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Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
Lightweight
Concrete
B.Sc. GRADUATION PROJECT
Supervised by
Prof. Dr. Adel Ahmed El Kordy
Dr. Abd El Kader Mohamed Safouh
Project Workgroup
1. Ahmed Mohamed Mahmoud Abd Allah
2. Ahmed Mohamed Reda Abd El Azim Bshr
3. Wael Said Radwan
4. Karim Mohamed Abd El Hafiz
5. Mohamed Amen Amen El Sharkawy
6. Mohamed El Said Saad Azaz
7. Mohamed Ally Abd El Wahab
8. Karim Mansour Farghaly
9. Hassan Hamdy Emam
10. Islam Ahmed Abd El Samie Gafy
11. Amr Mohamed El Kharboutly
12. Moemn Ramadan Mohamed
13. Mohamed Abbas Hafez
14. Ahmed Mohamed El Said Abd El Fattah
15. Mohamed Abou El Abbas Abd El Rady
16. Mohamed Said El Kordy
17. Mohamed Medhat Ally Hassan El Ebyary
18. Hend Ally Yosry Hassan El Salamony
19. Heba Metwaly El Said Metwaly
20. Walla Mustafa El Desoky Mustafa
21. Israa Yousef Aly
22. Ahmed Mohamed Hassan Soliman
23. Rimon Fawzy Aziz
24. Ehab El Dib Salama
25. Gemmy Morris
26. Emad Adel Wassef
27. Ally Fathy Abd El Aal
28. Sherif Abd El Monem El Gendy
Acknowledgments
We all owe so many thanks, first of all to GOD, for blessing all our times and giving us
the patience and enthusiasm to get this project to its final picture. Then, many thanks go
to many people who have really helped us all through the project.
We will mention some, but not all, of those who supported us in our project. Primarily,
we would like to thank Prof. Dr. Adel Ahmed El Kordy and Dr. Abd El Kader Mohamed
Safouh, for his continued support, and unrivaled guidance throughout the project. Many
thanks go to all the material professors for raising our spirits and encouraging us with
our project. We would also like to thank the staff of the materials laboratory who
supplied us with every piece of information they could get their hands on to help us
accomplish our goal.
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE ......................................................................................................... 9
......................................................................................................... 9
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
......................................................................................... 9
2.2.1 Lightweight Aggregate Concrete (LWAC) In Ancient Times ....................................... 9
2.2.2 LWAC in the 19th Century
................................................................................. 11
2.2.3 Production of Leca
.......................................................................................... 13
2.2.4 LWAC In 1950s
............................................................................................. 13
2.3 LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE
........................................................................ 14
2.3.1 Advantages of Light Weight Concretes
................................................................ 14
2.3.2 Disadvantages of Lightweight Concretes .............................................................. 14
2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
............................................................... 14
2.4.1 Low Density Concretes
.................................................................................... 15
2.4.2 Moderate Strength Concretes
............................................................................ 15
2.4.3 Structural Concretes
........................................................................................ 15
2.5 LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATES
...................................................................................... 16
2.5.1 Production Processes of Lightweight Aggregates ................................................... 17
2.5.2 Properties of Lightweight Aggregates
.................................................................. 20
2.6 PECULIARITIES OF LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE MIX PROPORTIONING ................................... 23
2.6.1 Mix Proportioning of No-Fines LWAC
................................................................ 24
2.6.2 The Steps of the Proportioning Procedure ............................................................ 24
2.7 MANUFACTURE OF LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
................................................................ 25
2.7.1 Moisture Content of the Lightweight Aggregate ..................................................... 25
2.7.2 Slump and Air Entrained of the Lightweight Aggregate ........................................... 25
2.7.3 Pumped Concrete and its Design
........................................................................ 25
2.8 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE ...................................... 26
2.8.1 Compressive Strength
...................................................................................... 26
2.8.2 Density
......................................................................................................... 27
2.8.3 Modulus Of Elasticity
...................................................................................... 28
2.8.4 Tensile and Flexural Strength
............................................................................ 30
2.8.5 Effect of Sand Replacement
............................................................................... 31
2.8.6 Elastic Compatibility
....................................................................................... 33
2.8.7 Drying Shrinkage
............................................................................................ 33
2.8.8 Creep
........................................................................................................... 33
2.8.9 Thermal Conductivity
...................................................................................... 34
2.9 DURABILITY
............................................................................................................ 35
2.9.1 Permeability in Lightweight Concrete
................................................................. 35
2.9.2 Fire Resistance
.............................................................................................. 36
2.9.3 Chemical Exposure
......................................................................................... 38
CHAPTER III MATERIALS & EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM ..................................................... 42
....................................................................................................... 42
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 MATERIALS
........................................................................................................... 42
3.2.1 Cement
......................................................................................................... 42
3.2.2 Fine Aggregate
.............................................................................................. 43
3.2.3 Coarse Aggregate
........................................................................................... 46
3.2.4 Silica Fume
................................................................................................... 47
3.2.5 Foam
........................................................................................................... 48
3.2.6 Steel
............................................................................................................. 48
3.2.7 Water
........................................................................................................... 49
3.2.8 Admixture
..................................................................................................... 49
............................................................................................................ 90
REFERENCES
.............................................................................................................. 91
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1
Introduction
Portland cement concrete is presently the most widely used manufactured material. The
future of concrete looks even brighter because for most purposes it offers suitable
engineering properties at low cost. Therefore it is desirable that engineers know more
about concrete and the progress in its technologies than about other building materials.
Based 0n unit weight, concrete can be classified into three categories. Concrete
containing natural sand and gravel or crushed-rock aggregates , generally weighing
about 2400 kg/m3 ,is called normal-weight concrete , and is the most commonly used
concrete for structural purposes. For applications where a higher strength to weight ratio
is desired, it is possible to reduce the unit weight of concrete by using certain natural or
manufactured aggregates having lower density. The term light weight concrete is used
for concrete that weighs less than 1800 kg/m3. On the other hand, heavy weight
concrete is used for radiation shielding; this concrete is produced from high density
aggregates, and generally weighs more than 3200 kg/m3. It is not possible here to list
all concrete types. There are numerous modified concretes such as fiber-reinforced
concrete and latex modified concrete.
Lightweight Aggregate Concrete, LWAC, is not a new invention in concrete technology.
