A solar car, if it is to offer any sensible performance must be light in

weight and relatively low powered. One race solar cars do not represent
a practical means of transportation. They have limited seating (usually
one, sometimes two people), they have very little cargo capacity, and they
can only be driven during the day. They do, however, offer an excellent
opportunity to develop future technologies that can be applied to practical
applications such as the Solar Buggy project featured here.

While the concept behind a solar vehicle is fairly simple, a great deal of
work, time, and money goes into developing a high caliber solar car in
order to maximize the limited power offered by the sun.
Building a solar car is a very ambitious goal, but one that is achievable
through hard work and determination. One of the first things to do is to
organize a group of people interested in building a car. Next, plan a
specific timetable of aims. Then perhaps, work out how much money will
you need to build your solar car. This of course depends on the parts used,
and it's easy to specify the best, but more realistic to use what is
available from the shop shelves.
If the least expensive parts are used, the total cost of a solar car need not
be more that about 5,000 ($10,000). Unfortunately, this sum will not
include traveling costs to, and sustenance during any competition. You will
probably need a group of fundraisers who are willing to spend the year
making presentations to businesses and speaking to individuals at their
home. You will also need to assess what materials and tools you need and
get several people focused on building the car itself. It may be a difficult
road the first year, but the things you learn along, including the business
of attracting sponsors, will stand you in good stead for a lifetime!

Electrical components of a Solar Car

I hope from these pages that you may learn more about solar cars and
how they work. A solar car is made up of many components that have
been integrated together so that they work as a single system. I have
broken the components of my Solar Buggy down into nine logical primary
systems for ease of reference.
Basically, solar cars are powered by the sun's energy. There are now many
inexpensive toys demonstrating the principle. The main component of any
car is its frame. However, in a solar car the most important component is
its solar array, which collect and converts the sun's energy into usable
electrical energy. The solar cells collect a portion of the sun's energy and
stores it into the batteries of the solar car. Before that happens, power
trackers converts the energy collected from the solar array to the proper
system voltage, so that the batteries and the motor can use it. After the
energy is stored in the batteries, it is available for use by the motor &
motor controller to drive the car. The motor controller adjusts the amount
of energy that flows to the motor to correspond to the throttle. The motor
uses that energy to drive the wheels.

Hence, a solar car is an electric vehicle that receives its energy for
traction, from the Sun rays directly by means of photovoltaic cells, with a
battery as a load leveling device. The vehicle doesn't charge its batteries
from the normal civil or industrial (generated) distribution network, like
other battery powered cars, but from a clean and renewable source of
energy. Fuel cells can replace or supplement batteries.

The Spirit of Aklahoma's framework

A solar powered car use a mix of technologies that can be extremely

sophisticated. When we talk of a top performance car we mean that the
car uses experimental materials. When we talk of an average performance
car, we mean that the vehicle uses a sophisticated technology but
commercial.
In designing my Solar Buggy, I has chosen to use only commercially
available materials and components for practical purposes. The idea is to
produce a performance car at sensible prices. A car that might one day
be seen every day on the roads. Rather than an outright competition
vehicles that use experimental materials at around 100 times the cost of
commercial parts. I have set a limit of 300 for the chassis, 1,000 for
the motor and controller, 800 for the solar panels, 300 for the batteries
and 200 for the bodyworks. This gives a total of 2,600. It sounds a lot,
but in fact we must not include the build labour and workshop costs, for it
would probably double this figure. I have also omitted the design and
development costs from this project.

Pricipia team's tubular chassis

The primary challenge in developing an effective solar car chassis is to
maximize the strength and safety, but minimize the weight. Every extra
pound requires more energy to move down the road. This means that
teams must strive to minimize weight and a key area is the chassis.
However, safety is a primary concern and the chassis must meet stringent
strength and safety requirements. Generally, there are three types of
chassis used in solar cars:
1. space frame
2. semi-monocoque or carbon beam
3. monocoque
A space frame uses a welded or bonded tube structure to support the
loads and the body. The body is a lightweight, non-load bearing,
composite shell that is attached to the chassis separately. The semimonocoque or carbon beam chassis uses composite beams and bulkheads
to support the loads and is integrated into a non-load bearing composite
belly pan. The top sections of the car are often separate body pieces that
are attached to the belly pan. A monocoque chassis uses the body
structure to support the loads. All three types of chassis can produce
strong lightweight vehicles. Many solar cars use a combination of the
chassis categories mentioned above. The image above is an example of a
semi-monocoque chassis with an integrated space frame used to protect
the driver.

It may be necessary to define composite materials since the use of

composites is extensive in solar cars. A composite material is the
combination of a filler material sandwiched between layers of a structural
material. Carbon fiber, Graphite, Kevlar and fiberglass are common
composite structural materials. Honeycomb and foam are common
composite filler materials. These materials are bonded together using
epoxy resins and in the cases of Kevlar and carbon fiber, can obtain
impressive strengths (equal to steel) but remain very lightweight.

SUMMARY: A solar car must have: efficient photovoltaic cells, an

aerodynamic form, use light and efficient batteries, a high
performance motor, adequate controls (electronics, and reliable
mechanicals. On the average, a racing solar car, with its pilot on
board (80kg) and with light batteries, should weigh between 250 300kg.

A very neat alloy chassis from Iowa State University

The frames shown above are made from alloy tubes welded together,
whereas, many racing solar cars are made of carbon fibre and honeycomb
sheets formed into a monocoque molding, or maybe using other exotic
materials such as graphite, similar to that shown below. There are good
and bad points for each method of fabrication. While the composite will
be lighter, it is usually more fragile and harder to mount suspension to. It
is also much more expensive. Alloy frames require skilled welders, while
steel may be welded by amateurs using MIG machines at very little cost.
Of course steel frames are heavier.
Monocoque (French for "single shell") or unibody is a construction
technique that uses the external skin of an object to support some or
most of the load on the structure. This is as opposed to using an internal
framework (or truss) that is then covered with a non-load-bearing skin.
Monocoque construction was first widely used in aircraft, starting in the
1930s, and is the predominant automobile construction technology today
as sheet steel pressings, whereas formula one cars are carbon fibre one
piece moldings.

1. Chassis - and seating

2. Mechanics - suspension, steering, brakes
3. Motor and drive train
4. Motor controller
5. Solar Array - usually part of body
6. Batteries or fuel cells
7. Electrical System - and instruments
8. Driver Controls - switches, lighting, etc

9. Bodywork - Screen, etc

As part of the chassis design, you will of course have worked out what
type of suspension to use. It may have come about the other way. You
may have chosen your suspension, positioned your driver and motor, then
joined up all the bits with a frame. There are indeed many ways to
achieve a design. I sometimes start with the aerodynamics, get a body
shape, then try and fit in the best suspension, motors and batteries, etc,
around the driver.
Whichever way you go about designing your solar car, the mechanical
systems should be simple in concept, but designed to minimize friction
and weight while maintaining the strength needed to handle the various
road conditions. You should take a good look at existing state of the art.
You will learn a lot from this research and then you can apply your own
ideas. Lightweight metals like titanium and composites are commonly
used to maximize the strength-to-weight ratio needed to build efficient
components. The mechanical systems include the suspension, brakes,
steering, wheels, and tires. Regulations from most events set minimum
standards that mechanical components must meet, but as mentioned
elsewhere there are no standard designs used in solar cars.
Steering & Suspension
Front wheel steering has many advantages since it tends to be more
stable and safer. A solar car uses energy frugally if it is to be competitive.
If there are two front wheels, it is therefore advisable to work out the
geometry so that they run parallel when the car is going straight ahead to
eliminate scrub, but when the car is turning, the front wheels turn at
different radii. If the car is turning left, the left front tire is making a
smaller circle than the right front tire. If the tires remain parallel while
turning, they will cause unnecessary drag because the angles will not
describe scrub free attack to the road, decreasing tire life and overall
performance. The principles overcoming this problem were solved by
Ackerman, hence the Ackerman Steering geometry employed on most
production cars.
Brakes
Disc brakes are desirable as they are predominantly hydraulic. Having
hydraulic lines running to the wheels can be easier than mechanical brake
arrangements. The most significant problem with disc brakes is that the
brake pads do not back away from the brake rotors when pressure is
released, they just relieve braking pressure. Because the pads don't
normally back away from the rotors, they continue to have a small
amount of drag. While this drag may not be noticeable on the family car, it
is very inefficient on solar cars. Go kart shops now have brake calipers

