that all the competencies in their relations with the
Ottomans had to be transferred from the Court War Council to the State Office. 1

Harald Heppner. Die personelle Entwicklung der sterreichischen Balkandiplomatie in der 2. Hlfte des 18. und
zu Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts, sterreichische Osthefte 24/1 (Wien 1982.), pp. 21-32, here p. 23.

The history of the development of Habsburg specialists in diplomacy for cooperation


with and operation within the Ottoman Empire began in the sixteenth century, when the two
countries first came into direct contact with each other. Within this framework it was particularly
important to develop the institutional learning of Turkish, Arabic and Persian in Vienna and to
send qualified diplomats to the Ottoman capital on the Bosporus. Since as early as 1541 there
had been specialized interpreters at the Viennese court, ready for the implementation of the task.
This situation basically facilitated the beginning of Habsburg diplomatic activities in Ottoman
Empire; and from 1547 the permanent representative of the monarchy was established in
Istanbul. However, in the beginning Habsburg representatives were mostly members of other
European nations who, for various reasons, found themselves in the Ottoman capital. Only with
time did a modest education of its own staff take place; and to an extent this kind of staff were
able adequately to perform diplomatic duties ordered by the Vienna government. 2
After the elevating of the Habsburg ambassador to the rank of internuncio on 10th August
1712 ( internuncio Talman, at that point), the reputation of Viennese diplomacy at the Porte was
further increased; and the creating of the conditions necessary to achieve the diplomatic
supremacy of the Habsburg Monarchy over all the other European competitors who had a
representative office in Istanbul was well underway. However, the next decades failed to bring
the desired results. A defeat in the war against Ottomans (1737-1739) contributed considerably
to the decline in the reputation of the whole monarchy and its diplomacy. The position of the
Habsburg representative at the Porte lost its prestige significantly. This fact was very obvious to
at least some members of the ruling circles in Vienna and was, in their opinion, tightly linked to
the lack of adequately trained diplomats. In comparison to French or British diplomacy, the
Habsburg court dramatically lagged behind both qualitatively and quantitatively. 3

Ernst Dieter Petritsch. Die Wiener Trkologie vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert. In: Klaus Kreiser (Hrsg.),
Germano-Turcica. Zur Geschichte des Trkisch-Lernens in den deutschsprachigen Lndern, Schriften der
Universittsbibliothek Bamberg 4, Bamberg 1987, p. 25-40.
3
Chancellor Kaunitz implemented significant reforms in the structures of the Court and State Offices, but the
number of professional diplomats continued to be very modest. Despite this, the Office staff salary per year was
pretty highat over 65,000 forints. Lista der geheimen Hof- und Staats Kanzley Personalis wie solches a 1.ma
January bis 13. Maji 1753 vorhanden besoldet ware. sterrreichisches Staatsarchiv Wien, sterrreichisches
Staatsarchiv Wien (further: HHStA), Staatskanzlei, Interiora, Personalia, Kart. 12: Z, Pers. Listen, Fasz. alt Fasz 24,
Fol.1.

In the 1750s the Jesuits still held key positions in all Austrian educational institutions and
had a significant impact on the decisions of the Empress. 4 In April 1753 one of the most
prominent Jesuit university professors in Vienna, Franz Josef (1704-1776), submitted a
memorandum to Empress Maria Theresa about the need for reform of the institutions that were
already educating translator and beginners in Turkish (Sprachknaben, le jeunes de langue).
After the first memorandum, a second followed in early June. 5 This agile Jesuit professor, who
also knew Turkish and had himself participated in a diplomatic mission to the Porte in 17401741, suggested that Sprachknaben 6 should no longer attend school in Istanbul, as had been
the practice since the middle of the seventeenth century, but that the Empress should open a
special institute for their linguistic and diplomatic training in Vienna. The Jesuit professor
insisted on the fact that young interpreters in Istanbul are inclined to become too distanced from
their Austrian identity 7 and too focused on different aspects of the citys social life. With this
previous situation there also appeared the possibility of abuse and corruption on the part of the
Austrian internuncio, who, in the circumstances, possessed exclusive jurisdiction over the
education and employment of possible young interpreters in his Internunciature in Istanbul.
Therefore, the proposal to establish a special institute for the education of young interpreters in
Vienna was in perfect harmony with the centralist reform intentions of Maria Theresa and with
the real need for stricter monitoring of the Internunciature, 8 the failures of which also contributed
to the declining influence of the Habsburgs in Istanbul and throughout the Ottoman Balkans.
Since Franz Joseph was one of the teachers of the then twelve-year-old son of Maria
Theresa and future ruler, Joseph II, and since he was very familiar with the conservative personal
tendencies of the Habsburg empress, he further argued the need for deliberate concentration of
4