It has been known since ancient times, so it is possible to find a good number of
references in connection with the use of LWAC. It was made using natural aggregates
of volcanic origin such as pumice, scoria, etc. Sumerians used this in building Babylon
in the 3rd millennium B.C. the Greeks and the Romans used pumice in building
construction. Some of these magnificent ancient structures still exist, like St. Sofia
Cathedral or Hagia Sofia, in Istanbul, Turkey, built by two engineers, Isidore of Miletus
and Anthemius of Tralles, commissioned by the Emperor Justinian in the 4th century
A.D., the Roman temple, Pantheon, which was erected in the years A.D. 118 to 128; the
prestigious aqueduct, Pont due Gard, built ca. A.D. 14; and the great Roman
amphitheatre, Colosseum, built between A.D. 70 and 82. In addition to building
constructions, the Romans used natural lightweight aggregates and hollow clay vases
for their Opus Caementitium in order to reduce the weight. This was also used in the
construction of the Pyramids during the Mayan period in Mexico.
Light weight aggregate concrete was founded since the ancient times by using natural
aggregates of volcanic origin, but now there are various kinds of lightweight aggregates
which can be either classified into natural materials and synthetic materials, having high
porosity as common feature, which is the prime reason for their low bulk specific gravity.
Some natural materials are specifically processed to provide concrete aggregates.
Expanded clay, shale, or slates are the most common type of lightweight aggregate
used in structural concrete. The raw material is either crushed to the desire size or
ground, palletized and it is then heated to 1000 to 1200.At these temperatures the
material will bloat. Bloating occurs because of rapid generation of gas within the
particle, which cannot readily escape.
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The production of lightweight aggregate concrete and normal concrete is similar, after
mix design the ingredients should be mixed according to (ASTMC-94)as in the case of
normal weight concrete, but there are some exceptions which have to be taken into
account for lightweight aggregate concrete. From experience, lightweight aggregate is
not difficult to use. Nevertheless, the problem is the great variation in absorption,
specific gravity, moisture content and gradation of aggregates. Uniform results can be
obtained if the unit weight and slump test are performed frequently.
Production Processes of Lightweight Aggregates, the properties of LWAC, the historical
background of LWAC and so many other related subjects are discussed briefly in
chapter 2.
In chapter 3 (Material and Experimental program) we outline the material which we used
in concrete mixes such as; coarse & fine lightweight aggregates (LECA), sand, cement,
silica fume, foam, curing water and admixtures..etc. The properties of these materials
are also discussed and presented in this chapter. The design of lightweight concrete
mixes and the concrete specimen's preparation are also included. It also includes the
tests carried out on both fresh and hardened concrete. The test parameters and the
experimental program are presented in this chapter.
In chapter 4 we will discuss the results of different tests which were carried out during
our study on both fresh and hardened LWAC. From these results we conduct some
relations and equations which helped us to reach our final conclusions, which are
presented in chapter 5.
LITERATURE REVIEW
2 Chapter 2
Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
Lightweight concrete is manufactured on account of its low density or lower unit weight
concrete. Lightweight aggregate (LWA) is not a new invention. It has been known since
ancient times. Nowadays According to the ACI 213 there are three types of lightweight
aggregate concrete are Low density concretes, Moderate strength concretes and
Structural concretes. This chapter discusses the production and properties of LWA.
Lightweight aggregate concretes are of various types, depending upon the composition
of the mortar matrix and the aggregates used. The properties of the aggregates also
vary significantly depending upon the raw materials used for making them and the
technique adopted to produce them. The following Physical properties are reviewed in
this chapter:
Density and Strength
Elasticity
Shrinkage and Creep
Thermal Conductivity
Elastic compatibility
Tensile and Flexural Strength
Durability in concrete is defined as its ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack,
occurrence of extreme temperature or any other process of deterioration , that is
durable concrete will return its original form, quality serviceability when exposed to its
environment.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Figure 2 - 2 St. Sofia Cathedral, Hagia Sofia, commissioned by the Emperor Justinian in
10
LITERATURE REVIEW
Porous clay bricks were produced long before the Christian era, during Indus Valley
civilization ca. 2500 B.C. These were used in the construction of two cities, MohenjoDaro and Harappa (Figure 2 - 5). It is postulated that these porous bricks were crushed
and used as the lightweight aggregates in the masonry. Although the origin of the
LWAC is difficult to assess, it would not be an exaggeration to say that its roots are from
the ancient period.
11
LITERATURE REVIEW
12
LITERATURE REVIEW
LITERATURE REVIEW
14
LITERATURE REVIEW
Figure 2 - 7
15
LITERATURE REVIEW
Volcanic Origin. When lava from a volcano cools down, it produces a spongy wellsintered mass. Since there is an abrupt cooling of the molten mass, the material
freezes. With a sudden cooling of the molten magma, there is no crystallization, and
the material acquires a glassy structure, a process similar to the production of the
glass known as obsidian. It can be called a super cooled liquid, which has no
crystalline phase. It is highly amorphous and has a glassy structure. Lava is a boiling
melt which may contain air and gases, and when it cools down, it freezes to a
spongy porous mass. In other words, it produces lightweight material that is porous
and reactive. This type of material is known as volcanic aggregates, or pumice or
scoria aggregates. The aggregates are produced by mechanical handling of lava,
i.e., crushing, sieving, and grinding.
Organic Aggregates; Palm Oil Shells. The use of agricultural waste as aggregates
for the production of building materials has several practical and economical
advantages. The palm oil industry which is important in many countries, such as
Malaysia, Indonesia, and Nigeria, produces a large amount of waste which can be
utilized in the production of building materials. Palm oil shells are produced in large
quantities by the oil mills and can be used as aggregates in the production of
lightweight concrete. The palm oil shells are hard and are received as crushed
pieces as a result of the process used to release the oil. Palm oil shells have a bulk
density of 620 kg/m 3 and a specific gravity of 1.25. Though still not in commercial
production of LWAC, these are used locally.
There are two big advantages:
1. At present they have no commercial value.
2. Being locally available, the transport cost is nominal.
2. Synthetic Aggregates
Synthetic aggregates are produced by thermal treatment of the materials which have
expansive properties. These materials can be divided in three groups
1. Natural materials, such as Perlite, vermiculite, clay, shale, and slate.
2. Industrial products, such as glass.
3. Industrial by-products, like fly ash, expanded slag cinder, bed ash, etc.
The most common types of lightweight aggregates produced from expansive clays are
known as Leca and Liapor. Those made from fly ash are known as Lytag, etc.
