History HL Notes

19th Century Russia

The Russian people are descendants of the Rus who are thought to be a mixture of
Scandinavian and Slavic origin and settled in that region out of 800 AD

Byzantine Empire

A major legacy of the Byzantine Empire for the Russians was the eastern orthodox or Greek

Orthodox Church
With the decline of Byzantium came a wave of conquest from the East, the Mongols until the

15th century (Tatars)

To a large extent, the Mongols allowed Russians to maintain their way of life:
- Slavic based languages including writing system (Cyrillic)
- Orthodox religion
The Russians adopted much from Asian culture and this led western Europeans to think less
of the Russians
Geographically Russia was isolated from the rest of Europe:
- Entirely land locked (mostly)
- Huge Plains of Eastern Europe prevented overland travel
During these early years there were a series of muscovite princes based in Moscow and
called themselves Tsars
By the 17th century the Romanov family became the ruling dynasty:
- Alexander I (1801-1825)
- Nicholas I (1825-1855)
- Alexander II (1855-1881)
- Alexander III (1881-1894)
- Nicholas II (1894-1917)
Under the rule of Peter the Great (1689-1728) Russia grew greatly in size and entered the
European World
The Russia of 1800 was one of the greatest autocracies in Europe where:
- The Tsars rule was absolute
- There was a small, but powerful landowning elite
- The vast majority of the population existed in a state called serfdom
Serfdom: refers to the legal and economic status of peasants (serf).
In Russia Serfdom practically equaled slavery
- In 1646, landowners registered peasants living on their land. From then they are
-

considered property of the estate.

Serfs could not leave the estates unless sold or relocated by owner
Serfs could not marry who they wish

Background to Anti Semitism

Hostility and prejudice against Jewish people

The Jewish people have a long history of discrimination in Europe
They were expelled from the Promised Land by the Romans, so, many Jews settled

throughout medieval Europe.

- Jerusalem destroyed at 70 AD
As the church in Rome grew in power, the persecution of the Jews also grew
This caused many Jews to move to Eastern Europe, where at that time, the Orthodox

Church was more tolerant

During the reformation (1500s), the climate of religious intolerance grew
Protestants were also guilty of anti-Semitism, with Luther himself being very hateful towards

Jews.
Every major European country experienced waves of anti-Semitism in which Jews had

limited rights/ were driven out of countries/ slaughtered by the thousands

By the late 19th Century Russians actually adopted this violence against Jews as official

policy approved by government

These sanctioned campaigns are known as pilgrims
By the late 19th century many Europeans believed the myths and propaganda that had
grown to blame the Jews for almost every conceivable social/economic/political problem

Background of Alexander I

Alexander I (1801-1825) had taken Russia through a turbulent period in terms of foreign

affairs, which included:

- Napoleonic Wars and the congress of Vienna
- The attempted revolutions of the early 1800s in Europe
During his reign Russia grew geographically with Alexander securing most of Poland,

Finland and Bessarabia

Domestically Alexander I did very little to improve Russias social or political development
The death of Alexander I in December 1825 gave anti-autocracy conspirators their cue to
plan a revolution

The Decembrist Revolt

As the revolt took place on the first day of Nicholas Is reign, he was inheriting the legacy of

Alexander I, his eldest brother

Although a miserable failure, this revolt marked the first political movement directed against

established system of Russian Imperial Autocracy.

Prior to this point the position of the Tsar was never questioned by any inside Russia.