Woflgang Pircher. Aufklrung und Staat. Zur Theoriegeschichte der konomie in sterreich. In: Benedikt,
Michael, Baum, Wilhelm, Knoll, Reinhold, (Hg.). Verdrngter Humanismus. Verzgerte Aufklrung.
sterreichische Philosophie zur Zeit der Revolution und Restauration (1750-1820), Wien 1992, p. 400-442, here p.
411.
5
Erste Schrifft Welche ich in Anfang des Monat April 1753 Ihro Mayst. unmitterlbar bergeben habe.
Allerunterthnigste Anmerckung ber die Auferziehung deren Trckischen Sprach-Knaben HHStA, Staatskanzlei,
Interiora 55: Orientalische Akademie 1754-1775, Konv. 1753, Fol. 1-10.
6
Even in earlier times young men, whose education actually began when they were still boys, had been assigned to
the position of interpreter. The l-evel of Sprachknabe was the first title to be received in the service. Through
ones further career it was possible to achieve the next level, with the title Interpreter (Dolmetsch),who is a
candidate, in the real sense, to become part of the Austrian diplomatic service.
7
... heimatlichen Sitten entfremdet... HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora 55: Orientalische Akademie 1754-1775,
Konv. 1753, Fol. 1-10.
8
Allerunterthnigste ohnmageblicher Frschlag Josephi Franz Soc. Jesu, wie die Erziehung und Bekehrung
deren Trckischen Sprach-Knaben zu Wienn frzunehmen wre HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora 55: Orientalische
Akademie 1754-1775, Konv. 1753, Fol. 4-26.

such institutions in Vienna, saying that the young translators should be directed only towards
work, and not towards hanging out with people of another gender, and with other youth. 9 In
addition, Franz knew that one of the new key principles of the rule of an empress is to save
money wherever she can. Therefore, the experienced Jesuit was able further to substantiate his
views with accurately detailed financial estimates, according to which the education of eight
cadets at the new Institute in Vienna cost 3000 gulden per year, while the same thing in Istanbul
would cost 4800 gulden.
At the same time the then internuncio Heinrich von Penckler (1700-1774) 10 insisted that
the Empress should not accept Franz's proposal because von Penckler believed that education
was more about first-hand knowledge of Turkish language as it was actually spoken and also
about detailed knowledge of actual living customs ; and that it was only possible to achieve this
properly by living in Turkish community, with all the necessary interaction with a foreign
climate and people. Even Joseph Franz was ready to acknowledge the importance of such
arguments and to suggest that each year, after completing their studies in Vienna the two best
among the eight participants from one generation should be sent to Istanbul, where they would
stay in the Internunciature for extra practice as assistant interpreter (Dolmetschgehilfen). 11
This compromise was accepted by the State Chancellor Kaunitz, and in this form recommended
to the Empress on 9th June 1753, with further notice that cadets sent to Istanbul should go there
well set on the Catholic religion and honorable traditions. 12 Memorandum was the basis for the
beginning of a new institution in Vienna. Pretty soon the Empress sent instructions to Penckler to
prepare for a new form of organization. 13 However, because of his persistent efforts to prove the
correctness of his views about the further need for education of interpreters in Istanbul, Penckler
was basically sacked from office and, on 31st March 1754, he was succeeded by Josef von
Schwachheim, who resolutely adopted thenew initiative from Vienna.
9