16
LITERATURE REVIEW
17
LITERATURE REVIEW
18
LITERATURE REVIEW
19
LITERATURE REVIEW
Bulk
Specific
Unit Weight
kg/m^3
Water
Absorption by
Weight %
Pumice
1.25 - 1.65
480 - 880
20 30
Foamed Blast
Slag
1.15 - 2.2
400 - 1200
8 - 15
Expanded Perlite
0.7 - 1.05
~ 160
10 - 30
Expanded
Vermiculite
0.85 - 1.05
~ 160
10 - 30
Expanded Clay
1.1 - 2.1
560 - 960
2 - 15
~ 1.7
590 - 770
14 - 24
Saw Dust
0.35 - 0.6
128 - 320
10 - 35
Polystyrene
Foam
0.05
10 - 20
~ 50
20
LITERATURE REVIEW
Figure 2 - 10
21
LITERATURE REVIEW
Aggregate lexperimental product made from shale expanded in a rotary kiln. The raw
material is crushed and screened to four sizes and these are bloated in the kiln
separately. Particles are rounded, have a relatively smooth and impervious shell. Part of
the material passing the No. 50 sieve is obtained by crushing.
Aggregate 2expanded shale produced in a rotary kiln. The raw material is screened
only for maximum size prior to bloating. The coarser sizes are rounded and have a
smooth shell similar to Aggregate 1. The fine material, passing the No. 4 sieve, is
obtained by crushing the coarser material.
Aggregate 3expanded shale similar to Aggregate 1 in appearance and in method of
manufacture. The raw material is crushed and screened to four sizes. These individual
fractions are passed through separate kilns. All particles are rounded and have a
smooth shell down to and including material retained on the No. 100 sieve.
Aggregate 4expanded clay produced in a rotary kiln. The raw material is passed
through a l-in. screen and into the kiln. Most of the bloated material from the kiln does
not require crushing except to produce additional material passing the No. 50 sieve. The
bloated material is very fine grained, but the individual particles are not rounded and
they do not have a shell.
Aggregate 5expanded slate produced in a rotary kiln. The coarser particles are
angular and porous, but are not as sharp as Aggregates 6 and 7. Material passing the
No. 4 sieve is obtained by crushing.
Aggregate 6expanded slag produced by spraying a controlled amount of water on
molten slag. Most of the sizes are obtained by crushing; all particles are very angular
and have a porous surface texture.
Aggregate 7produced by burning on a sintering grate, carbonaceous shale formed
from anthracite coal processing. All sizes of aggregate are obtained by crushing.
Individual particles are very sharp and angular, have a porous surface texture.
Aggregate 8Elgin sand and gravel, a natural uncrushed material. The gravel is wellrounded, and is about half calcareous and half siliceous material. The sand is
predominately quartz. The aggregate has a good service record in northern Illinois.
Aggregate 9an experimental product made from shale expanded in a rotary kiln. The
material was separated into several size fractions prior to bloating and the finished
product is generally rounded and scaled. This aggregate was used only in the highstrength concrete program.
22
LITERATURE REVIEW
23
LITERATURE REVIEW
Preliminary Mix: The amounts of the concrete ingredients are summarized and
specified in weight as well as in volume for 1 m 3 of compacted concrete. It is
preferable to add lightweight aggregates to the mixer by bulk volumes instead of by
weight in case the density varies.
Trial Mix: The first mix of a new composition is a trial mix and the fresh density and
consistency is tested. If the density differs too much from the calculated value, the
composition is checked to see if there is any reason for the divergence in the
calculation or properties of the ingredients. After that, it might be necessary to revise
the composition of the concrete. Normally, the water absorption of the lightweight
aggregate may cause a divergence of the density and the consistency. Too stiff a
concrete mix needs a suitable plasticizer. More trial mixes are done until fresh
concrete with the required properties is obtained. The preliminary testing procedure
is followed by production of cylinders or cubes as specimens for testing, mainly for
density and compressive strength after hardening.
Final Mix: The density and the compressive strength are tested at 28 days
according to the existing standards. After testing, the specimens are dried to
equilibrium in weight at 105C, and the oven-dry density is calculated and noted, as
well as the density of the fresh concrete and the density after storage.
24
LITERATURE REVIEW
25
LITERATURE REVIEW
Figure 2 - 11 Relationship
The shape of lightweight aggregate affect the stress concentration in the loaded
concrete and this probably account for the difference in compressive between the
concrete made with different aggregate particles shapes.
Zhang and Gjorv found that compressive strength of lightweight aggregate concrete
was not much affect neither by increasing of Cement content, by replacing Cement by
Silica Fume, nor by using natural sand as partial replacement of the lightweight sand.
The results clearly demonstrated that it is the type of lightweight aggregate which is the
primary factor controlling the compressive strength.
26
LITERATURE REVIEW
Most of the concrete mixes essentially stopped gaining strength between ages of 7 and
28 days. This indicates that the compressive strength had probably reached an upper
level for the aggregate and the strength does not benefit very much from a further
improvement of the matrix strength. After 28 days, the concrete fracture generally went
through the aggregate.
The compressive strength of normal weight concrete is generally proportional to the
matrix strength, whereas lightweight aggregate concrete shows a different behavior. It is
not possible to give a general ratio between the compressive strength and matrix
development because lightweight aggregate physical properties vary.
2.8.2 Density
The dry density of compacted concrete made with different aggregates varies from
about (800~2100) kg/cm3 for cube strength ranging from about (70~500) kg/cm2.
The density of the concrete is mainly governed by the particle density of the aggregate
mixture. For many types of aggregates, the particle density decreases with increasing
particle diameter. Also, grading richer in fines or smaller in maximum diameter leads to
greater concrete density and usually higher strength. A relationship between density
and cube compressive strength of lightweight concrete at 28 days, depends on the
particular aggregate used and the amount of normal weight sand as shown in (
Figure2-12) also (Figure 2-13) shows that 28 days compressive strength with
increasing the fresh concrete density.
]
27
LITERATURE REVIEW
For concrete made with a high-density aggregate the upper level of strength was
reached after 28 days, while for concrete made with low-density aggregate the upper
level of the strength was reached at an earlier age due to using weaker aggregate.