that are spring loaded to move the pads away from the rotors. These very
worthwhile.
Motor driving single rear wheel
Solar cars typically have three or four wheels, where the rules require at
least three, or the vehicle falls into a cycle category. The common three
wheel configuration is two front wheels and one rear wheel (usually the
driven wheel). Four wheel vehicles are sometimes configured like a
conventional vehicle (with one of the rear wheels driven). Other four
wheel vehicles have the two rear wheels close together near the center
(similar to the common three wheel configuration). In theory, three
should be more efficient, since there are less moving parts and rolling
resistance may be lower.
A wide variety of suspensions are implemented on solar cars. This is partly
due to the fact that the body and chassis designs are so different between
cars. The most common type of front suspension used in solar cars is the
double A-arm suspension, similar to those used on conventional vehicles.
Typically, trailing arm suspensions similar to those found on motorcycles
are utilized in the rear. Teams design their suspension components to
move freely and smoothly for maximum efficiency. The design must also
be adjustable so as to maintain proper alignment and functionality.

Disc brakes cycle parts

One of the great things about solar cars, is that you have a free hand to
let your imagination roam. That is one of the reasons for the incredible
diversity, although I think you may agree, the monocoque designs are
beginning to look a bit samey.
Safety should be high priority for any designer. For this reason, solar cars
must meet stringent braking performance standards and every solar car is
required to have two independent braking systems, much like the dual
braking systems on production cars. Disk brakes are most commonly used
in solar cars because of their adjustability and good braking power. Some
teams use mechanically actuated brakes while others use hydraulic.
Mechanical brakes tend to be smaller and lighter than hydraulic, but don't
offer as much brake force and require constant tuning. To maximize
efficiency, the brakes are designed to move freely by eliminating brake
drag, which is caused by brake pads rubbing against the brake surface.

Double wishbone suspension and steering

The steering systems within a solar car, much like suspensions, vary
greatly. The teams must meet turning radius and handling requirements,
but are free to use any design. The major design factors for steering are
reliability and efficient performance. The steering system is designed with
precise steering alignment because even small misalignments can cause

significant losses and increase tire wear. Many teams now use long
uprights mating onto high mounted wishbones. This reduces the
thickness of the wheel spats or fairings, hence lowers drag. The object of
employing suspension is obviously to cushion the vehicles passage. It
should be soft enough to protect the car and solar array from unnecessary
jolts and firm enough to provide a stable ride. A good suspension will also
ensure the wheels stay in contact with the road surface, by controlling
bounce and re-bound. A spring allows movement and a shock absorber,
or damper, prevents oscillation.
Tires
In early racing events, bicycle wheels and tires were commonly used
because of their lightweight and low rolling resistance (minimal friction).
These wheels and tires were generally overloaded when supporting the
weight of a solar car, which effected the performance and safety of the
vehicle. Event Regulations do not allow overloaded tires and wheels.
Fortunately, the popularity of solar car raycing has prompted some tire
manufacturers to construct tires designed for solar cars. Most teams are
taking advantage of these low rolling resistant, lightweight wheels and
tires that increase both safety and performance.
Leading arm suspension and steering
MOTORS and TRANSMISSION
Without a motor, you have no car. Without an efficient motor, you have
less chance of winning a competition. But, you also have to design your
drivetrain, so that your motor operates at it's peak efficiency, which
means keeping it spinning, keeping the revolutions up. You also have to
decide which motor and controller to buy on cost.
The drive train in a solar car is very different from that of a conventional
car. For our purposes, the drive train will consist of the electric motor and
the means by which the motor's power is transmitted to the wheel causing
the vehicle to move. Due to the low amount of power generated (less than
5 hp) usually only one wheel in the rear of the car is driven by the electric
motor.
Unless you have limitless funds, cut gears are a luxury and indeed, may
waste energy. Chains and belts are by far the simplest approach, chains
actually being more efficient than belts - around 95%. A gearbox as such
may also be unnecessary, since your car will be running at its optimal
speed almost all of the time. Most solar car events don't include hill
climbs for that reason, although you may encounter some gentle inclines.
In the past, the most common type was the direct drive transmission
where the motor is connected to the wheel through a chain or belt with a
single gear reduction. This is a reliable and easily maintained transmission
if special care is taken when aligning the components. Efficiencies above
80% can be achieved when designed properly.

A few teams have used variable ratio belt drives to transmit power to the
wheel. The gear ratio changes as the speed of the motor increases. This
gives the motor more starting torque at lower speeds, but still allows the
car to run efficiently at higher speeds. Variable belt drives require precise
alignment and careful setup to work efficiently.
Depending on your wheel and tyre size, you may need to reduce (gear
down) the motor revolutions from 5,000 - 3,0000 to around 500 - 800
rpm at the wheel. Multiply the wheel diameter by 3.143 to give distance
per revolution, then multiply that distance by RPM until you have the
target speed. You can work backwards from this figure, or work forward
from the overall drag (including rolling resistance) at the target speed, to
obtain the motor output you need.
There are several variations of three basic types of transmissions used in
solar cars.
1. single reduction direct drive (shown above)
2. variable ratio belt drive
3. hub motor
Since 1995 when a few teams implemented hub motor designs in their
solar cars, the popularity of the transmission-free drive has soared. A hub
motor eliminates the need for any external transmission because the
motor shaft is connected directly to the wheel hub. This greatly increases
the efficiency of the drive train and reduces the number of moving parts
necessary to drive the wheel. A hub motor uses low rpm to account for
the lack of gear reduction, which tends to drop their efficiency slightly, but
they still can achieve efficiencies in excess of 95%.
Most teams use DC brush permanent magnet motors to drive their solar
cars. Inexpensive and easy to hook up, these motors are desirable for
high school teams with little financial support. Expect a maximum
efficiency of 80-90%. For teams with more money, brush-less motors
increase the efficiency of the motor to the 94-98% range. This could be
worth a lot to you and may well justify the expense and complication for
competitions.
There are no restrictions on the type of motor used in a solar car. They are
generally rated between 2 and 5 hp. The most common type of motor
used in solar cars is the dual-winding DC brushless. A DC brushless motor
is fairly lightweight and can reach efficiencies of 98% at their rated rpm,
however they are quite a bit more expensive then a typical brush type DC
motor.
Flemings Leftt Hand Rule
Since multi-geared transmissions are seldom used in solar cars, the dualwinding motor is sometimes used as an electronic transmission. Switching
between the dual windings changes the speed rating of the motor. The low
speed windings provide high torque for starting and passing, while the
high speed windings have higher efficiencies and are best for cruising
(normal running).

Similar to the power electronics, most teams purchase off the shelf
motors, but there are solar cars with custom built or self built motors.