... gar keine Gelegenheit geben zur... Vermischung mit dem ungleichen Geschlecht oder vieler anderer Jugend...
HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora 55: Orientalische Akademie 1754-1775, Konv. 1753, Fol. 33-40.
10
Penckler had been in Istanbul since 1719 as a translator-beginner to the service of then internuncio Virmont. Ernst
Dieter Petritsch. Erziehung in guten Sitten, Andacht und Gehorsam. Die 1754 gegrndete Orientalische
Akademie in Wien. In: Marlene Kurz u.a. (Hrsg.). Das Osmanische Reich und die Habsburgermonarchie, WienMnchen 2005, p. 491-501, here p. 493. From 4th May 1741 he was internuncio himself. Erwin Matsch. Der
Auswrtige Dienst von sterreich-Ungarn 1720-1920, Wien: Bhlau 1986, p. 109. Petritsch is mistaken in claiming
that he took this position in 1745. Ernst Dieter Petritsch. Erziehung, p. 493.
11
HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora 55: Orientalische Akademie 1754-1775, Konv. 1753, Fol. 12-21.
12
... einen guten Grund Christ-katolischer Religion und reiner Sitten aus dem Seminario mit sich in die Trkei
brachten. HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora 55: Orientalische Akademie 1754-1775, Konv. alt 67a/B, Fol. 33-40.
13
HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora 55: Orientalische Akademie 1754-1775, Konv. alt 67a/B, Fol. 11.

The creation of a new institution, in the case of Vienna called the Oriental Academy, was
not a novelty within the European framework, because equivalent institutions existed all over
Europe for a while: in Paris since as early as 1669 and in Poland since even earlier, namely
1622. 14 In the spectrum of characteristics for the selection of eight students for the first
generation of the Academy, the social status and financial status of candidates parents were of
crucial importance. 15 A statistical review of all candidates in the period 1754-1777 shows that 72
per cent of participants were children of court officers. From 1754 until 1805 as many as 73.2
per cent of all cadets were from families that were basically nobility. 16 This kind of approach,
which openly favored members of aristocracy, was a general characteristic of the Habsburg state
in the eighteenth century;, and in this case as well it really prevented adequate qualitative
development based on equitable selection. Opportunities for further development of various
forms of corruption were opened up. For example, the Austrian internuncio received one letter in
1779 in which he was asked to allow entry to the Academy to one of the relatives of the Count
Saint-Priest. 17 In the very same year the long-time interpreter in the Embassy in Istanbul,
Bartholomo Testa (1723-1809), 18 sought to find a place for his son among the translatorbeginners. 19
In the beginning this approach was inevitable. Josef Franz himself, in choosing
participants for the first generation, suggested that priority should be given to those candidates
14

Michaela Wolf, Diplomatenlehrbuben oder angehende Dragomane? Zur Rekonstruktion des sozialen
Dolmetschfeldes in der Habsburgermonarchie. In: Marlene Kurz u.a. (Hrsg.). Das Osmanische Reich und die
Habsburgermonarchie, Wien-Mnchen 2005, p. 503-513, here p. 505.
15
Allerunterthnigste Viertel Jhrige Information von denen Monaten Januario, Februario, Martio ber Das
Verhalten der acht Knaben in der K.K. Academia der Orientalischen Sprachen, welche der ersten January 1754
angefangen hatte. HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora 55: Orientalische Akademie 1754-1775, Konv. alt 67a/B, Fol.
47.
16
Charakter der Eltern HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora 56: Orientalische Akademie 1775-1800, Konv. alt 67b,
Fol. 46.
17
... au Service Imperial, cest un Cousin germain de ma femme... HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora 56:
Orientalische Akademie 1775-1800, Konv. alt Fasz. 67b, Fol. 87.
18
Testa was a member of the Genoese family who had lived in Istanbul even before the Ottoman conquest,
performing the functions of interpreters already in the time of the Byzantine Empire. During the eighteenth 18th
century they were mostly in the service of Austria and the Netherlands. Alexander H. de Groot. Die Dragomane
1700-1869. Zum Verlust ihrer interkulturellen Funktion. In: Marlene Kurz u.a. (Hrsg.), Das Osmanische Reich und
die Habsburgermonarchie, Wien-Mnchen 2005, p. 473-490, here p. 505. Bartolomeo Testa was an interpreter in
the Austrian Embassy since 1759 until his death 50 years later. HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora 56: Orientalische
Akademie 1775-1800, Konv. alt Fasz. 67c, Fol. 27-28.
19
... eine Sprachknabenstelle... HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora 56: Orientalische Akademie 1775-1800, Konv. alt
Fasz. 67b, Fol. 90. This was successful attempt by Testa, because his son, Henry Testa, was moved to Vienna for
study already in the April of the next year. See the report by the then internuncio von Herbert-Rathkeal from 11th of
April 1780 about the travels of Henry Testa, fils de notre digne Premier Dragomand. HHStA, Staatenabteilungen,
Trkei II, Kart. 72: Berichte 1780, I VI, Fasz. Trkei, Berichte 1780 April Jun, Fol. 43.