28
LITERATURE REVIEW
Figure 2-14
Figure 2-15
29
LITERATURE REVIEW
Figure 2-16
Figure 2-17
Figure 2-18
30
LITERATURE REVIEW
Total water requirement decreased with increasing of natural sand content for
complete replacement this decrease ranged from 12 to 24 present compared
with an all lightweight aggregate mix.
The unit weight of concrete increased with increasing sand replacement. For
complete sand replacement the unit weight of the sanded concrete increasing by
factors of 10 to 20 percent above the corresponding all lightweight aggregate
concrete.
Compressive strength and bond strength increased with partial replacement of
lightweight fine aggregates with natural sand
Concrete with total sand replacement has a higher modulus of elasticity than all
lightweight aggregate concrete by 10 to 30 percent, depending on the aggregate
used and the strength level of the mix
(Figure 2-19) show the effect of sand replacement on the splitting tensile strength ,
31
LITERATURE REVIEW
Figure 2-19
32
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.8.8 Creep
Generally higher creep strains are produced in lightweight aggregate concrete than in
normal weight concrete due to lower E-value of aggregate. The basic creep of
lightweight aggregate concrete is approximately 15% higher than the normal weight
concrete.
33
LITERATURE REVIEW
34
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.9 Durability
Durability in concrete is defined as its ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack,
occurrence of extreme temperature or any other process of deterioration , that is
durable concrete will return its original form, quality serviceability when exposed to its
environment.
Lightweight concrete
relatively low
Stiffness of
Aggregates
Micro
cracks
Frequency
Infiltration
of Water
Size of
Aggregates
Water
Cement
ratio
permeability increase by
increasing water cement ratio
permeability increase by
increasing water cement ratio
N.B:- Lightweight aggregate concrete is not necessarily more permeable than normal
weight concrete since porous lightweight aggregate are surrounded by a matrix which is
less cracked owing to: Low stiffness of the aggregate particle
excellent aggregate Matrix bond
increase hydration of cement
fewer heat of hydration effect
Aggregate type
Leca
Lytag
Liapor
Granite
35
LITERATURE REVIEW
The test specimens were cured under laboratory conditions, i.e., 40% RH and 20C. A
gas-oil fired furnace with an opening of 2.5 0.3 m2 was used for heating the test
specimens. The tests were performed by one-side and two-side heating. The position of
the test samples in the furnace is shown in (Figure 2-21) and the results are shown in
Figs. 9.6 thru 9.10. The test results revealed that thin plates of normal concrete and
LWAC do not show any spalling when heated from one side
Figure 2-21 Position of the samples in the furnace (a) one-side exposure, (b) two sides
exposure.
Heating the normal concrete plates (Figure 2-22) from two sides resulted in destructive
spalling at about 125175C. In the concretes made with the polymer addition, no
spalling was observed when heated from both sides, even after 30 minutes. Tests
performed on the 5 cm slabs and the LWAC reinforced beam (b h = 0.15 0.3 m 3 )
did not show any damage for 1 hour after heating when the temperature in the middle of
the specimens observed was 850C (Figure 2-23 & Figure 2-24).
36
LITERATURE REVIEW
curves for (a) one and (b), (c), (d) two-side heated plate(2.5 cm
in thickness) of normal concrete, (b) and (c) show the temperature at which normal
concrete specimens made without a polymer have shown destructive spalling, whereas
(d) made with a polymer has shown no spalling.
Figure 2-23 Temperature curves for two-side fire exposure of the LWAC slab (thickness
50 mm)
37
LITERATURE REVIEW
.
Figure 2-24
Temperature curves for two-side fire exposure of the reinforced LWAC beam
(thickness 150 mm).
Acid Resistance
Carbonation and Corrosion
Chloride Ion Penetration
Sulphate resistance
Sea Water Attack
LITERATURE REVIEW
Microscopic appearance
An acid attack is diagnosed primarily by two main features:
1. Absence of calcium hydroxide in the cement paste
2. Surface dissolution of cement paste exposing aggregates
2.9.3.2 Carbonation and Corrosion
Carbonation occurs in concrete because the calcium bearing phases present are
attacked by carbon dioxide of the air and converted to calcium carbonate. Cement paste
contains 25-50 wt% calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), which mean that the pH of the fresh
cement paste is at least 12.5. The pH of a fully carbonated paste is about 7. The
concrete will carbonate if CO2 from air or from water enters the concrete according to:
Ca(OH)2 + CO 2 CaCO3 + H 2 O
When Ca(OH)2 is removed from the paste hydrated CSH will liberate CaO which will
also carbonate. The rate of carbonation depends on porosity & moisture content of the
concrete. The carbonation process requires the presence of water because CO2
dissolves in water forming H2CO3. If the concrete is too dry (RH <40%) CO2 cannot
dissolve and no carbonation occurs. If on the other hand it is too wet (RH >90%) CO2
cannot enter the concrete and the concrete will not carbonate. Optimal conditions for
carbonation occur at a RH of 50% (range 40-90%).
Normal carbonation results in a decrease of the porosity making the carbonated paste
stronger. Carbonation is therefore an advantage in non-reinforced concrete. However, it
is a disadvantage in reinforced concrete, as pH of carbonated concrete drops to about
7; a value below the passivation threshold of steel.
Carbonation may be recognized in the field by the presence of a discoloured zone in the
surface of the concrete. The colour may vary from light Gray and difficult to recognize to
strong orange and easy to recognize. Carbonation can be visualized by using
phenolphthalein. (Figure 2-25)
Figure 2-25
39
LITERATURE REVIEW
Occasionally concrete may suffer from the so called bi-carbonation process. Bicarbonation may occur in concrete with very high water to cement ratio due to formation
of hydrogen carbonate ions at pH lower than 10. Contrary to normal carbonation, bicarbonation results in an increase in porosity making the concrete soft and friable. Bicarbonation may be recognized by the presence of large "pop-corn" like calcite crystals
and the highly porous paste
2.9.3.3 Chloride Ion Penetration
Chloride ions penetrate concrete and react with calcium hydroxide and calcium
aluminates. With calcium hydroxide, the reaction forms calcium chloride which being
soluble in water. With calcium aluminates, it forms the expansive double salt
C3A.CaCl2.H2O if the concentration of CaCl2 is higher than the surroundings. It leads to
microcrack formation making easy penetration of chloride ions. The chloride penetration
is fast in the beginning, later it slows down.
