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VII.

BOUNDARYLAYERFLOWS
Thepreviouschapterconsideredonlyviscousinternalflows.
Viscousinternalflowshavethefollowingmajorboundarylayercharacteristics:
* AnentranceregionwheretheboundarylayergrowsanddP/dxconstant,
* Afullydevelopedregionwhere:
Theboundarylayerfillstheentireflowarea.
Thevelocityprofiles,pressuregradient,andwareconstant;
i.e.theyarenotequaltof(x),
Theflowiseitherlaminarorturbulentovertheentirelengthoftheflow,
i.e.transitionfromlaminartoturbulentisnotconsidered.
However,viscousflowboundarylayercharacteristicsforexternalflowsare
significantlydifferentasshownbelowforflowoveraflatplate:

U
freestream

x laminar

laminarto
turbulent
transition
turbulent

edgeofboundarylayer
(x)

xcr

Fig.7.1Schematicofboundarylayerflowoveraflatplate
Fortheseconditions,wenotethefollowingcharacteristics:
Theboundarylayerthicknessgrowscontinuouslyfromthestartofthefluid
surfacecontact,e.g.theleadingedge.Itisafunctionofx,notaconstant.
Velocityprofilesandshearstressaref(x,y).
Theflowwillgenerallybelaminarstartingfromx=0.
Theflowwillundergolaminartoturbulenttransitionifthestreamwise
dimensionisgreaterthanadistancexcrcorrespondingtothelocationof
thetransitionReynoldsnumberRecr.
Outsideoftheboundarylayerregion,freestreamconditionsexistwhere
velocitygradientsandthereforeviscouseffectsaretypicallynegligible.
VII1

Asitwasforinternalflows,themostimportantfluidflowparameteristhelocal
Reynoldsnumberdefinedas
Rex

U x U x

where
=fluiddensity

=fluiddynamicviscosity

=fluidkinematicviscosity U =characteristicflowvelocity
x=characteristicflowdimension
Itshouldbenotedatthispointthatallexternalflowapplicationswillnotusea
distance from the leading edge x as the characteristic flow dimension. For
example,forflowoveracylinder,thediameterwillbeusedasthecharacteristic
dimensionfortheReynoldsnumber.
Transitionfromlaminartoturbulentflowtypicallyoccursatthelocaltransition
Reynoldsnumber,whichforflatplateflowscanbeintherangeof

500, 000 Re cr 3,000, 00


Withxcr=thevalueofxwheretransitionfromlaminartoturbulentflowoccurs,
thetypicalvalueusedforsteady,incompressibleflowoveraflatplateis

Re cr

U xcr
500, 000

Thusforflatplateflowsforwhich:
x<xcr

theflowislaminar

xxcr

theflowisturbulent

ThesolutiontoboundarylayerflowsisobtainedfromthereducedNavier
Stokesequations,i.e.,NavierStokesequationsforwhichboundarylayer
assumptionsandapproximationshavebeenapplied.
VII2

FlatPlateBoundaryLayerTheory
LaminarFlowAnalysis
Forsteady,incompressibleflowoveraflatplate,thelaminarboundarylayer
equationsare:
Conservationofmass:

u v 0
x y

'X'momentum:

u u v u 1 dp 1 u

'Y'momentum:

p 0

dx

Thesolutiontotheseequationswasobtainedin1908byBlasius,astudentof
Prandtl's.Heshowedthatthesolutiontothevelocityprofile,showninthetable
below,couldbeobtainedasafunctionofasingle,nondimensionalvariable
definedas
Table7.1theBlasiusVelocityProfile

y U x

1/2

withtheresultingordinary
differentialequation:

1
f f 0
2
u
and f
U
f

Boundaryconditionsforthedifferentialequationareexpressedasfollows:
aty=0,v=0f(0)=0; ycomponentofvelocityiszeroaty=0
VII3

aty=0,u=0 f0 0 ; xcomponentofvelocityiszeroaty=0

VII4

Thekeyresultofthissolutioniswrittenasfollows:

