This article was downloaded by: [New York University]

On: 21 June 2015, At: 19:13

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,
37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Water International
Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rwin20

Brine Disposal from Inland Desalination Plants

a

Mushtaque Ahmed , Walid H. Shayya , David Hoey & Juma Al-Handaly

a

Sultan Qaboos University , Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

SUNY College of Agriculture and Technology , Morrisville, New York, USA

Department of Land and Water Conservation , New South Wales, Australia

Published online: 22 Jan 2009.

To cite this article: Mushtaque Ahmed , Walid H. Shayya , David Hoey & Juma Al-Handaly (2002) Brine Disposal from Inland
Desalination Plants, Water International, 27:2, 194-201, DOI: 10.1080/02508060208686992
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02508060208686992

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the Content) contained
in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the
Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and
are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and
should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for
any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of
the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://
www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

International Water Resources Association

Water International, Volume 27, Number 2, Pages 194201, June 2002

Brine Disposal from Inland Desalination Plants

Research Needs Assessment

Downloaded by [New York University] at 19:13 21 June 2015

Mushtaque Ahmed, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman,

Walid H. Shayya, SUNY College of Agriculture and Technology, Morrisville, New York, USA,
David Hoey, Department of Land and Water Conservation, New South Wales, Australia, and
Juma Al-Handaly, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman
Abstract: Desalination plants are being widely used in the inland areas of many countries to supply
water for domestic purposes. When these areas are far from the shorelines of salt-water bodies, the
opportunity to dispose of the reject brine (also known as concentrate, reject water, or wastewater)
back into these water bodies no longer exists. In such instances, the use of evaporation ponds is
very significant, both economically and environmentally. Other alternatives for brine disposal may
also be very effective in some instances. Under certain conditions, brine from desalination plants
can have useful applications. Potentials for such applications are addressed in this paper along
with a critical review of current innovative concepts for the disposal of reject brine from inland
desalination plants. This paper will also assess the present status of disposal mechanisms of brine
from desalination plants and outline future research areas that could be pursued for effective, economical, and environmentally sound means for brine disposal from such plants.
Keywords: Desalination, inland plants, brine disposal, evaporation ponds, concentrate.

Introduction
Many communities around the world have witnessed
considerable growth in population. A number of such communities that suffer from limited availability of water resources have turned to desalination to meet the
ever-increasing demand for water. The production of brine
(also known as concentrate or wastewater) is an integral
part of the operation of desalination plants. Handling the
produced concentrate is very critical to the successful operation of these plants. The amount of concentrate as a
percentage of feed water varies depending on the choice
of method, initial salinity of feed water, and factors affecting the choice of disposal method. Awerbuch and Weekes
(1990) reported that brackish reverse osmosis (RO) plants,
in general, produced 25 percent of the total feed water
flow as reject brine. Thermal processes, such as multistage flash (MSF), have relatively low water recoveries.
The concentrate from thermal processes is typically mixed
with cold water prior to discharge. The dilution of concentrate results in a final discharged effluent that is rarely
more than 15 percent higher in salinity than the receiving
water (Mickley et al., 1993). The brine, however, is already in the simplest inorganic form and the reclamation
of the carrying water from the dissolved solids is not easy
(Koening, 1958). While the quantities of brine are very
large, these materials are not economically attractive.
Guidelines issued by the U.S. Federal Water Pollution
194

Control Administration (1967) for disposal systems in the

U.S.A. emphasize that such systems must comply with
federal, state, and local regulations; avoid pollution and
lawsuits; take care of all the effluents adequately and
continuously over the life of the plant; do not unduly harm
the land, surface and underground freshwater sources,
sheltered bays and estuaries, or the seas; and do not contaminate the feed water intake or future resources. Desalination industry experts have accepted the fact that the
ocean brine disposal method is the least expensive method.
They argue that rapid mixing and dilution makes it a safe
disposal option. Mandil (1991) observed that the environmental impact of brine discharge is related to the physical,
chemical, and biological characteristics of the receiving
marine environment. The recovery ratio, or the amount of
feed water that must be provided to the plants for each
unit of product water, has significant environmental implications. The higher the recovery ratio, the greater is the
salinity of the concentrate.
Khordagui (1997) supported the practice of ocean
brine disposal with the argument that the amount of seawater withdrawn for desalination is relatively minute when
compared to the water mass of the open sea. He stated
that the amount and nature of salts discharged with the
brine are identical to the salt content of the open sea, with
the concentration factor increasing by no more than two.
In order to avoid re-circulation of plant effluents to the
intakes of the desalination plants, Khordagui (1997) em-