In the presence of chloride, a basic iron chloride is formed, 3Fe (OH) 2 FeCl2, which
later decomposes and forms FeOH (akaganite). Leaching of salt increases the porosity
and permeability of concrete and weakens the bond between the aggregate and the
cement paste. Consequently, the strength of concrete decreases. An increase in
porosity and permeability accelerates the anodic and cathodic reactions. Excluding all
other factors, chloride alone is not sufficient to initiate steel corrosion.
Due to these reactions, Ca(OH)2 is removed from the vicinity of the reinforcing steel, pH
falls below 11, hydroxide protective films are destroyed, and the anodic process
progresses.
2.9.3.4 Sulphate Resistance
External sulfate attack is a chemical breakdown mechanism where sulfate ions from an
external source attack components of the cement paste. Such attack can occur when
concrete is in contact with sulfate containing water e.g. seawater, swamp water, ground
water or sewage water. The often massive formation of gypsum and ettringite formed
during the external sulfate attack may cause concrete to crack and scale. However,
both laboratory studies and examinations of field concrete show that external sulfate
attack is often manifested, not by expansion or cracking, but by loss of cohesion and
strength.
Microscopic appearance
The microscopic appearance of concrete suffering from external sulfate attack appears
to be quite variable. Some diagnostic features such as
Surface parallel cracks
Presence of gypsum and ettringite
Depletion of calcium hydroxide, and
Decalcification of C-S-H
Are, however, often found associated with external sulfate attack.
40
LITERATURE REVIEW
The above-mentioned features are usually most pronounced near the attacked surface.
Sometimes external sulfate attack causes the paste to expand and gaps around
aggregates are formed. All the features do not necessarily have to be observed to
diagnose an external sulfate attack. The features present depend on many factors such
as the quality of the concrete (including w/c and cement type), exposure time,
temperature, concentration, and chemistry of the ambient water.
There is a general agreement that concrete suffering from external sulfate attack
develops a more and less pronounced mineralogical and chemical zoning which can be
studied in the optical fluorescence microscope and the scanning electron microscope.
ASTM C856 recommends chemical analysis to verify that the sulfate content of the
concrete has been increased over that expected from the concrete constituents in order
to diagnose external sulfate attack.
41
3 Chapter III
Material & Experimental Program
3.1 Introduction
This chapter outlines the properties of material in concrete mixes such as; coarse & fine
lightweight aggregates (LECA), sand, cement, silica fume, foam, mixing, curing water
and admixtures..etc. The design of lightweight concrete mixes and the concrete
specimen's preparation are also included. It also includes the tests carried out on both
fresh and hardened concrete. The test parameters and the experimental program are
presented in this chapter.
3.2 Materials
The properties of different materials used in this study are applied as following:
3.2.1 Cement
One type of cement was used in this study the Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). The
properties of the used cement are given in table (3.1).
Table (3.1) Properties of OPC
OPC
Type of test
Test Results
ESS Limits
No. 373-91
Initial
2 hr 15 min
Final
3 hr 40 min
Less than 10 hr
3-Days
236
> 180
7-Days
317
> 270
Fineness Modulus %
( Retaining on sieve No 170 )
4%
< 10 %
Soundness (mm)
1.5
< 10
Setting time
hr min
Mortar
compressive strength
(Kg / Cm)
42
Property
Test Results
Compacted
0.71
Loose
0.66
Unit Weight ( t / m )
1.0
25 %
Fineness Modulus %
4.452
Sieve No.
% age of passing
100 %
100 %
100 %
99.66 %
46.3 %
16
6.9 %
30
1.43 %
50
0.41 %
100
0.07 %
43
% age of passing
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Log D
0.1
10
Figure 3 - 1
Property
Test Results
Compacted
1.793
Loose
1.66
Unit Weight ( t / m )
2.6
Fineness Modulus %
2.72
44
Sieve No.
% age of passing
Minimum
100 %
100
100
100 %
100
100
100 %
100
100
97.96 %
100
89
92.67 %
100
60
16
79.43 %
90
30
30
47.74 %
45
15
50
9.17 %
40
100
1.02 %
15
% age of passing
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Log D
0.1
10
Figure 3-2
45
Property
Test Results
Compacted
0.376
Loose
0.36
Unit Weight ( t / m )
0.714
25 %
Sieve No.
% age of passing
100 %
96.65 %
92.2 %
14.06 %
0%
16
0%
30
0%
50
0%
100
0%
46
% age of passing
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Log D
0
0.1
10
100
Figure 3 - 1
constituent
SiO2
Fe2O3
Al2O3
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
percent
96
0.7
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.7
47
3.2.5 Foam
Foam is a by product of the petroleum industry. We used it as one of the component of
the last mix in our study. We used it as replacement of 10, 20, 30 and 40 % of the mix
volume. Some physical and mechanical properties of the polystyrene foam which were
obtained from the data sheet are presented in table (3.9).
Table (3.9) The Physical And Mechanical Properties Of The Polystyrene Foam (Data Sheet)
Property
Test method
Test results
DIN 53420
36
Compressive strength at 10
% compression (Kpa)
DIN 53421
240 -- 305
DIN 53423
490 -- 590
DIN 18164
450 -- 600
DIN 53427
220 -- 250
DIN 53428
1.15 1.35 %
3.2.6 Steel
High steel grade 400/600 having diameter of 16 mm was used in this study for the bond
strength test. Some of the steel bars tests results are shown in table (3.10)
Table (3.10) The Physical And Mechanical Properties Of The Steel Bars Used In The Study
Bar
no.
Diameter
(mm)
Area
(mm2)
Yield load
(Kg)
Yield stress
(Kg/cm2)
Ultimate load
(kg)
Ultimate stress
(kg/m2)
W
(kg/m)
15.89
198.2
9800
49.44
14650
73.9
1.556
15.897
198.5
9850
49.6
14500
73
1.558
48
3.2.7 Water
Tap water was used in all concrete mixtures and in the curing of all tests specimens.