whose fathers work longer in the imperial service, which are higher in the nobility and also that
are blessed with more children from God. 20 Among the eight first-generation students were
specifically noted Bernhard von Jenisch (1734-1807), Franz de Paula Freiherr von Thugut (17361818) and Philipp von Herbert-Rathkeal (17351802). Jenisch was sent to Istanbul in 1755
already and later became one of the most important officials at the Viennese court. Thugut was
one of the most famous students from the Oriental Academy in its entire history. From 1769 to
1776 he held the office of internuncio in Istanbul; and from 1793 to 1800 he was Prime Minister
in the Viennese government and also held the position of State Chancellor. 21 Philipp von
Herbert-Rathkeal held the position of Austrian internuncio in Istanbul for 23 years (1779-1802).
When his overall achievements are considered, he was most probably the best Austrian diplomat
in the Ottoman Empire during the whole of the eighteenth century. 22
The Academy began to work officially on 1st January 1754 and its first head was the
same person who had proposed its establishment, Josef Franz. He served in this position until his
death in 1770. Later on he was succeeded by Johann Nekrep (1738-1784), also a Jesuit. During
his administration (1773) the Jesuit Order was abolished, so that the Oriental Academy was in
position to become more open to the influence of secular science, which had a further positive
effect on its quality. 23 Although Nekreps successor Franz Hck (1749-1835) 24 was also a priest
and a former member of the Jesuit Order, the Academy became an increasingly prestigious
educational institution. During the last couple of decades of the eighteenth century this institution
was the place where the most famous Austrian Orientalists and diplomats were educated, as, for
example, Josef von Hammer-Purgstall (1774-1856), 25 Franz von Dombay (1758-1810), Ignaz
Freiherr von Strmer (1752-1818) 26 and many others.

20

HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora 55: Orientalische Akademie 1754-1775, Konv. 1753, Fol. 22-26.
Ernst Dieter Petritsch. Erziehung, p. 497.
22
He was of Irish origin. His Catholic family escaped from Ireland after the turmoil in the Glorious Revolution of
1688-1689. There is a notice about him in the description of the first generation of students in the Oriental Academy
desser Vater, wre ein Addelicher Irrlnder, lebte und sturbe ausser seinem Vatterland wegen der katholischen
Religion. HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora 55: Orientalische Akademie 1754-1775, Konv. alt 67a/B, Fol. 48.
23
Exjesuitensachen ab anni 1773-1782, Steiermrkisches Landesarchiv Graz, Landschaftliches Archiv Antiquum
(further: StLA LAA), Gruppe XI, KirchlicheVerhltnisse, Katholische Kirche, Sch. 102.
24
HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora 56: Orientalische Akademie 1775-1800, Konv. alt Fasz. 67c, Fol. 152.
25
Josef von Hammer (-Purgstall) was in Istanbul, as an assistant translator, from 1799. During the 1820s, he wrote
his famous History of the Ottoman Empire. Geschichte der diplomatischen Verhltnissen sterreichs mit der
hohen Pforte von Begin bis zum des XVIII Jahrh. HHStA, Staatenabteilungen, Trkei V, Kart. 28, 29, 30:
Hammers Geschichte.
26
Strmer was an Austrian internuncio in Istanbul 1802-1818.
21