The leaders of this revolt were not united in their arms, however they all agreed that Russia
needed some significant changes
- Some were calling for a constitutional monarchy
- Others wanted to get rid of the Tsar altogether and establish a republic
- Some wanted the emancipation of the serfs, as well as judicial reform
- The leaders of this revolt were a handful of army officers who had seen a more liberal
world while in the west during the Napoleonic wars, they wanted these same kind of
reforms for their own country

Nicholas I (1825-1855)
Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationalism

Nicholas upbringing and training had prepared him for the military, not ruling Russia
Nicholas was opposed to any political reform or change in Russia and was convinced that
military discipline was needed to control Russia
This was due to:
- His personality which was very rigid and controlling
- His suspicions about any dissent after the December Revolt
- Political climate in the rest of Europe

Russias Domestic Scene

To stamp out any opposition to the autocracy, Nicholas established a secret police

(Okhrana) which quickly became notorious for its brutality

He viewed education and universities as the nourishment of subversive ideas, so he

closed down many schools

Nicholas did nothing to improve the economy, which became weaker than other
European empires

Russian Foreign Affairs

Having the largest empire in Europe, both in terms of mass and population, Nicholas felt

he had a special position and role in European politics

He saw himself as the guardian of the status quo, and as such thought it was his
responsibility to use his great army to put down any liberal revolts in other autocratic

empires
He did this successfully in 1848 in Hungary where his armies crushed a revolt against

the Habsburgs
Like all previous Tsars, Nicholas had visions of Russian expansion to the south east

along the black sea

However, it was this goal that ultimately saw his demise in the Crimean War of 1855

Serfdom in Russia
Impact on the population:
1) Peasants
- Kept them uneducated and illiterate
- Very little awareness of politics especially at the national level
2) Gentry
- Were very dependent on their surfs and lacked a strong work ethic (lazy!)
- A small minority felt guilty exploiting their fellow human beings
Impact on the country:
1) Economy
- Due to restrictions of moving off, the Land lords holdings, serfs did not tend to
migrate to cities
- This hindered the development of towns and industries
2) Society
- The reduced economic development in turn stunted the development of a middle
class which is typically the moderating influence of a society
3) Politics
- Because there were very few people with moderate or liberal ideas, when new ideas
did develop they tended to be quite radical
The Eastern Question

During the 19th century Europe was dominated by the great powers
- Russia
- Austria
- Prussia
- France
- Britain
- Italy (after 1859)
- Germany (after 1871)
After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, these powers worked together in a system called The

concert of Europe or the Congress system

The goal of this system was to maintain the balance of Power in Europe and the rest of the

world
This goal was threatened by the fact that the Ottoman Empire was in decline which meant

possible changes to the European map

In the 19th century the great powers had interests in the geographical area of the Ottomans
A) Britain
a. Didnt want Russian warships to be able to exit the Black Sea via the Aegean
4

b. Didnt want the Balkans states, who were pushing for independence from the
Ottomans, to fall into the hands of the Russians
c. Wanted to ensure that their shortened route (via the Suez Canal) stayed in
Ottoman hands not Russian hands
B) Russia
a. Wanted the straights (dardinel and
b. Viewed themselves as the natural heir to rule the Balkans
C) Austria-Hungary
a. Was in a very precarious situation because there were many ethnic groups within
their borders that were seeking independence
b. Hope Ottoman Empire would maintain control over the Balkans, lest newly
independent would cause minorities in Austria to want to do the same
D) France
a. Was interested in trying to gain trade and influence in Egypt
The Crimean War (1853-1856)

This was the first war involving most of the great powers since 1815
It marked the beginning of the end of the balance of powers
Causes:
- Diplomatic concerns over long standing eastern question lay behind the conflict
- The more immediate fuse lay in the conflict about which European powers should have
-

control over the interest of Christians and Christian sites within the Ottoman Empire
Nicholas I was not prepared to hand over his protectorate of some 12 million orthodox

subjects
When negotiations failed, Russia occupied the Ottoman territories of Moldovia and

Wallachia in an attempt to win control over the religious issue

- The Turks protested and in 1853 declared war on Russia
The Russians were very successful against the Turks and in March 1854, France and Britain

felt compelled to help the Ottomans against what they saw as a Russian threat
Britain and France attacked Russias soft underbelly, the Crimea, and that is where the

fighting largely contained

Russias home court advantage of a larger army and shorter supply lines were eventually
outweighed by the greater ineptitude of her military leaders and the poor training/equipment

of the soldiers
With the fall of Sevastopol, in September of 1855, and the Austria ultimatum, the Russians
surrendered in January 1856 with the treaty of Paris signed shortly there after