3.2.8 Admixture
Superplasticizer Type F has been used in all concrete mixes in constant dosage of 1.25
% of the cement weight. This type of admixture was mainly used to achieve water
reducing, increasing the strength for the recommended slump. This type is known as
"sikament 163M" delivered from a local company. Some technical data for the "sikament
163M" are shown in table (3.11).
Table (3.11) The technical data for the "Sikament 163M" (data sheet)
Type
Color
Brown
Dosage
Specific gravity
1.2 (kg/liter)
PH value
81
49
C + C.L + F.L + S + W + A =
Where:
C = wt. of cement
C.L = wt. of coarse leca
F.L = wt. of fine leca
S = wt. of sand
W = wt. of water
A = wt of adm.
= unit weight
For example
Given that:
Cement content = 400
Coarse leca = 350
kg
kg
2. Volumetric method
C
S
W
+
+
+ Foam = 1.0
G.c G.s G.w
Where:
C = wt. of cement
W = wt. of water
G.c = 3.15
And
S = wt. of sand
F = Foam = volume of foam in the content
G.s = 2.55
G.w = 1
C : W : S = 1 : 0.4 : 3
For Example:
Given:
Foam=0.3m3
Sol:
C
3C
0.4C
+
+
+ 0.3 = 1
3.15 2.55
1
C = 0.369
S = 1.1018
W = 0.148
Wt. of foam = f*vol of foam
wt. (foam) = 0.0138 ton
and
= 0.046
t/m3
Tables (3.12), (3.13) and (3.14) present the contents of the mix for volumes 1 m3, 0.015 m3 and 0.054 m3
For volume = 1 m3 The contents Table (3.12)
C (kg)
S (kg)
W (lit)
F (kg)
Adm. (lit.)
369
1101.8
148
13.8
The theoretical unit weight is 1.63 t/m3 the experimental unit weight was found 1.54 t/m3
For volume = 0.015 m3 (the trial mix) The contents Table (3.13)
C (kg)
S (kg)
W (lit)
F (kg)
Adm. (lit.)
5.535
15.27
2.22
0.207
0.03
3.3.2
S (kg)
56.19
W (lit)
7.49
F (kg)
.745
Adm. (lit.)
0.108
Mix Proportion
Tables (3.15), (3.16), (3.17) and (3.18) present the mix proportion for the four groups.
This mix proportions are for one cubic miter of concrete
51
Group 1
mix
cement
silica fume
coarse leca
water
fine leca
sand
adm.
foam
unit wt.
300
350
125
221.25
3.75
300
350
150
331.2
82.8
1.22
300
350
130
237.7
158.5
3.75
1.2
300
350
130
182.5
273.25
3.75
1.24
300
350
130
107.25
429
3.75
1.32
300
350
130
666.25
3.75
1.45
255
45
350
130
219.75
146.5
3.75
1.29
255
45
350
150
676.25
3.75
1.48
422
170
1270
10
1.87
Group 2
mix
Cement
(kg)
silica fume
(kg)
coarse leca
(kg)
Sand
(kg)
adm. Foam
(liter) (kg)
Unit wt.
(kg/m3)
350
280
160
303
1.15
350
280
160
242.2
60.6
1.12
350
280
145
270.4
180.25
4.37
1.19
350
280
145
220
331
4.37
1.39
350
280
145
130
521
4.37
1.5
350
280
145
751
4.37
1.63
350
52.51
280
145
335.3
180.25
4.37
1.56
350
52.51
280
145
751
4.37
1.61
350
126
347
18.4
1.72
52
Group 3
mix
Cement
(kg)
silica fume
(kg)
coarse leca
(kg)
Unit wt.
(kg/m3)
400
350
140
262
1.16
400
350
140
281.6
70.4
1.25
400
350
130
249
166
1.3
400
350
130
145
251
1.37
400
350
130
123
492
1.5
400
350
135
735
1.625
340
60
350
130
249
166
1.3
340
60
350
150
670
1.575
400
160
1200
40
1.63
Group 4
mix
Cement
(kg)
silica fume
(kg)
coarse leca
(kg)
Sand
(kg)
adm. Foam
(liter) (kg)
unit wt.
(kg/m3)
450
347.2
145
216.13
1.16
450
347.2
155
247
49.8
1.26
450
347.2
155
272.3
146.4
5.63
1.37
450
347.2
160
250.2
302.6
5.63
1.52
450
347.2
160
137.47
443.5
5.63
1.54
450
347.2
163.3
751.8
5.63
1.72
382.5
67.5
347.2
155
272.3
146.4
5.63
1.37
382.5
67.5
347.2
165
712.2
5.63
1.67
371.9
148.7
1115.7
4.65
15
1.65
53
Test name
Reference code
Slump test
Compaction
Factor
Unit weight
Test name
Specimen
shape
Reference code
Dimensions (cm)
Compressive strength
Cube
10x10x10
Cylinder
Flexural strength
Beam
Modulus of elasticity
Cylinder
D=15
L=15
7.5x7.5x30
D=15
L=15
3.5 Mixing
Mixing of concrete ingredients was done with reference to ESS 1658 Part 4-5 using a
mixer that pours concrete by moving around a horizontal axis its capacity is 0.06 cubic
meter. The cement, water saturated coarse and fine aggregate were added into the
mixer and mixed till the uniformity of the mixtures, then the mixing water which was
pre-mixed with the admixture is added to the mixer then the mixing was continued until
the mix is uniform.
54
Lightweight
Concrete
Group 1 cement
content= 300
Group 2 cement
content= 350
Group 1 cement
content= 400
Group 1 cement
content= 450
Mixes
0% Sand
20 % Sand
40 % Sand
60 % Sand
80 % Sand
100 % Sand
100 % Fine
Leca
80 % Fine
Leca
60 % Fine
Leca
40 % Fine
Leca
20 % Fine
Leca
20 % Fine
Leca
Foam
15% Silica
Fume
Replacement
100%
Cement
100%
Cement
15% Silica
Fume
Replacement
Tests
Compressive
strength
7 days
Indirect
tensile
strength
Bond
strength
Bending
strength
Modulus of
elasticity
Thermal
properties
Shrinkage
28 days
55
Chapter IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter we will discuss the results of different tests which were carried out during
our study on both fresh and hardened LWAC. From these results we conduct some
relations and equations which helped us to reach our final conclusion.