Students at the Academy had a strictly defined daily curriculum and other activities from
rising at six oclock in the morning to retiring to bed at nine oclock in the evening. 27 They had
special exercises in -Ooriental orthography, the spelling of Latin, Turkish, Arabic, Persian,
French, Italian, Greek and pure German. With such a polyglot and orthographic preparation
they became experts, adequately trained to enter the complex milieu of Levantine politics. In
addition, students had intensive courses in arithmetic, geometry, geography, chronology,
heraldry, natural history, anatomy, metaphysics, experimental physics, the arts and crafts,
architecture, firearms and ammunition, general world history, Ottoman history, beautiful
literature and the catechism. Besides that, they were specially trained in fencing, painting and
dancing. 28 All this made it possible for the cadets of the Academy to become first-class scientists
and diplomats and, very soon, their mother institution became one of the most prestigious
educational institutions not only in Austria but across Europe. At the end of each school year
(that is, in fact, coincided with the calendar year) trustees drafted accurate reports on the progress
of all students, noting their general level of diligence and progress in every language, in
orthography and especially in history and geography. With remarks on the special attitudes and
talents of candidates, 29 very detailed tables were drawn up and filled with data about special
praise but also about some punishments. 30

The Academy quickly emerged as a meaningful institution for Austrian interests in the
Balkans and the Levant. The government in Vienna recognized that due to the existence of such
institutions it was possible to gain new, highly qualified personnel very quickly and so to replace
the often unreliable foreigners who were deployed in different places around the Levant, mostly
in consular positions. In addition, the creation of such conditions was a launching platform for
27

An example of the timetable from 1780, for Monday, Wednesday and Thursday: Ordo pro die Lunae, Mercurii
et Veneris... Hora 6ta Surgitur, preces, Sacrum, Hora 7ma Schola vel Arabica, vel Persica pro Spaun, Wallenburg,
Dombay, Oetl, Raab, Gasser... HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora 56: Orientalische Akademie 1775-1800, Konv. alt
Fasz. 67b, Fol. 153-154.
28
Verzeichni der Professoren und ihres Unterrichts bey der Orient. Akademie HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora
56: Orientalische Akademie 1775-1800, Konv.1794-1800, Fol. 4.
29
Bericht Ueber die K.K. Akademie der orientalischen Sprachen... Namen... Geburtsort...... Alter... Handschrift...
Sitten... Hat Talente... Verdient besonders gelobt oder getadelt zu zu werden wegen... HHStA, Staatskanzlei,
Interiora 56: Orientalische Akademie 1775-1800, Konv. alt Fasz. 67b, Fol. 46.
30
Ignaz von Strmer had the best grades of all students of the Academy in the second half of the eighteenth century.
There are detailed tables with reports about his grades, activities and preferences. The first head, Johan Nekrep
stated about him on 1st of March 1777: gelobt wegen gar vielen guten rechmannbaren Kenntni HHStA,
Staatskanzlei, Interiora 56: Orientalische Akademie 1775-1800, Konv. alt Fasz. 67b, Fol. 75.

the opening of a whole range of new consulates, and in just a couple of decades the Austrian
consular network in the Balkans and the Levant increased significantly. 31 New consulates in
Walachia and Moldova were opened in 1782 and in 1792 respectively; and new members of staff
from the Oriental Academy were employed there instantly. The same situation occurred in
Thessalonica, 32 Durres, Dubrovnik, Patras, Rhodes, Chios, Izmir, Cairo, etc. 33 New Oriental
interpreters from the Academy were also engaged as interpreters on the borders to the
Ottomans, especially in the Bosnian pashaluk. They were largely in charge of facilitating
operations with the Turkish authorities; and if necessary even ofo performing spy missions
during occasional visits to pashas in Travnik. Among the first students of the Academy deployed
on the border with the Bosnian pashaluk there was Anton von Haftmann. 34
With regard to activities at the border and in the area of the Bosnian pashaluk in general,
Franz von Dombay was especially active. As one of the best students of the Oriental Academy,
in 1782 he went to Morocco, in the function of interpreter-novice, where the Austrian consulate
was officially founded the following year. 35 From 1788 he was the official in the Austrian
Embassy in Madrid. His experience and knowledge wre best demonstrated on the border with
Turkey towards Bosnia, where he was constantly deployed from 1792 until 1800, with an annual
salary of 1,000 ducats. 36 Basically he was in Zagreb, where he has also published some of the
most famous works of Austrian Oriental science, especially sophisticated dictionaries of Turkish,
Arabic and Persian. He had a leading role in implementing the decisions of the Svishtov peace
treaty, the implementation of which (especially the demarcation of new border) in the area of
northwestern Bosnia had been stretched out to five whole years after its signing (1791-1796). On
several occasions he travelled to Travnik and compiled detailed descriptions of the interior of the

