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052183662X - Insights into Second Language Reading: A Cross-Linguistic Approach


Keiko Koda
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PART I

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS

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052183662X - Insights into Second Language Reading: A Cross-Linguistic Approach
Keiko Koda
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Introduction

The rapid internationalization of business and industry, together with


a sustained immigration inux, has resulted in an unprecedented
interest in enhancing second language (L2) learning. In seeking better
approaches to second language teaching, as well as L2 subject-matter
instruction, applied linguistics has witnessed major advances in both
theory and practice. As a consequence, research on L2 reading, a
recognized area of applied linguistics, also has made impressive gains
in quality and quantity.
As the title Insights into Second Language Reading implies, this
books intent is not a simple review but an effort to establish a
foundation for expanding current L2 reading research within welldened frameworks, and to establish a research base that can facilitate
productive innovations in second language reading instruction. These
objectives have been approached through a series of analyses:
synthesizing ongoing issues in rst language (L1) reading literature;
examining possible implications of L1 research for conceptualizing L2
reading competence and its acquisition; exploring means of incorporating established L1 research paradigms in empirical examinations of
L2 reading; and identifying troublesome gaps in L2 reading research.
Because, by denition, learning to read a second language involves two
or more languages, the analyses are cross-linguistic, exploring both L1
and L2 characteristics as possible sources of individual differences in
L2 reading development.
Although the book is not designed as a classroom teaching manual,
basic principles for translating research into practice, and pedagogical
implications of research ndings, are included. Descriptions of L2
reading processes are incorporated under the assumption that a clear
understanding of the multiple complexities inherent in L2 reading
development will enable language teachers to identify the range of difculties L2 learners are likely to encounter in learning to read in a new
language, discriminate potential sources of learning difculties more
precisely, and restructure instruction in benecial ways. Conceivably, a
3
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052183662X - Insights into Second Language Reading: A Cross-Linguistic Approach
Keiko Koda
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Theoretical foundations

broader pathways to reading mastery in a new language will also be


useful in tailoring pedagogical strategies to accommodate the varying
needs of individual learners.

Basic concepts and constructs


Although studies on L2 reading have expanded considerably, only
recently has serious attention been given to the mechanisms governing
knowledge increase and performance effectiveness. The newer theoretical ground, moreover, has evolved largely from implications derived
from L1 studies. Although this was a logical point of departure,
borrowed research paradigms do not seem capable of capturing
the unique attributes of L2 reading. Because L1 and L2 reading differ
fundamentally, when L1 precepts are extrapolated without due regard
for the requirements stemming from these differences, conceptual
oversights may occur, and subsequent applications to practice could
be weakened.
Logic suggests that in-depth analyses of the complexities associated
with L2 reading should help determine where its theories must depart
from accepted L1 constructs and even more critically pinpoint new
research objectives. Both L2 learning and reading are complex, multidimensional constructs, and their respective research literature reects
a broad base of interdisciplinary perspectives. It should be noted,
however, that in this book, the primary orientation is psycholinguistic.
This is in no way meant to diminish the merits of other perspectives;
rather, it is simply a matter of focus. To illustrate the psycholinguistic
frame of reference in the analyses, the main concepts and constructs
are briey dened.

The nature of reading competence


Reading competence is perhaps the most fundamental construct in
reading research. The term competence is used inclusively throughout
the book in reference to linguistic knowledge, processing skills, and
cognitive abilities. Reading competence and reading ability, moreover,
are used interchangeably. Conceptualized in several different ways,
diverse denitions exist, but all stem from the same basic assumption
that successful comprehension emerges from the integrative interaction of derived text information and preexisting reader knowledge. Put
simply, comprehension occurs when the reader extracts and integrates
various information from the text and combines it with what is already
known. Each of these operations is generally used to dene reading
competence, although from different perspectives.

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052183662X - Insights into Second Language Reading: A Cross-Linguistic Approach
Keiko Koda
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Introduction