Downloaded by [New York University] at 19:13 21 June 2015

Brine Disposal from Inland Desalination Plants

Research Needs Assessment

phasized that the outlets should be specifically engineered

to discharge in coastal areas where maximum circulation
patterns and hydrographic currents can easily disperse and
dilute the brine. On the other hand, Del Bene et al. (1994)
concluded that dense brine discharge into the ocean might
impact the benthic (bottom/ocean-bed) environment.
Various options exist for the disposal of reject brine
from inland desalination plants. These include waste minimization, discharge to surface water, discharge to wastewater treatment plants, deep wells, land application,
evaporation ponds, wastewater evaporators, and irrigation of plants tolerant to high salinity (halophytes). Mickley
et al. (1993) identified the factors that influence the selection of a disposal method. These include volume or quantity of concentrate, quality or constituents of concentrate,
physical or geographical location of the discharge point of
the concentrate, availability of receiving site, permissibility of the option, public acceptance, capital and operating
costs, and ability for the facility to be expanded.
Cost plays an important role in the selection of a brinedisposal method. The cost of disposal depends on the characteristics of reject brine, the level of treatment before
disposal, means of disposal, volume of brine to be disposed
of, and the nature of the disposed environment. Glueckstern
and Priel (1996) found that the disposal costs of inland
RO desalination plants are higher than that of plants disposing reject brine in nearby seas or lakes.
The characteristics of concentrate are directly related
to the quality of the feed water, the desalination technology used, the percent recovery, and the chemical additives used. Mickley et al. (1993) classified wastes generated
by the different components of the membrane desalination
process into the following categories: pretreatment waste,
membrane concentrate, cleaning waste, and post-treatment
waste.
In RO systems, especially in plants that produce drinking water, pretreatment may consist of acidification, addition of anti-scalant chemicals, chlorination, and
de-chlorination. For poor quality water, filtration, coagulation, flocculation, ion exchange, and carbon adsorption may
also be used. All these processes generate wastes that
are removed before the membrane process starts. Membrane concentrate is primarily a concentrate of the feed
water that includes the raw water along with the added
chemicals for pretreatment purposes. If post-treatment is
done on the concentrate, its characteristics are further
affected. Chemical concentrations in the reject brine depend on the membrane system recovery and the membrane rejection of a particular chemical. The concentrate
from membrane desalination processes is characterized
by high total dissolved solids (TDS) and has minimal
amounts of process-added chemicals.
The disposal of wastes must be addressed as a serious issue before the numbers of inland plants increase
and expensive remedial measures have to be taken to rescue the delicate ecosystems into which the brine will be

195

discharged. The overall objective of this paper is to outline

the current important issues related to the disposal of brine
from inland desalination plants and to provide alternative
innovative approaches for brine disposal from such plants.

Current Issues in Brine Disposal

Issues related to brine disposal are, in general, numerous. Considering the limited number of options available
for inland desalination plants, some of the current issues
take on extra dimensions. Such issues include government
regulations regarding disposal, the lack of information regarding various aspects of concentrate disposal, the cost
of disposal, and the environmental impact of different disposal options.
Although regulations usually exist in many developing
countries in relation to the disposal of wastewater, there is
usually a lack of specific regulations regarding the disposal of reject brine from desalination plants (Ahmed et
al., 2001a). At times, the most relevant regulations that
may affect the disposal of brine from desalination plants
are those that relate to the disposal of industrial wastewater. However, there is a need to treat brine from desalination plants differently. The chemical characteristics of brine
are normally less toxic than industrial waste. In addition,
brine typically has lower concentrations of heavy metals
and other harmful substances. For these reasons, specific
regulations regarding the disposal of brine from desalination plants will help managers and others involved in making decisions with regards to designing the disposal system
and in enforcing regulations. The regulations should state
the acceptable options for brine disposal and clearly differentiate such options from design criteria and monitoring and reporting requirements.
The desalination industry is still at the infancy stage in
many countries around the world where desalination of
sea and brackish-water is essential for freshwater supply.
Although technical knowledge from industrialized countries can easily be transferred to developing countries, many
issues (including regulatory aspects) are country-specific
and, therefore, must be developed locally (Ahmed et al.,
2000). The involvement of manufacturers, consultants,
regulators, policy makers, and local government in desalination necessitates widespread cooperative efforts. Such
efforts will serve to close the information gap and fill the
regulatory needs with respect to brine disposal, especially
in inland areas.
Groundwater protection will always be an important
goal in any country. Once polluted, groundwater is very
difficult to clean up. The cleaning process is both expensive and time consuming. Since groundwater is used as
feed water in inland desalination plants, any pollution of
such water (especially from the lack of sound planning of
brine disposal) is likely to increase the ultimate cost of
desalination. Also, it will result in added concerns about
the possible negative environmental impacts of brine dis-