Also, some motor and controller setups allow for regenerative braking,
which allows the solar car to put energy back into the batteries when
going downhill. For the beginning team, DC brush motors would be
sufficient to get a solar car up and running. Another variable in choosing a
motor is how much power it has. We have found that there is little need to
have more than 5hp continuous power output on our motors.
There are two manufacturers who supply most teams with motors and
controllers: Solectria and Advanced DC Motors. Many college teams buy
their motors from Solectria, but Advanced DC Motors have less expensive
motors. Controllers usually drive a particular motor. Once you choose the
motor that suits your needs, the same vendor would most likely have a
matching controller.
BASIC MOTOR PRINCIPLES
All motors require two magnetic fields, one produced by the stationary
part of the motor (the stator, or field), and one by the rotating part (the
rotor, or armature). These are produced either by a winding of coils
carrying a current, or by permanent magnets. If the field is a coil of wire,
this may be connected in a variety of ways, which produces different
motor characteristics.
The basic law of a motor, the reason why they rotate, is governed by
Flemings left hand rule. This tells you the direction of the force on a wire
that is carrying current when it is in a magnetic field.

Force acting on wire carrying current, obeying the left hand rule
If we now bend the wire round in a loop, and place it in a magnetic field
caused by two permanent magnets, we have the situation shown in the
diagram below. Here, both sides of the wire loop will have a force on
them, trying to make the wire loop rotate. The current is applied to the
loop through the commutator, which is shown as two pieces of metal
formed into a ring in the figure. Current is applied to the commutator by
stationary graphite blocks, called brushes, which rub against the
commutator ring.
The loop will continue to rotate anticlockwise (as we see it in the figure)
until it is vertical. At this point, the stationary brushes won't be applying
current around the loop any more because they will be contacting the gap
between the commutator segments, but the inertia of the loop keeps it
going a little more, until the DC supply reconnects to the commutator
segments, and the current then goes around the loop in the opposite
direction. The force though is still in the same direction, and the loop
continues to rotate.

This is how DC motors work. In a real motor, there are many wire loops
(windings) all at varying angles around a solid iron core. Each loop has its
own pair of commutator segments.This block of core and wire loops is
called the rotor because it rotates, or the armature.
The fixed magnets in the diagram above generating the field may be
replaced by electromagnets which are generally more powerful. The
elctromagnets are supplied by the same power supply as the armature
winding, either in series (series connected) or in parallel (shunt
connected) as shown in the diagram below.
If permanent magnets are used, the motor is said to be a permanent
magnet (PM) motor. DC motors can also have permanent magnets in the
armature, and electromagnets for the stator coils. In this case, the stator
windings must be switched in some way to make the permanent magnets
in the rotor follow them to cause rotation. This connection is less common
for small motors.
Series, shunt and permanent magnet windings
There may be more than just the two fixed magnets, called poles. In some
motors there may be four poles (imagine one more coming from above
and one more from below in the figure). There will always be an even
number of poles, since there is an N pole for every S pole, and in the
equations governing the motor, the number of poles is often quoted as p,
the number of pole pairs. These magnets are called the stator because
they are stationary, and the electromagnet coils are called the field
windings because they generate the magnetic field.
The supply is connected to the commutator segments through graphite
brushes. These are held in little sockets with a spring behind them, so the
brush is pushed onto the segments. This guarantees a good electrical
connection (although there will be a fraction of an Ohm resistance across
them). Eventually, these brushes wear down completely. If you get the
motors from a scrap yard, the brushes may need replacing. New brushes
should be available from automotive spares shops.
Back EMF
In the same way that a wire carrying a current in a magnetic field has a
force acted upon it (left hand rule), conversely a moving wire in a
magnetic field gets a voltage induced across it. This is called Lenz's law. In
a motor, the consequence of this is that the supply voltage makes the
rotor rotate, and the rotor generates a back emf or reverse voltage,
which nearly matches the supply voltage when the motor is rotating but
not driving anything.
The resistance of the coils of wire that make up the field and armature are
normally very low. So you would think that the motor would take a very
large current (current = voltage resistance). However this back emf
means that there is actually only a small voltage across the resistance of
the coils, because the back emf, ea, is nearly as large as the supply

voltage, Vt. Some typical values for a 900Watt starter motor are: Rt =
0.041 Ohms, Vt = 12V, ea = 11.9v, so the motor current is 2.4 Amps.
When a load is put on the motor, the speed drops, and so the back emf
drops, and so the current drawn from the battery will increase.
Torque
The torque produced by a permanent magnet or shunt wound motor is
given by the equation: T = kfia The torque produced by a series motor is
given by the equation T = kfia2 where kf is a constant for the motor, and ia
is the current, and is the field strength. A series wound motor generates
its field from the same armature current, so increases as the motor
draws current. Therefore the torque is proportional to the square of the
current. This means that doubling the current that we put through a series
wound motor quadruples the torque. This is a distinct advantage of series
wound motors.
Current
When you read a DC motor datasheet, it will sometimes (if you are
lucky!) have some characteristic graphs that tell you how the motor is
likely to respond. These mostly have Load Torque as the bottom x-axis,
and plot motor current, speed, power, and sometimes efficiency as they
relate to the load torque. Sometimes they may have motor current on the
bottom axis instead of load toruqe. In this case the graphs are still almost
the same shape because the motor current is almost directly proportional
to the load torque in all DC motors. Different types of field windings
produce different shapes for these graphs.
For a permanent magnet or shunt wound DC motor, the current drawn by
the motor increases linearly with load torque:

Notice that the line does not intersect the (0Nm / 0A) origin point. The
zero torque point intersects at 25 Amps for this motor (an Iskra 900W
starter motor). This means that the motor will not even start to turn until
it is pulling 25 Amps!
Speed
For all DC motors, the speed is nearly proportional to the supply voltage,
except for the effect of the armature resistance:

From this graph, and the equation, it can be seen that the speed of a
series motor with no load torque will rise to infinity! This doesn't happen in
practice because there is always a little load torque because due to friction
in the motor. It can also be seen that as a little load torque is added to a
series wound motor, the speed drops off very quickly to start with, but
then drops off less quickly.
With both motor field types, eventually, when the load torque becomes
even larger, say when a stronger robot is pushing us backwards, the
motor speed becomes negative (the motor starts rotating backwards).

In practice, the speed line for a PM or shunt wound motor may not be a
straight due to frictional loads which are not linearly dependant on speed.
The torque speed graph of a DC motor when it is being driven by a speed
controller with current limiting can be found in the speed controllers
section.
Power and efficiency
The power a motor is taking from the battery is P = [V - Ea]ia or P = [V Ea]2/Ra
The power the motor is putting into the load is P = T
When the motor is running with no extra load other than its friction, then
the load torque is zero, and so the output power is zero. The input power
is small also because the back emf is almost equal to the supply voltage.
The only power drawn from the battery is driving the loss torque: Ploss =
Tloss
When the motor is driving such a large torque that it has stalled, then the
back emf is zero, and the input power is very large: P = V2/Ra
and the output power is zero because the speed is zero. The efficiency of
the motor is defined as the amount of mechanical power you are getting
out of the motor divided by the amount of electrical input power you are
putting in, so:
power_out
efficiency = ----------power_in
The efficiency can also be plotted against load torque. Here is the
efficiency graph for an Iskra shunt wound starter motor:

Just because the maximum efficiency is at around 1Nm doesn't mean that
you have to run the motor at that torque though!
Characteristic graphs for some motors
Most of the graphs presented above were based on example values. Let's
look at the characteristic graphs for some real motors:
Iskra 12 Volt 900 Watt shunt wound starter motor
Bosch GPA750
Lynch 12V
Lynch 24V
Scott 4BB-02488 motor (datasheet)
Scott 4BD-1460 motor datasheet
Lynch (LEMCO) motors
Iskra motors
Scott motors
Bosch motors