The cognitive view, as an illustration, posits that readertext interaction can be subdivided into three processing clusters. First, in decoding,
linguistic information is extracted directly from print. Next, in textinformation building, extracted ideas are integrated to uncover text
meanings. Finally, in situation-model construction, the amalgamated
text information is synthesized with prior knowledge (e.g., Carpenter,
Miyake, & Just, 1994; Kintsch, 1998; Miller, 1988; Perfetti, 1994).
Thus, in this view, reading success is governed by three competency
groups: visual information extraction, incremental information integration, and text-meaning and prior-knowledge consolidation. Traditionally, reading research has pursued individual competencies within
each cluster, giving little attention to their functional, as well as developmental, interconnections.
From a developmental perspective, Gough and his associates
(Gough & Tunmer, 1986; Hoover & Gough, 1990) suggest a different way of dening reading competence. Their contention is that,
although learning to read entails the mastery of two basic operations
decoding and comprehension they do not develop in parallel. Both
reading and listening share similar processing requirements, and children amass comprehension skills in the course of oral language
development. By the time they begin to read, therefore, their listening
comprehension ability, in most instances, is already well developed.
In principle, children should be able to transfer their oral comprehension ability to reading, but in actuality, they cannot do so until
they attain sufcient decoding efciency. However, decoding, unlike
comprehension, does not evolve as a corollary of speech, thus requiring
substantial print-information processing experience. Lacking decoding competence, children have insufcient information to construct
text meaning. And, in the absence of automaticity, the attention required for decoding substantially detracts from what otherwise would
be available for comprehension. Thus, decoding creates a threshold
for exploiting the comprehension competence children bring to their
reading acquisition processes.
Reasoning from a functional perspective, Carver (1990, 1997,
2000) proposes yet another way of conceptualizing reading competence. He believes the purposes for which texts are read determine the
manner in which their information is processed. He describes ve reading gears, serving disparate purposes, on a continuum of cognitive
complexity. Consider, for example, three goals in text reading: locating
lexical information (scanning), detecting main ideas (basic comprehension), and acquiring new concepts (learning). Cognitively, reading for
lexical information is the least challenging, involving simple lexical
access. Reading for basic comprehension is somewhat more taxing

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052183662X - Insights into Second Language Reading: A Cross-Linguistic Approach
Keiko Koda
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Theoretical foundations

because it necessitates, beyond lexical access, syntactic analysis for information integration. Acquiring new concepts in learning, is the most
demanding of the three. According to Carver, processing requirements
increase as the reading gear shifts upward and, as a consequence
of greater task complexity, the reading rate decreases. Hence, he concludes that indices of comprehension success vary in accordance with
reading purposes. In the less demanding, lower reading gears (scanning
and skimming), competence implies speedy information extraction. In
the higher gears, however, accurate and complete text understanding
is more important than speed. The clear implication is that why,
and how, texts are read must be considered in determining reading
competence.
To sum up, then, reading competence can be dened from multiple
perspectives. The cognitive view, reecting the interactive nature
of reading, emphasizes three operations as the critical core of
competence: decoding, text-meaning construction, and assimilation
with prior knowledge. The developmental perspective, in contrast,
highlights sequential mastery of two operations decoding and comprehension and their functional interdependence. The reading gear
theory, moreover, suggests a third factor, reading purpose, to be incorporated in dening the core construct.
In exploring L2 reading development, these diverse perspectives
also need to be incorporated. Clarifying the constructs multilayered
complexities is essential for two reasons. Because L2 literacy learning
commences at various ages and under diverse circumstances, we can
reasonably assume that considerable variances exist in prior literacylearning experience. Without a reliable basis for determining what
has been mastered in L1, empirical examination of its inuence on L2
reading behaviors is not possible. In addition, the manner and rate
of L2 reading development also are likely to differ among learners
because L2 reading instruction begins at different points in their L2
development. Hence, without a precise construct denition, L2 reading competence cannot be differentiated from L2 linguistic prociency.
Lacking a ne-tuned description of the progressive stages of L2 reading acquisition, tracing developmental changes at a given point in time
is also prohibitive.

Dening L2 readers
The term L2 reading covers a broad span, and its use is excessively
general, often overlooking important differentiation, which has strong
impacts on how learning to read proceeds in a second language. For
example, there are several distinct L2 reader populations, including

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052183662X - Insights into Second Language Reading: A Cross-Linguistic Approach
Keiko Koda
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Introduction

preschool children without prior literacy experience, school-aged children with disparate L1 literacy experience, adult learners literate in
their L1, and adult learners nonliterate in their L1. L2 linguistic
knowledge is a common variable in each of these groups, but the
developmental proles may deviate in three critical dimensions: L1
literacy, cognitive maturity, and conceptual sophistication. Each of
these categories interacts with contextual variations relating to where,
how, and why L2 literacy is being pursued. For example, the learning
experience of six-year-old native Chinese-speaking children, acquiring
reading skills in English as a second language in an American public
school, is strikingly different from that of native English-speaking students taking an elementary Chinese course, to fulll a foreign language
requirement, in an American university.
Logically, an essential rst step in gaining a clear understanding
of L2 reading development is to determine the particular learning
characteristics of the specic group involved. Similarly, in considering
research implications for L2 reading instruction, it is equally imperative to clarify the nature of the target L2 readers. In the interest of clarity, it is important to note that in the subsequent chapters, L2 readers
generally refers to cognitively mature individuals already literate in
their respective rst languages learning to read a second language.
Other L2 reader cohorts are described separately wherever pertinent.