IWRA, Water International, Volume 27, Number 2, June 2002

Downloaded by [New York University] at 19:13 21 June 2015

196

M. Ahmed, W.H. Shayya, D. Hoey, and J. Al-Handaly

posal. Regardless, the information gap on this issue needs

to be filled on a priority basis.
The cost of brine disposal can vary considerably depending on the method employed. The cost is usually sitespecific, requiring a detailed analysis of available options
before comparisons are made. The cost of disposal is likely
to become quite significant in many desalination plants
when regulatory requirements force plant operators to opt
for well-designed disposal systems. In the absence of any
regulatory regulations, the opposite is usually true. Finally,
beneficial uses of reject brine reduce the overall volume
and cost of brine disposal. The uses of brine in agricultural
applications, solar ponds, shrimp production, and resource
recovery should always be a part of the disposal strategy
of brine when such uses are feasible, both technically and
economically.
Research is very critical for improving our technical
and economic understanding of brine disposal methods.
Mickley et al. (1993) provide a comprehensive list of research needs for brine disposal. When completed, the
projects they list should provide valuable information to
the desalination industry, including policy makers and regulators who will have better tools to make decisions. Guidelines resulting from research will also be beneficial for
desalination plant operators as well as for designing disposal systems. Table 1 summarizes the research needs of
brine disposal from inland desalination plants.
Table 1. Research Needs of Brine Disposal from Inland
Desalination Plants
Research Needs
Durability of evaporation pond liners.
Effects of mixing the reject brine with aquifer water.
Chemical characteristics of reject brine with particular emphasis on
toxicity.
Contamination of soil in land application methods.
Monitoring requirements for determining groundwater contamination
and movement.
Modeling of brine movement through cracks in liners.
Low cost construction, operation, and maintenance of evaporation
ponds.
Use of evaporation ponds for growing brine shrimp and other types of
fish.
Resource recovery from reject brine.
Use of brine in solar ponds for generating electricity.
Use of low cost technology for enhanced evaporation.
Agricultural uses of reject brine from desalination plants.

Alternative Research Concepts for Brine

Disposal from Inland Desalination Plants
The focus of this section is to outline seven proposed
alternative projects that address critical areas of need in
brine disposal from inland desalination plants (Table 2).
Given the importance of inland desalination plants and the
limited nature of available disposal options, the proposed

Table 2. Proposed Alternative Research Projects that

Address Critical Areas of Need in Brine Disposal from
Inland Desalination Plants
Proposed Alternative Research Projects
Agricultural use of low salinity reject brine.
Brine shrimp production in evaporation ponds.
Use of locally available materials for constructing evaporation pond
liners
Use of reject brine in solar ponds for electricity generation.
Zero-discharge of brines from desalination plants.
Enhanced evaporation mechanisms.
Resource recovery from reject brine.

projects made these issues central to each addressed research area. The proposed alternative projects are discussed below.
Agricultural Use of Low Salinity Reject Brine
Irrigation with saline water to grow salt-tolerant (halophytic) plants is not a new concept. Numerous plant species can be used for this purpose especially in arid regions
where freshwater resources are under tremendous stress.
Many halophytes have already been identified as forage
crops, edible fruit trees, and oil producers for human consumption. Apart from conserving water resources, the use
of saline water for growing plants is very critical to solving
water shortage problems. Global evidence and experiences
demonstrate that waters of much higher salinities than those
customarily classified as unsuitable for irrigation can in
fact be used effectively for the production of selected crops
under the right conditions (Rhoades et al., 1992).
Salinity and sodicity affect soil structure. High sodium
levels can lower a soils permeability and decrease its infiltration capacity through the swelling and dispersion of
clays and the slacking of aggregates. Soil solutions composed of high solute concentrations (salinity), or dominated
by calcium and magnesium salts, are conducive to desirable soil physical properties. Conversely, low salt concentrations and relatively high proportion of sodium salts
adversely affect permeability and tilth (Rhoades et al.,
1992). However, a commercial market was found to exist
for the salt by-product (bitterns that are mainly magnesium chloride) that includes the use of these products as
road stabilizers, dust suppressants, and soil ameliorant.
In the Pecos Valley of West Texas, groundwater of
high salinity (6,000 mg/l or approximately 9.4 dS/m) has
been used successfully to irrigate 81,000 ha of lands for
three decades (Moore and Hefner, 1977). In Israel, saline
waters of up to 8 dS/m in electrical conductivity (EC) are
commonly used for agricultural production. Farmers in
Tunisia, Egypt, and India have extensive experience in
saline water irrigation.
Desalination plants that produce relatively less saline
reject water should be chosen for experiments with saline
water in irrigation. The tasks involved in this project should