2 f

0.332
y 0

w
U U / x

Withthisresultandthedefinitionoftheboundarylayerthickness,thefollowing
keyresultsareobtainedforthelaminarflatplateboundarylayer:
Localboundarylayerthickness

Localskinfrictioncoefficient:

C fx

5x
Re x

TotaldragcoefficientforlengthL(integration
ofwdAoverthelengthoftheplate,perunit
area,dividedby0.5U2)

0.664
Re x
1.328
CD
Re x

wherebydefinition C fx

CD

(definedbelow)

w x
1
2 and

FD / A
1
2

Withtheseresults,wecandeterminelocalboundarylayerthickness,localwall
shearstress,andtotaldragforceforlaminarflowoveraflatplate.
Example:
Air flowsover asharpedged flat platewithL =1m, awidthof 3mand
U=2m/s.Foronesideoftheplate,find:(L),Cf(L),w(L),CD,andFD.
Air:

=1.23kg/m3

FirstcheckRe: Re L

=1.46E5m2/s

U L 2 m / s* 2.15 m

294,520 500,000

1.46E 5m 2 / s

KeyPoint:Therefore,theflowislaminarovertheentirelengthoftheplateand
calculationsmadeforanyxpositionfrom01mmustbemadeusinglaminar
flowequations.

VII5

Boundarylayerthicknessatx=L:

5L
5* 2.15 m

0.0198 m 1.98 cm
Re L
294, 520

Localskinfrictioncoefficientatx=L:

C f L

0.664
0.664

0.00122
Re L
294, 520

Surfaceshearstressatx=L:

w 1 / 2 U2 C f 0.5 *1.23 kg / m3 * 2 2 m 2 / s 2 * 0.00122


w 0.0030 N / m2 Pa
Dragcoefficientovertotalplate,0L:

CD L

1.328
1.328

0.00245
Re L
294, 520

Dragforceoverplate,0L:

FD 1/ 2 U2 CD A 0.5 *1.23kg / m3 * 22 m2 / s 2 * 0.00245 * 2 * 2.15 m2


FD 0.0259 N
Twokeypointsregardingthisanalysis:
1. Eachofthesecalculationscanbemadeforanyotherlocationontheplate
bysimplyusingtheappropriatexlocationforany x L .
2. BecarefulnottoconfusethecalculationforCfandCD.
Cfisalocalcalculationataparticularxlocation(includingx=L)andcan
onlybeusedtocalculatelocalshearstressataspecificx,notdragforce.
CDisanintegratedaverageoveraspecifiedlength(includingany x L )
andcanonlybeusedtocalculatetheaverageshearstressovertheentire
plateandtheintegratedforceoverthetotallength.
VII6

TurbulentFlowEquations
Whilethepreviousanalysisprovidesanexcellentrepresentationoflaminar,flat
plateboundarylayerflow,asimilaranalyticalsolutionisnotavailableforturbulent
flowduetothecomplexnatureoftheturbulentflowstructure.
However,experimentalresultsareavailabletoprovideequationsforkeyflowfield
parameters.
Asummaryoftheresultsforboundarylayerthicknessandlocalandaverageskin
frictioncoefficientforalaminarflatplateandacomparisonwithexperimental
resultsforasmooth,turbulentflatplateareshownbelow.
Laminar

x
C fx
CD

where

Turbulent

5x
Re x

0.664
Re x

1.328
Re L

C fx

w
1
2

C fx
0.031
C D 1/7
Re L

0.16 x
Re1/x 7

0.027
Re1/7
x

forturbulentflowover
entireplate,0L,i.e.
assumesturbulentflow
inthelaminarregion

localdragcoefficientbasedonlocal
wallshearstress(laminarorturbulent
flowregion)

and
C =totaldragcoefficient
D

basedontheintegratedforce
overthelength0toL

F/ A
CD 1
2
U
2

VII7

1
2

1 L

w x w dx
0

Acarefulstudyoftheseresultswillshowthat,ingeneral,boundarylayerthickness
growsfasterforturbulentflow,andwallshearandtotalfrictiondragaregreaterfor
turbulentflowthanforlaminarflowgiventhesameReynoldsnumber.