Differentiating L1 and L2 reading


Once a target L2 reader population has been dened, differences between L1 and L2 reading can be determined. In the focal group used
for this volume literate adult L2 learners three major distinctions
separate the two. Unlike beginning L1 readers, L2 learners can draw
on their prior literacy experience, which potentially provides substantial facilitation. In addition, beginning L1 readers, through oral
communication, have already established a basic linguistic foundation
by the time formal literacy training commences. In contrast, L2 reading
instruction, more often than not, begins before sufcient L2 linguistic
knowledge has been acquired. Hence, the initial focus in literacy training necessarily differs. Whereas L1 instruction emphasizes decoding
to enable children to link print with oral vocabulary, L2 instruction
focuses on linguistic foundation building. Further, as indicated earlier,
L1 reading assumes that information processing occurs in a single language, whereas L2 reading necessitates dual-language involvement
another factor separating L1 and L2 reading.
In view of these distinctions, it is obvious that L2 research must
go beyond the standard array of variables essential in L1 reading and

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052183662X - Insights into Second Language Reading: A Cross-Linguistic Approach
Keiko Koda
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Theoretical foundations

emphasize the specic constituents that dene L2 reading competence.


In particular, serious attention should be given to the special conditions
associated with the preceding three factors prior literacy experience,
limited linguistic sophistication, and dual-language involvement
because collectively they form a base from which to further probe
L2 reading issues. Research agendas, as an illustration, can be generated simply by converting well-established L1 reading suppositions
into questions incorporating L2 points of view. For example, one
of the fundamental premises underlying contemporary reading theories is that text understanding results from the integrative interaction of textual information and preexisting reader knowledge. Inasmuch as L2 readers have prior literacy experience, the premise can
be turned into a question: In what ways does L1 reading experience
affect integrative interaction in L2 reading? An additional question
could be derived from the same premise, based on another L2-specic
factor, limited linguistic sophistication: What are the impacts of L2
prociency on integrative interaction during reading comprehension?
With respect to dual-language involvement, a third question might
be, What are the minimal L1 and L2 competency requirements necessary for integrative interaction to occur during L2 reading? Strategies of this sort are, in essence, simply a matter of utilizing what we
know about L1 reading to elucidate what we do not know about L2
reading.
In view of the complexities inherent in reading competence, numerous research questions could be formulated by evaluating the validity of L1 reading principles on L2 issues from L2 vantage points.
In short, L1 reading research has yielded a number of signicant insights. A clearer understanding of L2 reading, however, cannot be
attained by simply extrapolating L1 percepts both conceptual and
methodological without due regard for the dominant factors characterizing L2 reading.

Principal approaches
The benets of cross-linguistic analyses
Potential variations in L2 processing behaviors stemming from
L1 properties also should be central in L2 reading research. The
importance is manifested in the growing interest in cross-linguistic
variances in language acquisition and processing. Child-language studies demonstrate that children are sensitized to the particular features
of their native languages relatively early. Such linguistic conditioning

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052183662X - Insights into Second Language Reading: A Cross-Linguistic Approach
Keiko Koda
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Introduction

not only channels subsequent language development but also molds


the cognitive procedures accommodating its structural and functional
peculiarities. Experimental studies with skilled readers have repeatedly
shown that information-processing procedures at various processing
levels word recognition, sentence parsing, and discourse processing
systematically differ across languages (e.g., Katz & Frost, 1992;
Mazuka & Itoh, 1995; Saito, Masuda, & Kawakami, 1999; Taft &
Zhu, 1995; Vaid, 1995).
Curiously, cross-linguistic variance, despite its centrality, has attracted relatively little attention among L2 reading researchers,
although interest is mounting. The neglect may have been attributable,
in part, to the heavy reliance on L1 theories, without essential
allowances for important L1L2 distinctions. L1 research concerns are
restricted to monolingual processing, and consequent cross-linguistic
issues are beyond its scope. Given that two or more bodies of linguistic
knowledge together with their corresponding processing skills
are involved in L2 reading, it is doubtful whether a comprehensive
understanding of its anatomy can be achieved through investigations
of its monolingual perspectives alone. Ideally, L2 research should address learners L1 and L2 processing experiences in tandem, examining
their probable interplay as well as subsequent conjoint impacts on L2
reading development. The central assumption underlying the crosslinguistic approach is that L1 experience embeds habits of mind,
instilling specic processing mechanisms, which frequently kick in
during L2 reading. Diversity in L1 experience, therefore, can induce
qualitative procedural differences, whereas variances in L2 experience
may yield quantitative efciency differences. As a consequence, inferences about L2 reading competence based solely on either qualitative or quantitative performance differences often are inadequate
and misleading. Cross-linguistic analyses can illuminate the subtle
ways in which L1 and L2 experiences meld and interface during L2
reading development. Presumably, the resulting insights derived from
such bifocal analyses may explain competency differences among L2
readers with substantially greater precision.