IWRA, Water International, Volume 27, Number 2, June 2002

Downloaded by [New York University] at 19:13 21 June 2015

Brine Disposal from Inland Desalination Plants

Research Needs Assessment

197

include a thorough literature review to identify the plants

that can be grown with reject water, identifying desalination plants that have relatively less saline reject water (the
salinity of reject water should not exceed 10 to 12 dS/m),
conducting field experiments to establish optimum leaching requirements to maintain root zone salinity under the
specified level for plant growth, and conducting field experiments to assess the impact on soil physical properties.

rials (such as waste products from cement factories) for

lining evaporation ponds should also be investigated. In
addition, the hydraulic conductivity of the clay materials
should be determined under different levels of compaction
and over extended periods of time under a highly saline
water environment. Finally, performing an economic analysis of using clay as liners in comparison with other types
of liners will be critical.

Brine Shrimp Production in Evaporation Ponds

Brine shrimp is used extensively as aquarium fish food.
It grows in a wide range of water salinities extending from
10 parts per thousand (ppt) to saturation levels. Research
shows that no brine shrimp predators or food competitors
survive in waters with salinity levels in excess of 100 ppt,
resulting in a monoculture under natural conditions. Under
optimal conditions, brine shrimp grow from larva to adults
in less than two weeks, increasing tremendously both in
length and biomass. Readily available food supply for brine
shrimp includes live phytoplankton, spirulina algae powder, brewers yeast, torula yeast, soybean powder, rice bran,
and other grain products sifted below 50 microns. Fisher
(1998) demonstrated the production of successful brines
shrimp and aquaculture under pilot-scale pond in South
Australia, although this has yet to be applied on a large
scale.
Any investigation into the possibility of using reject
brine from desalination plants for the production of brine
shrimp should focus on conducting small-scale laboratory
experiments using reject brine to determine the optimum
conditions for brine shrimp production. In addition, performing cost-benefit analyses that include marketing strategies for the produced brine shrimp will be very critical.

Use of Reject Brine in Solar Ponds for Electricity

Generation
Large volumes of saline effluent are nowadays generated from agricultural drainage programs as well as from
the industry. At the same time, advances in desalination
technology and the supply and demand imperatives of the
marketplace have improved the economics of desalination. According to experts at Generales des Eaux and
USFilter (http://wateronline.com), cost-saving innovations
in seawater desalination technology will double the size of
the worldwide desalination market to more than $70 billion
during the next 20 years. Indeed, an increase of 5.3x106
m 3 in desalination capacity is scheduled to come on-line
during the next five years. This increase in capacity will
have significant consequences on the disposal of reject
brine (Abdel-Aal et al., 1990a).
While brine disposal may be seen as a major issue in
the engineering design of any desalination facility, brine
utilization is often considered as an afterthought in most
desalination texts. Utilization of brine for saleable chemicals, or as raw materials for other applications such as
solar pond electricity generation, is generally regarded as
uneconomic. However, the sheer volume of waste
streams generated by the rapidly growing desalination
industry, coupled with the improvements in the processing
technology which is driving costs down, has opened up a
number of opportunities to improve on the overall efficiency of the desalination process.
Caldwell (1989) investigated the use of bitterns (40
percent MgCl2) for solar-based electricity generation. He
established a deep experimental pond using bitterns from
the Wakool Evaporation Basins. He was able to determine that a pond covering an area of 5 hectares (with a
depth of 5 meters of which the bottom 2.8 m would be a
bittern) will generate 200 kW of electricity using an Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) engine with an efficiency of
60 percent. Caldwell also noted that solar pond technology was already proven in Israel where it was believed to
be generating 5 MW of electricity. However, the capital
cost of the needed earthworks and the associated structures was estimated at $A1.1 million (of which the liner
was just over half of the cost), while the cost of the ORC
engine would be an additional $A1.2 million.
To use solar ponds effectively for generating electricity, one must meet several requirements. These include:
an all-year solar exposure; the presence of large volumes
of brine and an adequate source of freshwater; the avail-

Use of Locally Available Materials for

Constructing Evaporation Pond Liners
The cost of liners (including the widely used plasticsheet liners) is one of the major components in the overall
construction cost of evaporation ponds. This cost (in 1992
prices) is $0.53/ft2 for polyvinyl chloride, $0.58/ft2 for highdensity polyethylene, 0.50/ft2 for Butyl rubber, and 0.69/
ft2 for Hypalon (Mickley et al., 1993). In addition, the installation and maintenance of evaporation pond liners are
also difficult at times. This stems from the problems associated with using and operating heavy equipment to remove salt. Moreover, many ponds are affected by sunlight
that may cause small tears, leading to substantial leakages
of brine from evaporation ponds. Many agricultural evaporation ponds have clay liners. The use of clay liners with
low hydraulic conductivity will substantially reduce the cost
of construction (although a small number of leakages are
to be expected). If clay materials are available within a
reasonable distance from the desalination plant, the savings in construction can be significant. An innovative research should include an objective for identifying the
locations and types of clay materials in the country. Mate-