Selecting DC motors
Sizing a DC motor to accurately meet a set of requirements can be a
thankless task. Having to choose between brush-type or brushless motors
can complicate the selection. Even experienced designers may sometimes
overlook critical motor parameters and find problems after the system is
up and running.
Experts, however, use an expedient procedure to properly size and select
dc motors. This procedure is based upon an accurate definition of the
target system parameters and designer experience. Solar racers may not
be so lucky as to have a limitless choice of motors to begin with.
Dc motor parameters:
Fortunately, several motor parameters are the same for both brush-type
and brushless dc motors. One of these is motor constant: Km. It is
important but widely overlooked. It is used during motor sizing because it
is a figure of merit of the motor power-to-torque ratio.
A candidate motor with the required Km value or greater is selected from
a catalog. The motor is only a candidate at this point because other
factors must be determined. As the design selection progresses, some
trade-offs typically take place. For example, the motor must also satisfy
physical size and inertia requirements.
Winding resistance is a major factor in motor selection because it seriously
affects Km. Winding resistance and motor current produce power loss in
the form of heat and motor temperature rise (TPR). These losses are also
referred to as I2R losses and directly degrade motor efficiency.
Most motor windings are copper wire which has a positive temperature
coefficient. A winding temperature rise from 25 to 155C increases wire
resistance as much as 50%. Likewise, a proportional decrease in
resistance occurs for temperature drops.
Solectria dc motor
Core losses:
Hysteresis and eddy currents in the core also make motor temperature
rise. At high speeds, these losses can produce as much or more heat than
I2R losses.
Core losses depend primarily on the motor design. Design factors affecting
those losses include lamination thickness, flux densities in the armature,
and frequencies generated in the core that depend upon the number of
poles and speed. Catalog specifications may not include core loss data, so
designers must measure it by testing several sample motors. The data
may also be available directly from the motor manufacturer.

Ambient temperature is the third most important factor determining motor

temperature rise. A motor having a winding temperature rating of 155C
and operating in an ambient temperature of 100C has only a 55C
allowable temperature rise. Core losses and I2R losses quickly cut the
55C margin under load. An ideal room ambient temperature of 25C, by
comparison, allows a 130C temperature rise.
Use of heat sinks and air or fluid cooling moderates the temperature rise
value considerably. The TPR rating of the motor per watt of input power,
C/W, is usually in the catalog or data sheet for unmounted motors. The
TPR for the same motor, but mounted, TPR can be 25% of the
unmounted value. A conservative designer could ignore the reduced TPR
in his calculations. But he would specify a motor much larger and more
expensive than necessary.
Magnet properties:
Dc motors use a variety of permanent-magnet materials. Early designs
employed ceramic or ferrite and AlNiCo magnets. These materials are still
widely applied, however, in automobiles and other areas where low cost as
well as reliability is important. Newer designs use rare-earth samariumcobalt and neodymium magnets.
Most magnets have stable magnetic properties within the normal
operating temperature range of the motor. But some magnets have a
higher temperature coefficient than others. High temperature-coefficient
magnets may become too weak if operated at high temperatures for
extended periods. Depending on the magnetic material and slope of the
motor's magnetic circuit, torque degradation may result over a wide
temperature range. Ceramic or ferrite magnets lose about 0.13% / C of
their remanence above 25C, while rare earth and AlNiCo may lose only
0.03% / C. But this loss is generally reversible if the temperature is kept
within the motor rating. Colder temperatures are seldom a problem. Since
the coefficient curve is linear, magnets are stronger at lower
temperatures.
Some grades of rare-earth magnets are more sensitive to temperature
than others. Magnets in the neodymium family may have irreversible
magnetic losses under wide temperature changes. These magnets have
the highest maximum-energy product (MEP), a figure of merit, of any
commercial magnet now available. High MEP comes at a premium and
should not be lost to temperature extremes. Neodymium magnets are
continually being improved with lower temperature coefficients to make
them as stable as other rare-earth grades.
Peak loads applied to AlNiCo and ceramic dc motors can degrade their
magnetic properties. AlNiCo motors have a peak current rating which
usually corresponds to a point above the knee of the B/H curve. Current
exceeding this rating, caused by either a
current spike or a constant dc input, are
over the knee and cause permanent
demagnetization. A demagnetized AlNiCo
motor may only provide 50 to 60% of its

original torque. Fortunately, rare-earth magnets are not as sensitive to

demagnetization as AlNiCo and ceramic.
Advanced DC Motors
.5 H.P. (.37kw) to 35H.P. (26kw)

Brushless versus brush-type:

Designers planning to integrate a dc motor into a system usually work
from a development specification. Constraints and limits in the
specifications will largely determine whether a brush-type or a brushless
motor is acceptable, based on the qualities of each.
Brush-type motors are generally used below 5,000 rpm. The actual
operating speed depends upon the commutator diameter and brush
material. Brush life decreases with higher commutator surface speed.
Surface speed for silver-graphite brushes is usually below 650 fpm while
paliney brushes are limited to only 50 fpm.
Other factors which limit brush motor life include commutator bar-to-bar
voltage, brush current density, and power at the brush-commutator
interface. High current and power at the brushes and commutator bar-tobar voltage (not terminal voltage) greatly exceeding 15 Vdc produce
excessive arcing. Arcing erodes brushes and commutators; wear
accelerates once erosion begins.
On the other hand, electronic drives for brush motors are usually much
simpler than for comparably sized brushless motors. No position sensors
or electronics are required for commutation. But these components are
mandatory for brushless operation. Unless used in a servocontrol loop,
brush-type dc motors need no electronics other than a power source.
Since brushless dc motors have no commutators or brushes, brush and
commutator arcing does not limit speed. Brushless dc motors are better
suited for applications needing a wide speed range. Speeds from a stalled
condition to more than 60,000 rpm are not unusual.
Brushless motors replace mechanical commutators with electronic
switching. Brushless dc motor controllers require a position feedback
signal from a sensor inside the motor. The sensor ensures that excitation
to the electromagnetic armature field always leads the permanent-magnet
field to produce torque. Power transistors drive the armature windings at a
specified motor current and voltage level.
Most brushless dc motors are constructed with an outer-wound stationary
armature and a rotor consisting of permanent magnets. Rotors of this type
are small and have low inertias. And heat transfers more efficiently from
the wound armature to ambient air in this configuration because heat
dissipates from the armature core to the outer metallic housing, not
conducted through the shaft like most brush-type configurations.

Motor sizing:
Motor sizing takes into account all the above motor parameters and
specifications. Also, the motor inertia and load must be defined for both
transient and steady-state conditions. These inertia are critical since
torque during acceleration exceeds torque at constant speed.
Two examples explain the sizing of dc motors for typical applications. The
first example considers the selection and sizing of a brush-type dc motor.
The second concerns a sterile outer-space environment requiring a
brushless dc motor.
Briggs & Stratton M7 ETek motor
SPEED CONTROLLERS
Introduction
The purpose of a motor speed controller is to take a signal representing
the demanded speed, and to drive a motor at that speed. The controller
may or may not actually measure the speed of the motor. If it does, it is
called a Feedback Speed Controller or Closed Loop Speed Controller, if not
it is called an Open Loop Speed Controller. Feedback speed control is
better, but more complicated, and may not be required for a simple robot
design.
Motors come in a variety of forms, and the speed controller's motor drive
output will be different dependent on these forms. The speed controller
presented here is designed to drive a simple cheap starter motor from a
car, which can be purchased from any scrap yard. These motors are
generally series wound, which means to reverse them, they must be
altered slightly.
Curtis PMW controller
Theory of DC motor speed control
The speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to the supply voltage, so
if we reduce the supply voltage from 12 Volts to 6 Volts, the motor will run
at half the speed. How can this be achieved when the battery is fixed at
12 Volts?
The speed controller works by varying the average voltage sent to the
motor. It could do this by simply adjusting the voltage sent to the motor,
but this is quite inefficient to do. A better way is to switch the motor's
supply on and off very quickly. If the switching is fast enough, the motor
doesn't notice it, it only notices the average effect.
When you watch a film in the cinema, or the television, what you are
actually seeing is a series of fixed pictures, which change rapidly enough
that your eyes just see the average effect - movement. Your brain fills in
the gaps to give an average effect.