31

Leopold Kammerhofer. Das Konsularwesen der Habsburgermonarchie (1752-1918). Ein berblick mit
Schwerpunkt auf Sdosteuropa. In: Harald Heppner (Hg.), Der Weg fhrt ber sterreich... Zur Geschichte des
Verkehrs- und Nachrichtenwesens von und nach Sdosteuropa (18. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart), Wien-KlnWeimar 1996, p. 7-35, here p. 15.
32
Still, in Thessalonica even in 1780s the function of Austrian consul was performed by Luigi de Gamerra. HHStA,
Staatenabteilungen, Trkei II, Kart. 87: Berichte 1785, III VIII, Fasz. Turcica 1785 Mrz April, Fol. 428-431.
33
In contrast to all these consulates, the consulate in Travnik, opened in 1808, had almost exclusively military
personnel. The same fate was designed for consulates in Belgrade and Vidin, whose opening was planned for 1810,
and 1811 respectively. Harald Heppner. Die personele Entwicklung, p. 26.
34
HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora 56: Orientalische Akademie 1775-1800, Konv. alt Fasz. 67c, Fol. 27-28.
35
Ibid. Fol. 29-30.
36
Entwurf Ueber die knftige Anstellung des zu den Trkischen Geschften bestimmten Personals HHStA,
Staatskanzlei, Interiora 56: Orientalische Akademie 1775-1800, Konv.1792-1793, Fol. 102-103.

Bosnian pashaluk 37 which were very useful and which, within in the context of intelligencegathering,in every way surpassed the archaic approach of Austrian spies from the time of Charles
VI. He later became a court interpreter in Vienna 38 and from 1809 was one of the highest court
counsellors. On the border with the Bosnian pashaluk Dombaj was equally successfully replaced
by Franz Fleischhakl. 39

The creation of the Oriental Academy in 1754 was one of the most positive and
progressive moves realized in Habsburg policy towards the Ottoman Empire during the
eighteenth century. Within only a few decades the decadent system of Habsburg diplomacy on
the South East was radically modernized and diplomacy alone, in general, was able to become
much more efficient. 40 Institutional development of diplomacy enabled a closer relationship
between the headquarters in Vienna and the Embassy in Istanbul and also a faster channel for the
flow of information to other diplomatic missions in the Balkans and the Levant. It was also
possible to achieve effective control and improvement in the level of trade. This was particularly
important for the regulation of the trade in tobacco, especially the increase in tobacco imports
from the region around Thessalonica into the Austrian lands. 41 It was also possible to regulate
the trade with new contracts and, to a great extent, to stop the attacks by pirates on Austrian ships
in the Mediterranean.
A new contract (Sened) from 24th February 1784 provided the opportunity further to
improve the position of Austrian entrepreneurs in the Ottoman Empire in comparison with their
previous status, as gained through peace process in Passarowitz 1718, especially thanks to the
efforts and skills of the then internuncio Philipp von Herbert-Rathkeal. 42 The internuncio von
37