IWRA, Water International, Volume 27, Number 2, June 2002

Downloaded by [New York University] at 19:13 21 June 2015

198

M. Ahmed, W.H. Shayya, D. Hoey, and J. Al-Handaly

ability of flat land with low permeability and high thermal

and structural stability; distant locations from shallow
groundwater aquifers; the lack of windy conditions (to
minimize mixing and deposition of debris); and consistent
demand for electricity. The thermal efficiency of the process is affected by the clarity of brine, the thickness of
layers within the solar pond, the maintenance of the vertical salt gradient, pond area, and considerable depth to the
groundwater (Ahmed et al., 2001b).
Ideally, power generated from solar ponds could be
used in the desalination process or for processing more
bitterns. This concept was first considered almost 20 years
ago (Gerofi and Fenton, 1981). At the time, there was
some interest in diverting saline drainage into evaporation
basins, and using energy generated from solar ponds to
desalinate a portion of the effluent. Current research in
Australia is aiming to develop a pilot solar pond, in conjunction with salt harvesting, at Pyramid Hill in Victoria.
In 1998, the US Bureau of Reclamation funded a study by
the University of Texas at El Paso to test and evaluate the
performance of a multi-effect, multi-stage thermal flash
distillation unit powered by energy provided by a salinitygradient solar pond.
It is clear from the above that the use of reject brine
in solar ponds for electricity generation holds a promising
future. For this reason, it is important to pursue research
in this area that encompasses the tasks of identifying current sites and desalination plants where solar ponds can
be established, designing a solar pond using reject brine
from a mid-sized desalination plant, and performing costbenefit analysis of such development.
Zero-Discharge of Brines from Desalination Plants
Environmental regulations in many countries are becoming increasingly stringent. As such, many industries
are looking to develop viable alternative programs that
reduce pollution. Programs that involve the recycling and
reuse of water are amongst those widely used. Although
such efforts can be very costly, the concept of zero-discharge or substantial volume reduction of liquid wastes is
becoming commonplace in many industries around the
world. Chemical industries including paper mills, power
plants, and steel mills in several countries have been successful in this regard. One such example is the Saldanha
Water Treatment Plant. This plant is part of a huge steel
mill producing 2.5 million metric tons of steel. The plant is
located in an environmentally sensitive area of Western
Cape in South Africa. Water is used for various purposes
in the plant, a large amount of which is used for cooling.
The plant produces about 400 m3/day of brine from a reverse osmosis plant. Using a low-cost mechanical vapor
compression process, this waste is drastically reduced in
volume to 40 m3/day. The concentrated brine is then discarded into an evaporation pond.
Available technologies for volume reduction of liquid
waste include micro-filtration, serial reverse osmosis, fil-

ter media, and ion exchange. Since the mid 1970s, vapor
compression evaporation has been used extensively to
achieve zero-liquid discharge. Mechanical evaporators
also recover about 95 percent of wastewater as distillate
for reuse. Finally, waste brine can be reduced to solids in
a crystallizer/dewatering device. Rantenbach and Linn
(1996) describe a system where more than 97 percent
recovery of wastewater is achieved using a combination
of reverse osmosis (operating at 60, 120, and 200 bars)
with nano- and crystallizer-filtration.
Research involving the application of the concept of
zero-discharge from desalination plants is very critical. The
tasks of such a project should focus on identifying the technologies available for volume reduction of saline wastewater along with evaluating available technologies. A few
of these technologies ought to be identified based on cost,
ease of application, prevailing field conditions, and the likely
modifications needed for implementation of the technology. The research should also involve a design of a pilot
plant for field application along with performing a costbenefit analysis of implementing zero-discharge concepts
in desalination plants.
Enhanced Evaporation Mechanisms
The size of an evaporation pond is a function of evaporation rate from the pond. Different methods of calculating evaporation rates are available. If it were possible to
increase or enhance the rate of natural evaporation, it would
be possible to reduce the size of evaporation ponds. Such
a reduction would result in substantial savings in construction costs.
Experiments conducted by Bloch et al. (1951) showed
the addition of dye potentially maximizes the utilization of
solar energy thereby increasing the rate of evaporation
(colored solutions absorb more solar energy, therefore,
increasing the temperature that increases the kinetic energy of the molecules raises the saturation vapor pressure, lowers surface tension, and increases evaporation
rate). They recommended the addition of 3.5 grains of
dye per cubic foot of brine (with the volume being generated from the top eight inches of depth). Keyes (1966)
reported an increase in water evaporation from brine
through the addition of Methylene Blue dye at a rate of 15
mg/L. Winans (1967) observed that Naphthol Green was
the most stable in the presence of salt solution and sunlight. Several other methods can also be followed to enhance the rate of water evaporation using solar energy.
These include the spraying of brine, creating turbulence in
the pond, allowing the brine to pass over inclined rough
surfaces, and creating airflow over the pond.
It is obvious that pursuing research that focuses on
enhancing the rate of water evaporation from ponds will
be very beneficial in answering critical questions regarding this important technology. Tasks involved in such an
innovative research on evaporation enhancement should
include a comprehensive literature review on the topic of