Now imagine a light bulb with a switch. When you close the switch, the
bulb goes on and is at full brightness, say 100 Watts. When you open the
switch it goes off (0 Watts).
Now if you close the switch for a fraction of a second, then open it for the
same amount of time, the filament won't have time to cool down and heat
up, and you will just get an average glow of 50 Watts. This is how lamp
dimmers work, and the same principle is used by speed controllers to
drive a motor. When the switch is closed, the motor sees 12 Volts, and
when it is open it sees 0 Volts. If the switch is open for the same amount
of time as it is closed, the motor will see an average of 6 Volts, and will
run more slowly accordingly.
As the amount of time that the voltage is on increases compared with the
amount of time that it is off, the average speed of the motor increases.
This on-off switching is performed by power MOSFETs. A MOSFET (MetalOxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) is a device that can turn very
large currents on and off under the control of a low signal level voltage.
The time that it takes a motor to speed up and slow down under switching
conditions is dependant on the inertia of the rotor (basically how heavy it
is), and how much friction and load torque there is. The graph below
shows the speed of a motor that is being turned on and off fairly slowly:
You can see that the average speed is around 150, although it varies quite
a bit. If the supply voltage is switched fast enough, it wont have time to
change speed much, and the speed will be quite steady. This is the
principle of switch mode speed control. Thus the speed is set by PWM
Pulse Width Modulation.
Miniature speed controller and brushless DC motor for radio
controlled flight
PWM frequency
The frequency of the resulting PWM signal is dependant on the frequency
of the ramp waveform. What frequency do we want? This is not a simple
question. Some pros and cons are:
Frequencies between 20Hz and 18kHz may produce audible
screaming from the speed controller and motors - this may be an
added attraction for your robot!
RF interference emitted by the circuit will be worse the higher the
switching frequency is.
Each switching on and off of the speed controller MOSFETs results
in a little power loss. Therefore the greater the time spent
switching compared with the static on and off times, the greater
will be the resulting 'switching loss' in the MOSFETs.
The higher the switching frequency, the more stable is the current
waveform in the motors. This waveform will be a spiky switching
waveform at low frequencies, but at high frequencies the
inductance of the motor will smooth this out to an average DC
current level proportional to the PWM demand. This spikyness will
cause greater power loss in the resistances of the wires, MOSFETs,
and motor windings than a steady DC current waveform.

1. Instrumentation
1. Chassis - and seating
2. Motor Speed Controllers
3. Power Conversion Products
4. DC Contactors and Disconnect Switches
5. Input Devices
6. Curtis All Product Catalog

TIRES AND HUBS

Tire selection will affect rolling resistance which in turn affects how far the
solar car will travel on a given amount of energy. Tires with thicker rubber
and wider tread will normally have a higher rolling resistance, which is
something to be avoided, and boy racers take note. Thinner tires running
at higher pressure will have less rolling resistance, but are more
susceptible to punctures and give a harsher ride.
One of the best tires are the Bridgestone Ecopia tires made for solar cars.
They are very thin and operate at over one hundred pounds/inch pressure.
Unfortunately, they need to be mounted on specially made wheels and
require custom made hubs. On the positive side, these tires and wheels
are very light.
Some college teams have experimented with bicycle tires but report
limited success. Bicycle tires, rims and spokes are not designed for the
lateral forces placed on them by non-tilting vehicles weighing several
hundred pounds). Motorcycle tires tend to be too heavy and have more
rolling resistance, although there may be high pressure tires with low
resistance that I don't know about. If you know of any or are a
manufacturer making such, please let me know.
Bearing resistance can be reduced by lubricating with light oil. Bearing
seals can be cut away at the contact lip to leave most of the seal
protection while removing a lot, if not all seal drag. Magnetic seals have
been used successfully on other electric vehicles, but may prove too
complex for your budget. It is a good idea to get the rolling chassis
operational months before your schedule gets critical. Give the chassis a
long a run as possible to prove your bearings, axles, steering and
suspension can survive, and to highlight any weaknesses in need of
attention.

LINKS:
Theory of starter motors. Quite a good page.
http://www.apra.org/publications/electrical/fordther.htm

Controlling voltage spikes (motor suppression). SGS Thomson Acrobat

document.
http://us.st.com/stonline/books/pdf/docs/1703.pdf
Using car windscreen wiper motors
http://www.geocities.com/sprite-midget/wipers.htm
Power electronics: Diac Triac Thyristor, General overview, Miscellaneous
topics, Motor speed control, Power control, Power supplies, Power supply
topics, SMPS
Motor speed control
Circuits for motor control, automatization, Power control
Control tutorials mathlab PID, frequency respons, digital control, motor
speed
AC motor speed control with IGT pdf file
AC - DC motor speed control with MOSFETs pdf file
Bidirectional VF Control of Single and 3-Phase Induction Motors Using the
PIC16F72
Closed loop control open loop identification (step function response),
closed loop : P and PI control of a DC motor, a tip
Controlling 3-Phase AC Induction Motors Using the PIC18F4431
Controlling a small DC motor pdf file
Controlling motors and transformers with dimmers
DC motor control pdf file
DC motor speed control PWM, program written in C
DC motor speed control
DC motor speed control L298, LMD18200, UDN2998
DC motor speed control using Pulse Width Modulation MAX620
Dmarrages des moteurs asynchrones triphass cage en Franais, SWF
file
Determining MOSFET driver needs for motor drive applications MOSFET,
IGBT, stepper motor control, power switching, pdf file
Driving DC motors pdf file
Electronic control of direct current motors first quadrant speed control,
two-quadrant control-armature reversal, two-quadrant control -two
converters, two-quadrant control - two converters with circulating current,
two-quadrant control with positive torque, four-quadrant control,
Electronic Control of Alternating Current Motors
Fan speed control
FREQUENCY CONTROLLED AC MOTOR DRIVE The squirrel cage induction
motor is the electrical motor
motor type most widely used in industry. Squirrel cage motors are
asynchronous induction machines whose speed depends upon applied
frequency, pole pair number, and load torque, pdf file
Gradateurs en Franais
IMPROVED UNIVERSAL MOTOR DRIVE triac control, IGBT control, ST6210,
pdf file
Modulation de largeur d'impulsion en Franais, pdf file
MOSFET/IGBT DRIVERS theory and applications, pdf file
Motion control
Motion control systems pdf file
Motor control overview pdf file

Motor control and power electronics ppt file

Motor Control Sensor Feedback Circuits
Motor control tutorial
Motoren en frequentieregelaars in Dutch, pdf file
Motor power control motor power control, TRIAC, UJT,
impulstransformator, phase control
Motor sturing omzetters en sensoren, in Dutch, pdf file
Omzetters, sturen motoren in Dutch
Power electronics and drives control of electrical drives, switched-mode
converters, two-quadrant converters, four-quadrant converters, bipolar
switching, unipolar switching, PWM
Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) AC drives pdf file
PWM generator circuits
Rglage de la vitesse des moteurs asynchrones triphass en Franais
Rglage de vitesse des moteurs asynchrones triphass en Franais, pdf
file
SENSORLESS MOTOR DRIVE WITH THE ST6220 MCU AND TRIAC pdf file
Solid state control for bi-directional motors pdf file
Speed controllers
Speed controllers speed control of AC and DC motors
Speed controllers principle of switch mode speed control, H bridge,
MOSFET, encoder
Step motor drive technology (pdf-format)
Triac motor control
Universal motor control Universal motor control: the universal motor is a
rotating electric machine similar to a DC motor but designed to operate
either from direct current or single-phase alternating current, ...
Variable-switched-reluctance motors VSR motors
Variateur de vitesse en Franais
Variation de vitesse de la machine courant continu zip file, en Franais

CONTROLLERS: 4QD
Part 1
12v or 24v operation
12v Motors on 24v
12v systems
Amp and Volt meters.
Applications
Batteries
Boats - general
Boats: recharging under sail
Charging a 24v system from 12v
Choice of controller
Closed Loop control See also speed Stability.
Collision detection
Converters, voltage, step-up
Current requirements