VII8

Itisnotedthattheexpressionsforturbulentflowarevalidonlyforaflatplatewith
asmoothsurface.Expressionsincludingtheeffectsofsurfaceroughnessare
availableinthetext.
CombinedLaminarandTurbulentFlow

U
freestream

x laminar

laminarto
turbulent
transition

edgeofboundarylayer
(x)

turbulent

xcr

Flatplatewithbothlaminarandturbulentflowsections
Forconditions(asshownabove)wherethelengthoftheplateissufficientlylong
thatwehavebothlaminarandturbulentsections:
*

Localvaluesforboundarylayerthicknessandwallshearstressforeitherthe
laminarorturbulentsectionsareobtainedfromtheexpressionsfor(x)and
Cf forlaminarorturbulentflowasappropriateforthegivenregion.
x
Theresultforaveragedragcoefficient CD andthustotalfrictionalforce
overthecombinedlaminarandturbulentportionsoftheplateisgivenby
(assumingatransitionReof500,000)

CD
*

0.031
0.031

1/ 7
Re1/7
L
5x106

Calculationsassumingonlyturbulentflowcantypicallybemadefortwocases:
1.
2.

whensomephysicalsituation(atripwire)hascausedtheflowtobe
turbulentfromtheleadingedgeor
ifthetotallengthLoftheplateismuchgreaterthanthelengthxcrof
thelaminarsectionsuchthatthetotallengthofplatecanbeconsidered
turbulentfromx=0toL.Notethatthiswilloverpredictthefriction
dragforcesinceturbulentdragisgreaterthanlaminar.

VII9

Withtheseresults,adetailedanalysiscanbeobtainedforlaminarand/orturbulent
flowoverflatplatesandsurfacesthatcanbeapproximatedasaflatplate.

VII10

Figure7.6inthetextshowsresultsforlaminar,turbulentandtransitionregimes.
Equations7.48a&bcanbeusedtocalculateskinfrictionanddragresultsforthe
fullyroughregime.

x 2.5

c f 2.87 1.58 log

(7.48a)

L 2.5

CD 1.89 1.62 log

(7.48b)

Equations7.49a&bcanbeusedtocalculatetotalCDforcombinedlaminarand
turbulentflowfortransitionReynoldsnumbersof5x105and3x106respectively.

CD

0.031 1440

Re1/7
ReL
L

Re trans 5x10 5

CD

0.031 8700

Re1/7
ReL
L

Re trans 3x106

Example:
Waterflowsoverasharpflatplate2.55mlong,1mwide,withUm/s.
EstimatetheerrorinFDifitisassumedthattheentireplateisturbulent.
Water:=1000kg/m3

=1.02Em2/s

Reynoldsnumber: Re L

U L 2 m / s * 2.55 m

5E 6 500, 000

1.02E 6 m 2 / s

with Re cr 500,000 x cr 0.255m (or10%laminar)


a.Assumethattheentireplateisturbulent

CD

0.031
0.031

1/7
1/ 7 0.003423
6
Re L
5x10

VII11

FD

0.5 U 2 CD

FD 17.46 N

kg 2 m2
A 0.51000 3 2 2 0.003423 2.55m2
m
s
Thisshouldbehighsincewehaveassumedthatthe
entireplateisturbulentandthefirst10%is
actuallylaminar.

b.Nowconsidertheactualcombinedlaminarandturbulentflow:

CD

0.031 1440
0.031
1440

6 0.003135
6 1/7
Re1/7
Re
5x10
L
L
5x10

NotethattheCDhasdecreasedwhenboththelaminarandturbulentsectionsare
considered.