IWRA, Water International, Volume 27, Number 2, June 2002

Brine Disposal from Inland Desalination Plants

Research Needs Assessment

Downloaded by [New York University] at 19:13 21 June 2015

evaporation enhancement and the identification of the most

promising ones for field applications. In addition, performing laboratory experiments under controlled conditions and
field experiments with the most promising evaporation
methods is needed along with performing cost-benefit
analysis of the selected methods and preparing design criteria and guidelines for practical applications.
Resource Recovery from Reject Brine
Brine disposal is a major issue in the engineering design of any desalination facility. Under certain conditions,
waste brines can serve useful purposes. Their uses ultimately result in alleviating the problem as well as reducing
the overall cost of brine disposal. Salts have been produced from saline waters for centuries. Nowadays, solar
evaporation of seawater accounts for more than 30 percent of the worlds production of sodium chloride (NaCl).
Bromine is entirely produced from seawater and brines.
Sodium sulfate, potassium salt, lithium carbonate, magnesium compounds, and magnesium metals are also produced
from seawater and brines. Some studies have focused on
assessing the feasibility of preparing fertilizers from scaleforming chemicals, after treating seawater with anhydrous
ammonia and phosphoric acid. Fernandez-Lozano (1993)
conducted a laboratory study to demonstrate the feasibility of recovering leonite (K2SO4.Mg SO4.4H2O) and magnesium-chloride rich solutions from the salt-field bitterns
of seawater. Ohya et al. (2001) are also optimistic of the
likelihood of better utilization of minerals in seawater.
The potential for recovery of a number of chemicals
from both seawater and bitterns often appears paradoxical in nature. On the one hand, the quantity of common
chemicals that could be recovered from desalting brines
would greatly exceed the demand for such chemicals
(Howe, 1974). On the other hand, there are few practical
examples of auxiliary processing of brines from desalination plants. The paradigm of waste product needs to be
changed to that of a resource, if the utilization of brine is
to take place.
Salutsky and Dunseth (1963) noted that concentrated
brine from desalination plants could be used to produce
chlorine and caustic soda in a diaphragm cell. They also
anticipated the separation of various other metals from
either seawater or evaporator brine reject. Abdel-Aal et
al. (1990a; 1990b) simulated the recovery of salts (mainly
MgCl2) from desalination plant brines using data from the
Al-Khobar Desalination Plant in Saudi Arabia. Their approach involved the circulation of brine in 32 repeated
cycles (of four stages each) to produce additional potable
water, NaCl, and a highly concentrated MgCl2 bittern.
However, they highlighted the need for further research
to deal with the viscosity and corrosive aspects of the bitterns. A similar approach, but applied to a larger scale,
was taken by Arakel (2000). This approach was based on
the sequential extraction of a variety of salt minerals and
their compounds by employing multiple evaporations and

199

coolings of concentrated saline wastewaters (supplemented

by mineral and chemical processing). The process is particularly suitable for brine with high levels of dissolved
sulphate, potassium, and magnesium salts. The SAL-PROC
process (Arakel, 2000) combines evapo-cooling, crystallization, conversion, and recycling of solids and residual bitterns to produce a range of high-value primary products,
including Na2SO4, K2SO4,, KCl, MgSO4, 7H2O, Mg(OH)2,
and NaCl. There is also the potential for producing valuable secondary products, including nitrates of potassium
and sodium (KNO3, NaNO3) and ammonia products.
The production of minerals from the brine reject of
desalination plants involves several associated problems.
Some of these include the cost of recovery of minerals,
the marketing costs of the produced minerals, the presence of heavy metals and other hazardous products in
desalination plant reject brine (complicating the recovery
process), and the negative perception of customers and
users with regard to the products recovered from wastewater.
In general, a major consideration is the matching of a
product to a market at a competitive price. Thus, product
recovery is heavily dependent upon the location of the
desalination plant, the existing physical conditions, the cost
of available technology, and the condition of market. Any
innovative research in the area of resource recovery from
reject brine should involve the initial task of conducting a
comprehensive literature review to identify potential mineral extraction methods for use with desalination plant
brines. This task should then be followed by conducting
laboratory experiments to establish optimum conditions for
mineral extraction, establishing pilot plants in desalination
plants to demonstrate the feasibility of the concept of resource recovery, and conducting cost-benefit analysis of
the chosen methods.