Current calculator in JavaScript calculates the motor current you

will need.
Current monitoring

Part 2
Cycles
Dead man's handle
Differential gearing
Digital control
Dual Ramp reversing and Regen braking
'Double heading' a loco See 'Slave use'.
Dynamo, use as motor.
Efficiency
End stops (travel limits) - see Collision detection
Fork-lift trucks
Fuses and circuit breakers
Golf-carts
Heating.
Industrial use
o Closed loop control
o Constant torque mode
Jockey wheels, motorised
Joystick operation.
Kiddiecars
Lighting
Locomotives and Trams
Part 3
Machines as mixtures of mechanical and electronic systems.
Machine wiring: good and bad practises
Machine tools
Mains use see Machine Tools
Microprocessor control
o See also Digital control
Mobility Aids
Motors, brush offset of
Motors: choice of
o Motors: Permanent magnet
o Motors: Shunt Wound
o Motors: Series Wound
o Motors: Car starter
Motors: examples
o Bosch 750w
o EMD motors
o Ohio
o Sinclair C5

Motors: matching of
Motor ratings
o Continuous current
o Stall current
Motor Current calculator in JavaScript calculates the motor current
you will need.
Paralleled motors - see Differential gearing
PWM motor speed control: how it works in our circuits archive.
Quadrants
Radio control See Remote control
Radio controlled machines good and bad wiring practises
Ramps - accel & decel

Part 4
Remote control
Regen braking and Dual Ramp reversing
Regen braking - how does it work?
Reverse polarity protection
Reversing
Road speed
Road speed Calculator uses JavaScript
Road vehicles.
Series connected motors - see Differential gearing
Series-parallel motors
Servo systems
o Position servo
o Speed servo
o Position and speed servo
Slave Use
Soft Start
Speed stability
Step-up voltage converters
Suppression, RFI mainly as applies to robots.
Surge currents
Switching frequency
Tacho Generators See Speed Stability.
Toothed Belts
Travel Limits (End stops) - see Collision detection
Towing
Voltage converters, step-up
Voltage Following mode
The Lynch Motor
SOLAR ARRAY and POWER TRACKERS
We recommend a solar array created from individual solar cells as opposed to one
made of prefabricated solar panels. It enhances the students' learning and can

result in a lighter solar array. Cells can be bought from either Siemens or ASE
Americas.
Both sell the terrestrial-grade cells that are permitted in most solar challenges, and
the cost for terrestrial-grade cells are much lower than space-grade cells, though
terrestrial-grade is less efficient. Each solar cell should produce .5 volts at about 3
amps at peak sunlight. The number of cells to use depends on their size and the
allowable solar area for the rules of an event. Solar cells should be wired in series
on a panel and should be divided into several zones. For example, if you have 750
solar cells, you might want to wire 3 sets of 250 cells, each zone producing about
125 volts. If one zone fails, two other zones are still producing power.
The solar array voltage does not need to match the system voltage of the motor if
you use power trackers. Power trackers convert the solar array voltage to the
system voltage. They are essential in a solar car. Be sure to verify with the power
tracker vendor the necessary array voltage to feed the power trackers. If the car
drives underneath shade, the power trackers automatically adjusts the power to
match system voltage, allowing the system to run as efficient as possible. Power
trackers are available from AERL.

WHAT IS A SOLAR CELL

A solar cell converts solar energy to electrical energy. Photons in sunlight provide
the energy that moves electrons from one layer of a semi-conducting metallic
wafer to another. The movement of the electrons creates a current.
Solar cells are devices which convert solar energy directly into electricity. The most
common solar cells function by the photovoltaic effect. Photo- means light and
-voltaic means electrical current or electricity. (light-electricity) A solar cell
supplies direct current (DC) electricity that can be used to power DC motors and
light bulbs among other things. Solar cells can even be used to charge
rechargeable batteries so that electricity can be stored or transported for later use
when the sun is not available.
There are primarily two types of cells used today, silicon and gallium arsenide,
which come in several different grades and varying efficiencies. The satellites that
orbit the earth typically use gallium arsenide, while silicon is more commonly used
for Earth based (terrestrial) applications.

Photovoltaic cell semiconductor layers

Stock class solar cars use commerically available terrestrial grade silicon cells.
Numerous individual cells (approaching 1000) are combined to form the "solar
array". Depending on the electric motor used to drive the car, these arrays
generally work between 50 and 200 volts, and can provide up to around 1000
watts of power. The intensity of the sun, cloud cover, and temperature affect the
array's output.

Open class solar cars can use any type of solar cell and many teams use the space
grade cells. These cells are generally smaller and much more expensive than the
conventional silicon cells. They also are more efficient. Photovoltaic cells are a
relatively technology. Their development and use has come about as part of the
technology developed for space travel and satellite communication systems.
The word Photovoltaic is a combination of the Greek word for Light and the name
of the physicist Allesandro Volta. It identifies the direct conversion of sunlight into
energy by means of solar cells. The conversion process is based on the
photoelectric effect discovered by Alexander Bequerel in 1839. The photoelectric
effect describes the release of positive and negative charge carriers in a solid state
when light strikes its surface.
HOW DOES A SOLAR CELL WORK
Solar cells are composed of various semiconducting materials. Semiconductors are
materials, which become electrically conductive when supplied with light or heat,
but which operate as insulators at low temperatures.
Over 95% of all the solar cells produced worldwide are composed of the
semiconductor material Silicon (Si). As the second most abundant element in
earth`s crust, silicon has the advantage, of being available in sufficient quantities,
and additionally processing the material does not burden the environment. To
produce a solar cell, the semiconductor is contaminated or "doped". "Doping" is the
intentional introduction of chemical elements, with which one can obtain a surplus
of either positive charge carriers (p-conducting semiconductor layer) or negative
charge carriers (n-conducting semiconductor layer) from the semiconductor
material. If two differently contaminated semiconductor layers are combined, then
a so-called p-n-junction results on the boundary of the layers.
At this junction, an interior electric field is built up which leads to the separation of
the charge carriers that are released by light. Through metal contacts, an electric
charge can be tapped. If the outer circuit is closed, meaning a consumer is
connected, then direct current flows. Silicon cells are approximately 10 cm by 10
cm large (recently also 15 cm by 15 cm). A transparent anti-reflection film protects
the cell and decreases reflective loss on the cell surface.

Photovoltaics: Solar Electricity and Solar Cells in Theory and Practice

The word Photovoltaic is a combination of the Greek word for Light and the name
of the physicist Allesandro Volta. It identifies the direct conversion of sunlight into
energy by means of solar cells. The conversion process is based on the
photoelectric effect discovered by Alexander Bequerel in 1839. The photoelectric
effect describes the release of positive and negative charge carriers in a solid state
when light strikes its surface.
Photovoltaic cell construction
Characteristics of a Solar Cell

The usable voltage from solar cells depends on the semiconductor material. In
silicon it amounts to approximately 0.5 V. Terminal voltage is only weakly
dependent on light radiation, while the current intensity increases with higher
luminosity. A 100 cm silicon cell, for example, reaches a maximum current
intensity of approximately 2 A when radiated by 1000 W/m.
The output (product of electricity and voltage) of a solar cell is temperature
dependent. Higher cell temperatures lead to lower output, and hence to lower
efficiency. The level of efficiency indicates how much of the radiated quantity of
light is converted into useable electrical energy.
Different Cell Types
One can distinguish three cell types according to the type of crystal:
monocrystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous. To produce a monocrystalline
silicon cell, absolutely pure semiconducting material is necessary. Monocrystalline
rods are extracted from melted silicon and then sawed into thin plates. This
production process guarantees a relatively high level of efficiency.
The production of polycrystalline cells is more cost-efficient. In this process, liquid
silicon is poured into blocks that are subsequently sawed into plates. During
solidification of the material, crystal structures of varying sizes are formed, at
whose borders defects emerge. As a result of this crystal defect, the solar cell is
less efficient.
If a silicon film is deposited on glass or another substrate material, this is a socalled amorphous or thin layer cell. The layer thickness amounts to less than 1m
(thickness of a human hair: 50-100 m), so the production costs are lower due to
the low material costs. However, the efficiency of amorphous cells is much lower
than that of the other two cell types. Because of this, they are primarily used in low
power equipment (watches, pocket calculators) or as facade elements.
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From the Cell to the Module