Advantages of competency dissection


To recapitulate, reading involves continual extraction and incremental
integration of text information. Successful comprehension, therefore,
depends on both linguistic knowledge and the skills to utilize the
knowledge for text-meaning construction. Theories of L2 reading,
therefore, should elucidate the specic knowledge and processing skills

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052183662X - Insights into Second Language Reading: A Cross-Linguistic Approach
Keiko Koda
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10

Theoretical foundations

that underlie successful comprehension in a given language. Linguistic


knowledge and its corresponding processing skills do not, of necessity,
develop concomitantly. As a result, it is important to treat knowledge
and knowledge use as separate constructs, and to devise procedures
for assessing them independently.
In L1 research, this distinction is widely recognized. For example,
empirical evidence conrms that decoding efciency varies considerably among beginning L1 readers who have attained normal oral
language development (e.g., Perfetti, 1985; Stanovich, 1991). The
ndings make it plain that oral vocabulary knowledge does not
automatically equate with an ability to recognize it in print. Although
both are essential in efcient information processing, knowing something and knowing how to use it effectively are discrete capabilities.
The implication of these competency distinctions is clear. Because processing inefciency can be attributable to either a lack of relevant
knowledge or underdeveloped usage skill, or both, without ne-tuned
component analyses, it is difcult to determine the precise root of
the problem. However, this differentiation has not been fully acknowledged in L2 reading research, resulting in the widespread but
erroneous belief that processing skills improve automatically as a byproduct of increased linguistic knowledge.
L1 reading studies also suggest that two forms of linguistic knowledge orthographic and phonological independently inuence
English decoding efciency (e.g., Barker, Torgesen, & Wagner, 1992;
Stanovich, 2000; Stanovich & West, 1989). Inasmuch as the two do
not develop concomitantly with other aspects of linguistic knowledge (e.g., Gough & Tunmer, 1986), we cannot simply assume that
all beginning readers have acquired the requisite knowledge at the
time they begin learning to read. Even if they have, there is no assurance that they will master the complementary skills to use the
knowledge during decoding. The knowledgeskill distinction is particularly critical, because linguistic knowledge varies widely among L2
learners.
In sum, four major assumptions support the importance of competency dissection: Linguistic knowledge and language processing
skills are related but distinct competencies; discrete aspects of linguistic knowledge contribute disparately to comprehension; linguistic
knowledge is a necessary but insufcient condition for efcient textinformation processing; and requisite linguistic knowledge, as well
as its corresponding processing skills differs across languages. For
these reasons, to the extent possible, a clear distinction has been made
between linguistic knowledge and processing skills, in the subsequent
analyses of L2 reading competence.

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052183662X - Insights into Second Language Reading: A Cross-Linguistic Approach
Keiko Koda
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Introduction

11

General organization
This volumes primary objectives are to establish a foundation for
expanding current L2 reading research by reexamining accepted L1
reading concepts from L2 points of view and, in so doing, to uncover
new research agendas particularly relevant to L2 reading development. To achieve these goals, the major component operations in
reading were subjected to sequential analyses, including syntheses of
existing L1 reading literature, summaries of L1 research implications,
explorations of L1 and L2 research integration, and suggestions for
future L2 research agendas. The theoretical underpinnings used in
conceptualizing and analyzing L2 reading competence are described in
Chapter 2. Thereafter, the content is organized, rst, according to processing components, and second, by major research issues.
The six chapters in Part II examine the component competencies
essential to reading comprehension, illustrating within each how text
information is extracted, integrated, and understood. Chapter 3 deals
with word recognition, explaining its function and procedure in the
context of reading. Chapter 4 delineates the symbiotic relationship
between vocabulary and reading comprehension, incorporating an indepth analysis of the nature and acquisition of word-meaning knowledge. Chapter 5 explores the parameters of intraword awareness
and their relation to lexical learning and processing, explaining the
facilitative benets of such awareness in word-knowledge development through reading. Next, the processes involved in intrasentential
information integration are described. Chapter 6 begins with an analysis of the linguistic sensitivity underlying sentence processing and
then progresses to an examination of its relationship to performance
variation. Research on discourse processing how text is progressively reconstructed in the readers mind is summarized in Chapter 7.
The chapter also deals with text coherence building and inference, as
well as the contributions of background knowledge to text comprehension. Chapter 8 claries the impacts of text-structure variables on
discourse processing by reviewing the distinct properties of narrative
and expository texts.
In the interest of a balanced view, Part III presents a holistic portrayal of reading, emphasizing the interconnections of components
described in the previous chapters. Chapter 9 focuses on individual
differences in reading acquisition and performance. Using systematic
comparisons of processing behaviors among good and poor readers,
it considers the cognitive and linguistic requirements for procient
reading as well as their comparative effect on performance variations.
Chapter 10 examines the nature of strategic reading, elaborating on

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