Summary and Conclusions

The number of desalination plants for producing drinking water around the world has witnessed unparallel growth
in the last twenty years. Unfortunately, the environmental
implications associated with the discharge of concentrate
from desalination plants have not received adequate considerations. The focus of this paper was to present several innovative research concepts that address critical areas
of need in desalination research. There is a need to focus
on investigating agricultural use of low salinity reject brine,
brine shrimp production in evaporation ponds, the use of
locally-available materials for the construction of evaporation ponds, utilizing solar ponds to generate electricity,
zero-discharge from desalination plants, enhanced evaporation mechanisms, and resource recovery.
Evaporation ponds have long been used for salt production in many parts of the world. For example, they
have been widely used in irrigation projects facing soil
salinity problems due to a shallow saline groundwater table.

IWRA, Water International, Volume 27, Number 2, June 2002

200

M. Ahmed, W.H. Shayya, D. Hoey, and J. Al-Handaly

Downloaded by [New York University] at 19:13 21 June 2015

Water tables are lowered by pumping or tile draining and

the drainage water is stored in evaporation ponds. Evaporation ponds are usually the least-costly means of brine
disposal in areas with high evaporation rates and low land
costs. They also provide storage facilities for further processing (and value adding) of brines. However, seepage
from poorly constructed evaporation ponds can contaminate underlying aquifers. Contamination of feed water
sources is also likely if the reject brine is improperly disposed, on the surface close to inland desalination plants.
Given that the cost of disposal of reject brine from inland
desalination plants can be quite substantial, the identified
research needs should serve as an impetus to finding
cheaper but environmentally-friendly methods of disposal
of brine reject.

Acknowledgement
This study was made possible through funding from
the Middle East Desalination Research Center (MEDRC)
under contract number 98-R-004.

About the Authors

Dr. Mushtaque Ahmed is an
Assistant Professor in the Department of Soil and Water Sciences at
Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate
of Oman.Email: ahmedm@squ.
edu.om. He has over 20 years of
experience working in various countries dealing with water resources
related issues. His current research
interests are on issues related to water quality (such as
nitrate and pesticides in groundwater), wastewater disposal from desalination plants, use of oil-contaminated
water and greywater for irrigation, and use of models for
water quality management.
Dr. Walid H. Shayya is an Associate Professor in the Department
of Agricultural Engineering at the
State University of New York at
Morrisville, New York. Email:
shayyaw@morrisville.edu. He is the
co-editor of a three volume book
series on water management, purification, and conservation in arid climates. He has over 15 years of experience in research in a
variety of areas including desalination, computer modeling
and numerical analysis, irrigation and drainage, water management, and animal waste management.

Dr. David Hoey is a Senior

Evironmental Officer with the
Newcastle office of Department of
Land and Water Conservation
(DLWC), New South Wales
(NSW), Australia. He conducts salinity audits and recharge assessment for salinity control on a
catchment scale and develops commercial opportunities for the utilization of saline products
within the context of the North south West Water Reform
program in Australia.
Mr. Juma Al-Handaly is a Superintendent in the College of Agriculture, Sultan Qaboos University,
Sultanate of Oman. Email:
jalhandhaly@hotmail.com. He has
more than 12 years of experience
in field and laboratory-based research activities. He is presently
working on his MS in environmental
engineering at UAE University in Al-Ain, United Arab
Emirates. His present research interest is on chemical
composition of reject brine from desalination plants and
their impact on the marine environment.
Discussions open until December 1, 2002.

References
Abdel-Aal, H.K., K.M. Ba-Lubaid, D.K. Al-Harbi, and
A.A.Shaikh. 1990a. Recovery of Mineral Salts and Potable
Water from Desalting Plant Efluents by Evaporation: Part I.
Evaluation of the Physical Properties of Highly Concentrated
Brines. Separation Science and Technology 25, No. 3: 309
321.
Abdel-Aal, H.K., K.M. Ba-Lubaid, A.A. Shaikh, and D.K. AlHarbi. 1990b. Recovery of Mineral Salts and Potable Water
from Desalting Plant Effluents by Evaporation: Part II. Proposed Simulation System for Salt Recovery. Separation
Science and Technology 25, No. 4: 437461.
Ahmed, M, W. Shayya, J. AL-Handaly, D. Hoey, and A.
Mahendran. 2000. Investigation on the Use of Evaporation
Ponds for Brine Disposal in Inland Desalination Plants:
Final report (Project 97-A-007, Contract 98-R-04). Muscat,
Sultanate of Oman: The Middle East Desalination Research
Center.
Ahmed, M., W. Shayya, D. Hoey, and J. Al-Handaly. 2001a.
Brine Disposal from Reverse Osmosis Plants in Oman and
the United Arab Emirates. Desalination 133: 135147.
Ahmed, M., A. Arakel, D. Hoey, and M. Coleman. 2001b. Integrated Power, Water and Salt Generation: A Discussion Paper. Desalination 134: 3745.