1.6
1.5
C = 400
C = 350
C = 450
C = 300
Expon. (C = 450)
Expon. (C = 400)
Expon. (C = 350)
Expon. (C = 300)
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0
20
40
60
80
100
Sand %
Figure (4.1)
56
Slump (cm)
14
12
C = 400
Linear (C = 400)
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Sand %
Figure (4.2)
57
140
120
C = 400
100
Linear (C = 400)
80
60
40
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
Figure (4.3)
Figure (4.4) shows the relation between the 28-days hardened unit weight and sand
replacement for cement content = 400.It shows that the hardened unit weight increases
as the replacement percentage of fines with sand increases.
Relation between hardened unit weight & sand %
2
1.75
C = 400
Expon. (C = 400)
1.5
1.25
1
0
20
40
60
80
100
Sand %
Figure (4.4)
58
160
140
C = 400
C = 450
C = 350
C = 300
Expon. (C = 450)
Expon. (C = 400)
Expon. (C = 300)
Expon. (C = 350)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Sand%
Figure (4.5)
59
180
160
140
2)
cm
120
C = 400
/kg
(Days
100
C = 350
C = 300
C = 450
Expon . ( C = 300 )
28
Fcu
80
Expon . ( C = 450 )
Expon . ( C = 400 )
Expon . ( C = 350 )
60
40
20
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Sand%
Figure (4.6)
Relation between Fcu 28 days & Fcu 7days
140
100
80
C = 300
Linear (C = 300)
60
40
20
0
15
25
35
45
55
65
75
85
95
105
115
Figure (4.7.a)
60
100
80
C = 350
Linear (C = 350)
60
40
20
0
15
35
55
75
95
115
135
155
Figure (4.7.b)
Relation between Fcu 28days & Fcu 7days
120
Fcu
100
Fcu 7 Days
80
C = 400
Linear (C = 400)
60
40
20
0
55
65
75
85
95
105
115
Fcu 28 Days
Figure (4.7.c)
61
160
140
C = 450
Linear (C = 450)
120
100
80
60
55
75
95
115
135
155
175
Figure (4.7.d)
62
Ft (kg/cm2)
20
C = 400
C = 450
C = 350
C = 300
Expon. (C = 400)
Expon. (C = 450)
Expon. (C = 350)
Expon. (C = 300)
15
10
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Sand %
Figure (4.8)
63
(kg/cm )
10
Ft
C = 300
Linear (C = 300)
0
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
Fcu (kg/cm )
Figure (4.9.a)
(kg/cm )
C = 350
Linear (C = 350)
Ft
10
5
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
Fcu (kg/cm )
Figure (4.9.b)
64
(kg/cm )
20
Ft
C = 400
Linear (C = 400)
15
10
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
Fcu (kg/cm )
Figure (4.9.c)
(kg/cm )
20
C = 450
Linear (C = 450)
Ft
15
10
5
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
Fcu (kg/cm )
Figure (4.9.d)
65
50
40
C = 400
2)
C = 350
cm
/kg
(Fb
C = 450
C = 300
30
Expon . ( C = 450 )
Expon . ( C = 400 )
Expon . ( C = 300 )
Expon . ( C = 350 )
20
10
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Sand %
Figure (4.10)
66
(kg/cm 2)
25
Fb
C = 300
Linear (C = 300)
20
15
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
Fcu (kg/cm 2)
Figure (4.11.a)
67
(kg/cm )
30
C = 350
Linear (C = 350)
Fb
25
20
15
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
Fcu (kg/cm 2)
Figure (4.11.b)
(kg/cm )
30
C = 400
Linear (C = 400)
Fb
25
20
15
10
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
Fcu (kg/cm )
Figure (4.11.c)
68
C = 450
Linear (C = 450)
25
Fb
(kg/cm 2)
30
20
15
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
Fcu (kg/cm 2)
Figure (4.11.d)
69
70
Fbond (kg/cm )
60
C = 400
C = 350
C = 300
C = 450
Expon. (C
Expon. (C
Expon. (C
Expon. (C
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Sand %
Figure (4.12)
Fbond (kg/cm2)
25
C = 300
Linear (C = 300)
20
15
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Fcu (kg/cm )
Figure (4.13.a)
70
=
=
=
=
400)
450)
300)
350)
Fbond (kg/cm )
45
40
C = 350
Linear (C = 350)
35
30
25
20
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Fcu (kg/cm )
Figure (4.13.b)
Fbond (kg/cm )
65
60
C = 400
Linear (C = 400)
55
50
45
40
35
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
Fcu (kg/cm )
Figure (4.13.c)
71
Fbond (kg/cm 2)
55
50
C = 450
Linear (C = 450)
45
40
35
30
50
70
90
110
130
150
170
190
Fcu (kg/cm 2)
Figure (4.13.d)
72
0.035
Stress (t/cm2)
0.03
0.025
0.02
C = 400
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0
0.0005
0.001
0.0015
0.002
0.0025
0.003
0.0035
0.004
Strain
Figure (4.14.a)
0.03
Stress (t/cm )
0.035
0.025
C = 400
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0
0.0005
0.001
0.0015
0.002
0.0025
0.003
0.0035
0.004
0.0045
Strain
Figure (4.14.b)
73
0.03
Stress (t/cm )
0.025
0.02
C = 400
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0
0.0002
0.0004
0.0006
0.0008
0.001
0.0012
0.0014
0.0016
0.0018
Strain
Figure (4.14.c)
Stress (t/cm )
0.035
0.03
0.025
C = 400
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0
0.0005
0.001
0.0015
0.002
0.0025
0.003
0.0035
Strain
Figure (4.14.d)
74
Stress (t/cm )
0.035
0.03
0.025
C = 400
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0
0.0005
0.001
0.0015
0.002
0.0025
0.003
0.0035
Strain
Figure (4.14.e)
Stress (t/cm )
0.035
0.03
0.025
C = 400
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0
0.0005
0.001
0.0015
0.002
0.0025
Strain
Figure (4.14.f)
75
Stress (t/cm 2 )
0.035
0.03
0.025
C = 400
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0
0.0005
0.001
0.0015
0.002
0.0025
0.003
0.0035
Strain
Figure (4.14.g)
76
0.03
Stress (t/cm )
0.035
0.025
C = 400
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0
0.0002
0.0004
0.0006
0.0008
0.001
0.0012
0.0014