FD

0.5 U 2 CD

FD 15.99 N
Error

kg 2 m2
A 0.51000 3 2 2 0.003135 2.55m2
m
s
{Lowerthanthefullyturbulentvalue}

17.46 15.99
100 9.2% high
15.99

Thus,theeffectofneglectingthelaminarregionandassumingtheentireplateis
turbulentisasexpected.
Question: Sincexcr=0.255m,whatwouldyouranswersrepresentifyouhad
calculatedtheRe,CD,andFDusingx=xcr=0.255m?
Answer:

YouwouldhavethevalueofthetransitionReynoldsnumberandthe
dragcoefficientanddragforceoverthelaminarportionoftheplate
(assumingyouusedlaminarequations).

VII12

Ifyouhadusedturbulentequationsyouwouldhaveredmarksonyour
paper.

VII13

VonKarmanIntegralMomentumAnalysis
Whilethepreviousresultsprovideanexcellentbasisfortheanalysisofflatplate
flows,complexgeometriesandboundaryconditionsmakeanalyticalsolutionsto
mostproblemsdifficult.
Analternativeprocedureprovidesthebasisforanapproximatesolutionwhichin
manycasescanprovideexcellentresults.
Thekeytopracticalresultsistouseareasonableapproximationtotheboundary
layerprofile,u(x,y).Thisisusedtoobtainthefollowing:

ub d y
m

a. Boundarylayermassflow:

wherebisthewidthoftheareaforwhichtheflowrateisbeingobtained.

b. Wallshearstress:

d u

d y

Youwillalsoneedthestreamwisepressuregradient

y0

dP
formanyproblems.
dx

TheVonKarmanintegralmomentumtheoryprovidesthebasisforsuchan
approximateanalysis.Thefollowingsummarizesthistheory.
Displacementthickness:
Considertheproblem
indicatedintheadjacent
figure:
Auniformflowfieldwith
velocityUapproachesa
solidsurface.Asaresult
ofviscousshear,a
boundarylayervelocity
profiledevelops.

y=h+*

y
Streamline

U
h

0
x

VII14

Simulated
effect

Aviscousboundarylayeriscreatedwhentheflowcomesincontactwiththesolid
surface.
KeyPoint:Comparedtotheuniformvelocityprofileapproachingthesolid
surface,theeffectoftheviscousboundarylayeristodisplace
streamlinesoftheflowoutsidetheboundarylayerawayfromthewall.
Withthisconcept,wedefine*=displacementthickness
*= distancethesolidsurfacewouldhavetobedisplacedtomaintainthe
samemassflowrateasfornonviscousflow.
Fromthedevelopmentinthetext,weobtain

u
1
dy
U
0
*

Thus,thedisplacementthicknessvariesonlywiththelocalnondimensional
velocityprofile.Therefore,withanexpressionforu/U,wecanobtain*=f().
Example:

u
y
y
2
Given:

U

determineanexpressionfor*=f()

Notethatforthisassumedformforthevelocityprofile:
1.Aty=0,u=0correctfornoslipcondition
2.Aty=,u=Ucorrectforedgeofboundarylayer
3.Theformisquadratic
Tosimplifythemathematics,
let=y/aty=0,0

aty=dy=d

u
2 2
Therefore:
U
VII15


2 2 3
Substituting: 1 2 d

2
3
0

whichyields

1
0

Therefore,forflowsforwhichtheassumedquadraticequationapproximatesthe
velocity profile, streamlines outside of the boundary layer are displaced
approximatelyaccordingtotheequation
1