IWRA, Water International, Volume 27, Number 2, June 2002

Downloaded by [New York University] at 19:13 21 June 2015

Brine Disposal from Inland Desalination Plants

Research Needs Assessment
Arakel, A. 2000. Salt Harvesting from Saline Wastewaters
by Using SAL-PROC Technology (a brochure).
Awerbuch, L. and M. C. Weekes. 1990. Disposal of Concentrates from Brackish Water Desalting Plants by Means of
Evaporation Technology. Desalination 78: 7176.
Bloch, M.R., L. Farkas, and K.S. Spiegler. 1951. Solar Evaporation of Salt Brines. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry
43, No. 7: 15441553.
Caldwell, B.W. 1989. Proposed Solar Pond Facility at Wakool
Solar Evaporation Basins. Master of Engineering Science
Project, School of Civil Engineering, University New South
Wales. Project Report 8.909G.
Del Bene, J.V., G. Jirka, and J. Largier. 1994. Ocean Brine Disposal. Desalination 97: 365372.
Fernandez-Lozano, J.A., 1993. Production of Potassium Sulphate-magnesium Sulphate Double Salt and Magnesium-chloride Rich Solutions from Seawater Bitterns. Chemical
Engineering Journal 52, No. 2: 8992.
Fisher, C.E. 1998. Bedford Groundwater Interception Project:
Cooke Plains. A Report for the Rural Industries Research
and Development Corporation, Australia (internal report).
Gerofi, J.P. and G.G. Fenton. 1981. Solar Ponds Current Status
and Potential in NSW. ENERSOL Consulting Engineers Report, commissioned by the Energy Authority of New South
Wales.
Glueckstern, P., and M. Priel. 1996. Optimized Brackish Water
Desalination Plants with Minimum Impact on the Environment. Desalination 108: 1926.
Howe, E.D. 1974. Fundamentals of Water Desalination. New
York, New York, USA: Marcel Dekker.
Keyes, C.G. 1966. The Effect of Dye on Solar Evaporation of
Brine. Doctor of Science Dissertation, New Mexico State
University, University Park, New Mexico, USA.
Khordagui, H. 1997. Environmental Aspects of Brine Reject from
Desalination Industry in the ESCWA Region. ESCWA, Beirut,
Lebanon.

201

Koening, L. 1958. Disposal of Saline Water Conversion Brines.

Office of Saline Water R & D Progress Report No 20. USA.
Mandil, A.M. 1991. Desalination and Environment. In Proceedings of the Third International Symposia on Industry
and Environment in the Developing World. May. Alexandria, Egypt.
Mickley, M., R. Hamilton, L. Gallegos, and J. Truesdall. 1993.
Membrane Concentration Disposal. Denver, Colorado,
USA: American Water Works Association Research Foundation.
Moore, J. and J. J. Hefner. 1977. Irrigation with Saline Water in
the Pecos Valley of West Texas. Proceeding of Internal Salinity Conference: Managing Saline Waters for Irrigation. Texas
Tech. University, Lubbock, Texas, USA.
Ohya, H., T. Suzuki, S. Nakao. 2001. Integrated System for Complete Usage of Components in Seawater. Desalination 134:
2936.
Rantenbach, R. and T. Linn. 1996. RO (High Pressure)/
Nanofiltration, A Zero Discharge Process Combination for
Treatment of Wastewater with Severe Fouling/Scaling Potential. Desalination 105: 6370.
Rhoades, J. D., A. Kandiah, and A.M. Mashali. 1992. The Use of
Saline waters for Crop Production. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 48, FAO, Rome, Italy.
Salutsky, M.L. and M.G. Dunseth. 1963. Recovery of Minerals
from Seawater by Phosphate Precipitation. Saline Water
Conversion II - Advances in Chemistry Series 38. Washington, D.C., USA: American Chemical Society.
U.S. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. 1967.
Guidelines for the Prevention, Control and Abatement of
Water Pollution by Federal Activities. Washington, D.C.,
USA.
Winans, D.C. 1967. The Relative Stability of Six Dyes in a Saline Brine of Constant Salinity. Master of Science Thesis,
New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, USA.

IWRA, Water International, Volume 27, Number 2, June 2002