In order to make the appropriate voltages and outputs available for different
applications, single solar cells are interconnected to form larger units. Cells
connected in series have a higher voltage, while those connected in parallel
produce more electric current. The interconnected solar cells are usually embedded
in transparent Ethyl-Vinyl-Acetate, fitted with an aluminum or stainless steel frame
and covered with transparent glass on the front side.
The typical power ratings of such solar modules are between 10 Wpeak and 100
Wpeak. The characteristic data refer to the standard test conditions of 1000 W/m
solar radiation at a cell temperature of 25 Celsius. The manufacturer's standard
warranty of ten or more years is quite long and shows the high quality standards
and life expectancy of today's products.
THE SOLAR CAR ARRAY
The solar array is the vehicle's only source of power during the cross-country
Rayce. The array is made up of many (often several hundred) photovoltaic solar
cells that convert the sun's energy into electricity. Teams use a variety of solar cell
technologies to build their arrays. The cell types and dimensions of the array are
restricted by the Regulations, depending on the vehicle size and class.
The cells are wired together to form strings. Several strings are often wired
together to form a section or panel that has a voltage close to the nominal battery
voltage. There are several methods used to string the cells together, but the
primary goal is to get as many solar cells possible in the space available. The solar
cells are very fragile and can be damaged easily. Teams protect the cells from both
the weather and breakage by encapsulating them. There are several methods used
to encapsulate cells and the goal is to protect the cells while adding the least
amount of weight.
The power produced by the solar array varies depending on the weather, the sun's
position in the sky, and the solar array itself. On a bright, sunny day at noon, a
good solar car solar array will produce well over 1000 watts (1.3 hp) of power. The
power from the array is used either to power the electric motor or stored in the
battery pack for later use.

Solar Car Array - or cells arrangement

Natural Limits of Efficiency
In addition to optimizing the production processes, work is also being done to
increase the level of efficiency, in order to lower the costs of solar cells. However,
different loss mechanisms are setting limits on these plans. Basically, the different
semiconductor materials or combinations are suited only for specific spectral
ranges. Therefore a specific portion of the radiant energy cannot be used, because
the light quanta (photons) do not have enough energy to "activate" the charge
carriers. On the other hand, a certain amount of surplus photon energy is
transformed into heat rather than into electrical energy. In addition to that, there
are optical losses, such as the shadowing of the cell surface through contact with
the glass surface or reflection of incoming rays on the cell surface. Other loss
mechanisms are electrical resistance losses in the semiconductor and the
connecting cable.
The disrupting influence of material contamination, surface effects and crystal
defects, however, are also significant. Single loss mechanisms (photons with too
little energy are not absorbed, surplus photon energy is transformed into heat)
cannot be further improved because of inherent physical limits imposed by the
materials themselves. This leads to a theoretical maximum level of efficiency, i.e.
approximately 28% for crystal silicon.
At the heart of any solar powered car, must be the electrical system. This
comprises the batteries and power electronics to control and manages all the
power that enters and exits the system - solar arrays to supply and motor as the
end user.
The battery pack is equivalent to a petrol tank in a conventional IC car. A solar car
uses the battery pack to store energy that will be used at some later time and also
as a load leveling device. Solar cars start races with fully charged battery packs,
but after the start, only energy generated by the solar array can be used to
recharge the batteries. The maximum amount of batteries that a team can use is
limited by a weight rule that is set for each battery type. The most commonly used
batteries are:
1. Lead-Acid
2. Nickel-Metal Hydrid (NiMH)
3. Nickel-Cadmium (NiCad)
4. Lithium Ion
5. Lithium Polymer
NiCad, NiMH, and Lithium batteries offer improved power to weight ratio over the
more common Lead-Acid batteries, but they are less proven technologies that
require careful maintenance and are more costly. Although, in recent years the
price has dropped and the reliability is much improved.

Nickel-Metal Hydrid (NiMH)

The battery pack is made up of several individual cells or modules wired together
to generate the required system voltage. The word "battery" comes from a number

of guns, "a battery", put together. Commonly, teams use system voltages between
84 and 108 volts, depending on their electrical system. Some teams run lower 48
or 60 volt systems. Obviously, the higher the voltage, the more complex the pack
and possibly the array. Equally, higher voltages usually means better overall
system efficiency.
Some of the most sophisticated components in a solar car are the power
electronics. They include the peak power trackers, the motor controller, and the
data acquisition system. The primary function of the power electronics is to monitor
and control the electricity within the system. Most teams purchase their power
electronic components off the shelf these days. Some teams commission custom
built components or build their own custom components.
The peak power trackers condition the electricity coming from the solar array to
maximize the power and deliver it either to the batteries for storage or to the
motor controller for propulsion. When the solar array is charging the batteries, the
peak power trackers help to protect the batteries from being damaged by
overcharging. The number of peak power trackers used in a solar car varies with
each team's design. Peak power trackers can be very lightweight and commonly
reach efficiencies above 95%.

Peak power trackers

The motor controller handles the electricity being sent to the motor based on input
signals coming from the driver's accelerator. The power electronics used to manage
the electricity within the motor controller is a subject for technical explanations
beyond the scope of this general introduction to the subject and is like most
specific areas of design, a specialist subject. There are many different types of
motor controllers to work with different types a motors. For the teams that
purchase their motors, they can usually also buy a controller that is designed to
work with that motor. All teams use some type of motor controller and the best
ones are more than 90% efficient. Some are DC controllers and some AC
controllers.
Many competitors now use sophisticated data acquisition systems that monitor the
entire electrical system including the solar array, batteries, motor controller and
motor. A team needs to monitor the battery voltage and current as the basic
minimum. The data received from the acquisition system may be very useful in
planning your teams race strategy. This information could also head off potential
problems developing in the car. Ultimately, the driver must interpret his
instruments and his support team monitor their car remotely using telemetry
(wireless data transmission).

CONTROLS
Most solar racing cars are single seaters with very few amenities for the driver. A
few cars also carry a passenger. Drivers and passengers can look forward to
uncomfortable seats, cramped seating positions and high cockpit temperatures, in

return for which they get the excitement of driving the car of the future and of
course help make automotive history.
Solar cars do have some of the equipment normally found in conventional cars,
such as indicators (turn signals), brake pedal and lights, accelerator pedal, rear
view mirrors, fresh air ventilation, and sometimes even cruise control. Most solar
cars teams use a variety of methods to feed water to the drivers. The driver also
gets a two way communication radio used to keep in contact with his team and
support vehicles.
Drivers and passengers are protected with five point safety harnesses and helmets.
Besides driving the car, the driver's most important function is to monitor the car's
systems and watch for potential problems. In a small minority of cars, the
passenger monitors the vehicle systems. Solar cars are fitted with gauges similar
to a conventional car that display the information received from the vehicle
systems.
The support team similar to a pit crew in Grand Prix, IndyCar or NASCAR racing.
The support crew works from a variety of support vehicles (usually two) that lead
and chase the solar car. The support team is responsible for keeping the car
running, determining strategy, and providing weather and route information to the
driver
CONSTRUCTION
Keeping the weight of a Solar Powered car's bodywork down is almost as important
as making sure it slides through the air gracefully. Where the mass of the vehicle
determines the rolling resistance, and the rate of acceleration, the shape of the
bodywork, determines the aerodynamic drag, which above 25 mph can rise
significantly.
Where a car is a monocoque composite moulding, the body may become part of
the structure and take loads fed into the vehicle via the suspension. This design
approach may yield a lighter vehicle, which may come at a price, where complexity
and specialization may hamper roadside repairs, etc.
For this reason, many teams opt for a separate tubular chassis, with bodywork
attached as one or two piece mouldings. The top bodywork, is usually hinged or
detachable, to enable the panels to be angled toward the sun. Obviously, in a car
that uses the shell as a monocoque, the whole car would have to be tilted, to angle
the panels toward the late afternoon or early morning sun.