* 3
Thiscloselyapproximatesflowforaflatplate.
KeyPoint:WhenassumingaformforavelocityprofiletouseintheVonKarman
analysis,makesurethattheresultingequationsatisfiesbothsurfaceandfreestream
boundaryconditionsaswellashasaformthatapproximatesu(y).
MomentumThickness:
ThesecondconceptusedintheVonKarmanmomentumanalysisisthatof
momentumthickness
Theconceptissimilartothatofdisplacementthicknessinthatisrelatedtothe
lossofmomentumduetoviscouseffectsintheboundarylayer.
Considertheviscousflow
regionsshowninthe
adjacentfigure.
Defineacontrolvolumeas
shownandintegratearound
thecontrolvolumetoobtain
thenetchangeinmomentum
forthecontrolvolume.

c.v

U
h

D(onfluid)

0
x

VII16

u
Simulated
effect

VII17

IfD=dragforceontheplateduetoviscousflow,takingthefluidasthecontrol
volume,wecanwrite
D= (momentumleavingc.v.) (momentumenteringc.v.)
Completingananalysisshowninthetext,weobtain

u
u
1

d y
U
0 U

U2

CD

Usingadragcoefficientdefinedas

Wecanalsoshowthat

CD

D/A
1
2

2 L
L

where:(L)isthemomentumthicknessevaluatedoverthelengthL.
Thus,knowledgeoftheboundarylayervelocitydistributionu=f(y)alsoallows
thedragcoefficienttobedetermined.
Momentumintegral:
The final step in the Von Karman theory applies the previous control volume
analysistoadifferentiallengthofsurface. Performingananalysissimilartothe
previousanalysisfordragDweobtain

w
d U
d
* U

U2

dx
dx

VII18

Thisisthemomentumintegral
for 2D, incompressible flow
and is valid for laminar or
turbulentflow.

d U
* d P
where U

dx
dx
*

Therefore,thisanalysisalsoaccountsfor
theeffectoffreestreampressuregradient.
Foraflatplatewithnonaccelerating
flow,wecanshowthat

P const., U const.,

d U
0
dx

Therefore,foraflatplate,nonacceleratingflow,theVonKarmanmomentum
integralbecomes

w
d
2
2 d

U
dx
dx
Fromthepreviousanalysisandtheassumedvelocitydistributionof

u
y y 2

2 2

U
Thewallshearstresscanbeexpressedas

d u
2 2 y

2U


d y w
2

y0

2 U

(A)

Also,withtheassumedvelocityprofile,themomentumthicknesscanbe
evaluatedas

u
u
1

d y
U
U
0

or

VII19

2 2 1 2 2 d
0

2
15

Wecannowwritefromthepreviousequationforw

w U2

d 2
d
U2
d x 15
dx

EquatingthisresulttoEqn.Aweobtain

w
or

15
dx
U

30 x

2
d 2 U
U2

15
dx

whichafterintegrationyields

1/ 2

or

5.48
Re x

Notethatthisresultiswithin10%oftheexactresultfromBlasiusflatplatetheory.
Sinceforaflatplate,weonlyneedtoconsiderfrictiondrag(notpressuredrag),we
canwrite

C fx

w x 2 U 1
1
1
2
2

2
2

Substitutefortoobtain

C fx

2 U Re
0.73

5.48 12 U 2
Re x

VII20

Exacttheoryhasanumericalconstantof0.664comparedwith0.73fortheVon
Karmanintegralanalysis.
ItisseenthattheVonKarmanintegraltheoryprovidesthemeanstodetermine
approximateexpressionsfor
,w,andCf
usingonlyanassumedvelocityprofile.
Solutionsummary:

1. Assumeananalyticalexpressionforthevelocityprofilefor
theproblem.
2. Usetheassumedvelocityprofiletodeterminethesolutionfor
thedisplacementthicknessfortheproblem.
3. Usetheassumedvelocityprofiletodeterminethesolutionfor
themomentumthicknessfortheproblem.
4. UsethepreviousresultsandtheVonKarmanintegral
momentumequationtodeterminethesolutionforthe
drag/wallshearfortheproblem.

and7.3anddoesnothavetobeaccountedforseparately.

VII21

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