In particular, there was a major mission in January and February 1797, when, via Dubica and Prijedor, Dombay
travelled to Travnik to present a special gift from the Viennese court (a porcelain plate made in the Vienna
workshop) to the Bosnian pasha upon the successful completion of the demarcation within the implementation of
decisions made during the Svistov peace process. HHStA, Staatenabteilungen, Trkei III 9: Grenzverhltnisse
1795-1800, Fasz. 1797-1800, Fol. 16-59.
38
This was sealed by the decision of the State Chancellery from 16 January 1801. HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora 2:
Personalia C-D, Konv. alt Fasz. 4 (D), first folio (without number).
39
HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora 2: Personalia C-D, Konv. alt Fasz. 4 (D).
40
Already in the mid 1780s Austria had one of the most populous diplomacy in Europe. Ministres des Cours de
lEurope Anno 1784 HHStA, Staatskanzlei, Interiora, Personalia, Kart. 12: Z, Pers. Listen, Fasz. alt Fasz 24, Fol.
35-37.
41
Report of consul Luigi de Gamerra on 6th of July 1785. HHStA, Staatenabteilungen, Trkei II, Kart. 87: Berichte
1785, III VIII, Fasz. Turcica 1785 Mrz April, Fol. 428-431.
42
Sened & de traite de Commerce de Passarowitz. HHStA, Staatenabteilungen, Trkei II, Kart. 87: Berichte
1785, III VIII, Fasz. Turcica 1785 Mrz April, Fol.235-236.

Herbert-Rathkeal also used the new position in Istanbul as a base for the further development of
trade to remote regions. Therefore, in combination with some English tradesmen, he was able to
facilitate the extension of some trade routes all the way to India, sometimes even for his own
benefit. 43 The same approach was applied regarding the pacification of pirates from North Africa
in cooperation with the Ottoman authorities. This even included the release of some slaves taken
by pirates in numerous attacks during the 1780s. 44
New diplomacy became the basis for the new political and economic rise of the
Habsburgs in the frames of Balkan and Levant. However, a significant problem for the
development of Habsburg policy was the fact that this kind of modernization arrived too late.
The Habsburgs had already had the capacity to achieve a similar progress of modernization
during earlier decades, especially since the equivalent French and other examples of schools for
oriental diplomacy had already existed in the seventeenth century. The creation of a modern,
trained diplomatic staff in the earlier period would probably have led towards different kind of
development of diplomatic and military efforts during the war with the Ottomans in the 1730s,
one more favorable to the Habsburgs. Regardless of the new momentum in the Austrian
economy in the South East, which was also created thanks to the efficient work of the Oriental
Academy, French trade during the century still enjoyed a huge advantage over the Austrians; and
France was in position to maintain its policy and dominance vis--vis Austria and all other
competitors in Istanbul and elsewhere around the Ottoman Empire. The Austrian internuncio
complained in vain at the Porte about constantly receiving complaints from Austrian retailers
claiming that the French merchants were privileged in all possible ways. 45
In their treatment of the Bosnian pashaluk the Habsburgs missed an opportunity to create
a trade monopoly, which would have been quite possible because of its geographic proximity to
the westernmost area of the Ottoman Empire. This was also closely connected to the fact that
they did not favour the area because of its unprofitability compared to many other trading
regions where financial gain was in general easier, faster and more lucrative. Still, for Habsburg
policy towards the Bosnian pashaluk in general a significant outcome of the opening of the
43

Letter to the George Baldwin on 24th of February 1780. HHStA, Staatenabteilungen, Trkei II, Kart. 72: Berichte
1780, I VI, Fasz. Trkei, Berichte 1780 Jnner Mrz, Fol. 168-177.
44
Alger en Decembre 1784. Noms des Esclaves, qui se rapportent la Nation Germanique & se sont prsents
chez lAgence Impriale & Royale Alger, en la Suppliant de prendre Note de leurs personnes. HHStA,
Staatenabteilungen, Trkei II, Kart. 87: Berichte 1785, III VIII, Fasz. Turcica 1785 Mrz April, Fol.272-275.
45
HHStA, Staatenabteilungen, Trkei II, Kart. 74: Weisungen, Berichte 1780, 1781 I-III, Fasz. Turcica 1781
(Berichte) Jnner-Mrz (1-364), Fol. 148-149.

10

Oriental Academy was the possibility quickly to enrich the previously modest resources of the
military border personnel with highly educated individuals who weresnet to the border with rich
linguistic and intelligence-gathering experience.

11

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