Solar Car slipstream - turquoise = turbulent flow

AERODYNAMICS
One goal for the teams who design solar cars, is to achieve extremely low
aerodynamic drag while still maintaining a suitable surface for the solar cells and
adequate space for the driver and the other components. Once a design is
proposed, the shape should be tested to obtain figures for drag.

Testing proposed aerodynamic shapes is generally done in one of two ways. The
first is to build scale models that are tested in a wind tunnel to simulate air flow
across the car. The second is to use a powerful computer program that does the
same kind of air flow simulation using a computer-generated model of the car.
One objective of aerodynamic studies is the design of shapes that offer the least
resistance to the flow of air. Air offers a resistance to any object moving through it.
Air resistance is influenced by the shape of an object. Aerodynamics engineers
study the way in which air flows around objects, but it is still somewhat a black art.
Air resistance is referred to as aerodynamic drag. If a moving object is streamlined,
the air will flow around it smoothly and cause less drag, therefore needing less
energy to move the object. Such a design is considered to be aerodynamically
efficient. When an object produces poor airflow, more energy is required to push it
forward.
INSPIRED BY NATURE
There are many examples of animals which are extremely aerodynamic, the most
obvious of which are fish and birds. Birds have to be able to use the air well, in
order to survive. This means generating lift with their wings and keeping their
body as efficient as possible to penetrate the air, hence move forward.
Fish have the same basic problem, but do not have to generate lift. They simply
have to propel themselves through a much denser liquid: water.
THE BOXFISH
The Boxfish is one example of an angular shape that is still very efficient at moving
through water. This fish inspired a research project by Mercedes Benz. A team of:
biologists, bionics scientists and automotive researchers from various disciplines
embarked on an extraordinary expedition into the animal kingdom which soon led
them into the depths of the underwater world and presented them with a
surprise.
It was not the fast, sleek swimmers such as the shark or dolphin that came closest
to the ideals of the research engineers, but a creature that looks anything but
streamlined and agile at first sight: the boxfish. It has its home in the coral reefs,
lagoons and seaweed of the tropical seas, where it has a great deal in common
with cars in many respects.
Boxfish (ostracion cubicus)
Like any animal, the Boxfish needs to conserve its strength and move with the
least possible consumption of energy, which requires powerful muscles and a
streamlined shape. It must withstand high pressures and protect its body during
collisions, which requires a rigid outer skin. And it needs to move in confined
spaces in its search for food, which requires good manoeuvrability.
There is more to the boxfish than meets the eye: despite its angular body, it is an
excellent swimmer whose cube-shaped structure is by no means a hindrance. On

the contrary, the boxfish possesses unique characteristics and is a prime example
of the ingenious inventions developed by nature over millions of years of evolution.
The basic principle of this evolution is that nothing is superfluous and each part of
the body has a purpose and sometimes several at once.
The outer skin of the boxfish consists of numerous bony, hexagonal plates which
are interlinked to form a rigid suit of armour. This bony, armour-plated structure
gives the body of the fish great rigidity, protects it from injury and is also the
secret of its outstanding manoeuvrability, as tiny vortices form along the edges on
the upper and lower parts of the body to stabilise the fish in any position and
ensure that it remains safely on course even in areas of great turbulence. It does
not need to move its fins in the process, and can therefore conserve its strength.
Applied to automotive engineering, the boxfish is therefore an ideal example of
rigidity and aerodynamics. Moreover, its rectangular anatomy is practically identical
to the cross-section of a car body. And so the boxfish became the model for a so
far unique automotive development project.
The first sub-project tackled by the engineers at the Mercedes-Benz Technology
Centre and DaimlerChrysler Research concerned aerodynamics. In wind tunnels
and water channels they examined how the attributes of the living model could be
transferred to an automobile.
The results are impressive. Despite its angular structure, the boxfish has almost as
good streamlining qualities as the water drop shape which specialists consider to
be the standard for the ideal aerodynamic form. When exposed to an open flow,
this streamlined shape has a Cd value of 0.04. Using computer calculations and
wind tunnel tests with an accurate model of the boxfish, the Mercedes engineers
achieved a value which came very close to this ideal, namely 0.06 an outstanding
result. It explains why the boxfish is such a good swimmer and is so manoeuvrable
with minimal effort.
Wind tunnel model of a boxfish: Cd value 0.06
MERCEDES QUARTER SCALE MODEL
To make use of the aerodynamic potential the specialists in Stuttgart first created a
1:4 scale model car whose shape substantially corresponded to the boxfish. The
angular outside contours of the living model were adapted in the area of the roof
and side skirts, as was the prominent, descending rear end with its heavily
scalloped sides and pronounced wedge shape.
In doing this they were disobeying important principles in automotive
aerodynamics, and were all the more surprised at the results: the Cd value for the
car was 0.095. In aerodynamic terms it was just as good as the shape - as
measured on the ground - considered ideal by aerodynamics specialists (Cd 0.09).
Thus, the research model in the shape of a boxfish betters the drag coefficient of
todays compact cars by more than 65 percent.
The second round of the Mercedes-Benz bionic car project then commenced. The
task was to develop a full-size, roadworthy automobile on the basis of the boxfish
contours a fully equipped model for four occupants, with typical Mercedes
attributes in terms of safety, comfort, design and day-to-day practicality, and

equipped with all the technology necessary for minimal fuel consumption and the
best possible environmental compatibility.
The result of this unusual vehicle project was a compact car with two doors, four
comfortable single seats, a panoramic windscreen, a glass roof and a large tailgate
4.24 metres long, 1.82 metres wide and 1.59 metres high. Naturally the exacting
requirements with respect to practicality, everyday suitability and design made
compromises compared with the 1:4 model necessary, but the concept car still
retains outstanding aerodynamic characteristics: with a Cd value of 0.19 the fullyfunctioning and driveable Mercedes-Benz bionic car is among the aerodynamically
most efficient in this size category.
In addition to the boxfish-like basic shape, this result is made possible by a number
of other aerodynamic features, e.g. rear wheels which are almost completely
shrouded with sheets of plastic, flush-fitted door handles and the use of cameras
instead of exterior mirrors.
One of the most aerodynamic concept cars Mercedes-Benz bionic Cd 0.19
ENERGY CONSUMPTION
In the Mercedes study, the optimal aerodynamic properties derived from the
boxfish and a new lightweight construction concept taken from nature create the
conditions for a low fuel consumption and excellent performance. Equipped with a
103 kW/140-hp direct-injection diesel engine, the concept car consumes 4.3 litres
of fuel per 100 kilometres (combined), making it 20 percent more economical than
a comparable standard-production model.
I was the Wright Brothers who first built a scale wind tunnel to test wing shapes.
These series of tests gave them figures for lift per square inch against various
shapes, at various speeds through the air, from which it was possible to calculate
the size wing they would need to achieve flight for a given mass. The mass, being
their body weight, engine, fuel and the frame, wings etc. That is how flight took
off, if you'll pardon the pun.
WIND TUNNEL TESTS
Closed loop small scale wind tunnel measuring 1.5m X .8m
Bluebird BE1 model in chamber