0.0016
Strain
Figure (4.14.h)
Stress (t/cm 2 )
0.05
0.04
0.03
C = 400
0.02
0.01
0
0
0.0002
0.0004
0.0006
0.0008
0.001
0.0012
0.0014
0.0016
0.0018
0.002
Strain
Figure (4.14.i)
77
E (t/cm )
19
C= 400
18
17
16
15
14
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Sand %
Figure (4.15)
E (t/cm 2 )
20
C = 400
Linear (C = 400)
15
10
60
80
100
120
140
160
Fcu (kg/cm2)
Figure (4.16)
78
0.00035
3 days
Shrinkage
0.0003
7 days
14 days
28 days
Linear (28 days)
0.00025
0.0002
Linear (3 days)
0.00015
0.0001
0
20
40
60
80
100
Sand %
Figure (4.17)
79
Shrinkage
0.0003
0.00025
0.0002
0 % sand
0.00015
0.0001
0.00005
0
0
10
15
Time
20
25
30
(day)
Figure (4.18.a)
Shrinkage
0.0003
0.00025
0.0002
20 % sand
0.00015
0.0001
0.00005
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Time (day)
Figure (4.18.b)
80
Shrinkage
0.00025
0.0002
40 % sand
0.00015
0.0001
0.00005
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Time (day)
Figure (4.18.c)
Shrinkage
0.00025
0.0002
60 % sand
0.00015
0.0001
0.00005
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Time (day)
Figure (4.18.d)
81
Shrinkage
0.00025
0.0002
80 % sand
0.00015
0.0001
0.00005
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Time (day)
Figure (4.18.e)
Shrinkage
0.00025
0.0002
100 % sand
0.00015
0.0001
0.00005
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Time (day)
Figure (4.18.f)
82
0.00025
Shrinkage
0.0002
40 % sand
15 % silica
0.00015
0.0001
0.00005
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Time (day)
Figure (4.18.g)
0.00025
Shrinkage
0.0002
100 % sand
15 % silica
0.00015
0.0001
0.00005
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Time (day)
Figure (4.18.h)
83
84
Fcu (kg/cm2)
100
80
40 % Sand +
15 % Silica
60
100 % Sand +
15 % Silica
40
20
0
300
350
400
450
Figure (4.19.a)
Fcu 7 (kg/cm 2)
110
40 % Sand +
15 % Silica
100
100 % Sand +
15 % Silica
90
80
Linear (100 %
Sand + 15 %
Silica)
70
Linear (40 %
Sand + 15 %
Silica)
60
300
350
400
450
Figure (4.19.b)
85
Fcu (kg/cm 2)
120
100
40 % Sand +
15 % Silica
80
100 % Sand +
15 % Silica
60
40
20
0
300
350
400
450
Figure (4.20.a)
Fcu28 (kg/cm2)
130
120
100 % Sand +
15 % Silica
110
100
Linear (100 %
Sand + 15 %
Silica)
90
Linear (40 %
Sand + 15 %
Silica)
80
70
60
300
350
400
450
Figure (4.20.b)
86
Fb (kg/cm 2)
30
40 % Sand +
15 % Silica
25
20
100 % Sand +
15 % Silica
15
10
5
0
300
350
400
450
Figure (4.21.a)
Fb (kg/cm2)
40
35
40 % Sand +
15 % Silica
30
100 % Sand +
15 % Silica
25
Linear (100 %
Sand + 15 %
Silica)
20
Linear (40 %
Sand + 15 %
Silica)
15
300
350
400
450
Figure (4.21.b)
87
Fbond (kg/cm2)
50
40
40 % Sand +
15 % Silica
30
100 % Sand +
15 % Silica
20
10
0
300
350
400
450
Figure (4.22.a)
Fbond (kg/cm 2)
50
100 % Sand +
15 % Silica
45
40
Linear (100 %
Sand + 15 %
Silica)
35
30
Linear (40 %
Sand + 15 %
Silica)
25
20
300
350
400
450
Figure (4.22.b)
88
Ft (kg/cm 2 )
20
40 % Sand +
15 % Silica
15
100 % Sand +
15 % Silica
10
0
300
350
400
450
Figure (4.23.a)
21
Ft (kg/cm2)
19
100 % Sand +
15 % Silica
17
15
Linear (100 %
Sand + 15 %
Silica)
13
11
Linear (40 %
Sand + 15 %
Silica)
9
7
5
300
350
400
450
Figure (4.23.b)
89
CONCLUSION
5 Chapter five
Conclusions
We have found some results &conclusions regarding all the experimental work done, as
an example:
The fresh unit weight of light weight concrete is ranged between (1.15 to 1.75).
the fresh unit weight increases with the increase of the sand replacement percentage
and with increase of cement content
The slump value for the different concrete mixes has an average of 12 cm. This was
achieved by adding the 1.25%-2.00% dosage of the super plasticizer.
The compressive strength increases as the unit weight increases. Results indicates
that the hardened unit weight for LWAC is ranged between (1.15 to 1.75 t/m3), and 28days compressive strength ranges from (55 to 170 kg/cm2).
The increase of sand replacement increases the cube compressive strength. This is
due to a good quality of concrete.
The splitting tensile, bond, flexural strength increases with the increase of sand
replacement percentage.
Increase of cement content leads to increase of the splitting tensile strength this is due
to increase of the cement paste and mechanical bond between coarse aggregate and
cement paste.
The modulus of elasticity increases as the sand replacement percentage increases.
Drying shrinkage of LWAC made and cured at normal temperatures ranges from
slightly 30% than that of normal weight concrete, lightweight aggregate usually give
higher shrinkage because it has low modulus of elasticity
As an overall conclusion light weight concrete is in a wards a non structural concrete but
have got low unit weight which Leads to many benefits as decreasing costs, having
good thermal & sound insulation Structural LWAC can be applied in Egypt in-case of the
availability Of the light weight aggregate previously defined in chapter two.
90
REFRENCES
6 References
7
Egyptian Code for design & construction of concrete structure (E.C.C.S 203-2001)
American concrete institute (ACI)
Concrete by Kumar Mehta
Lightweight aggregate concrete by Satish Chandra
Concrete properties by Sandor Popovics
Phd.Dr.Abd el kadr Safouh
CONCRETE Microstructure, Properties and Materials by P. Kumar Mehta & Paulo. Monteiro
91