Significance of Crimean War

Marked some major changes in warfare:

5

- Artillery and rifles replacing cavalry and bayonets

- The scale of casualties was large some 675,000 men died
- Field hospitals and army nurses introduced
- First war covered live in the newspaper
Marked the end of the congress system that had kept the peace of Europe for some 40

years
It showed everyone that Russia was weak and forced the new Tzar to implement a program
of internal reform

Imperial Russia

Until 1905 Russia was an absolute monarchy

This is the way the Tzars wanted it and kept it that way through the control of these
institutions
1) The bureaucracy, which acted as a personal staff to the Tzars, rather than as civil
servants to the nation
2) The police force, which was divided into two branches
a. One to maintain law and order among the people
b. One to protect the state from the people
3) The army which traditionally stayed out of politics. They simply followed the order
of whoever was in power
4) The landed gentry who had no real function within Russia. They were essentially
a parasitic class having money but no responsibilities.
5) The Orthodox Church, which was used as a tool to educate Russians in correct
political belief.

The Development of the Intelligentsia

The Intelligentsia- who were they?

They were educated Russians that were open to Western ideas and were obsessed with

Russias destiny
Students, university graduates, people who had leisure time to read (wealthy)
Also included a new generation of educated Russians coming from the children of the

rising merchant class- it wasnt just the aristocracy and landed gentry
The Decembrists of 1825 were the forerunners and martyrs of the Intelligentsia during

the reign of Nicholas I not much had changed with regard to reform within Russia
Nicholas I banned all open discussion on the subject of reforming Russia and thus those

interested were forced underground to discuss their dangerous ideas.

This led some to become more radical in their desire for change
By the time of Alexander II they became known as the Intelligentsia

Because they were educated, they saw themselves as above the Russian masses and

therefore took on the role of social engineer trying to build a perfect society
The more extreme Intelligentsia dreamed of molding a whole new society which made

them hostile towards reforms

The Russian masses did not tend to support them and their revolutionary ideas

Significance of 19th century Russian Intelligentsia

They were the only group that raised and debated questions concerning serious political
and social change in Russia
This group included some of Europes foremost literary giants
o Pushkin
o Gogol
o Tolstoy

Introduction to the reforms of Alexander II

Social reform was needed because:

o There were fears of wide-spread peasant revolt
o The immobile peasants population was impairing attempts to industrialize
o The general level of education was far lower than in the other Great Powers
Political and Economic reform was needed because:
o After the humiliating Crimean defeat the Russian administration needed to be
modernized
o Crimean War left the Russian economy strained
o Serfdom was no longer economically advantageous
Military reforms were needed because:
o The Russian army was poorly equipped, poorly supplied and poorly trained
o The army was too large and was taking up between 40 and 50 percent of
o

Russias peacetime budget

The existence of a large, trained, armed group of peasants was dangerous given

the general mood of unhappiness within the serfs

Alexander said to the nobles:
It is better to abolish bondage from above than to wait for the time when it
will begin to abolish itself from below

The reforms of Alexander II

In 1858 Alexander II stated his aims for reform:

Stage 1: The peasant must immediately feel that his life has improved

Stage 2: The landowners must immediately be reassured that their interests are
protected
Stage 3: The government must never be weak in maintain law and order
The first major reform was the Emancipation Act of 1861 which took the form of 22 separate
pieces of legislation between 1851 and 1863 resulting in:

Serfs being given the right to marry, own property and set up in business
Serfs still being tied to the mir
o The mir- a peasant commune where the land was owned commonly, controlled

paternalistically (oldest man)

o The mir acted as the unpaid civil service collecting taxes
Serfs having to pay redemption payments for the next 49 years
Judicial reforms were passed to create the image of equality before the law with:
o Open courts and jury trials
o The introduction of justices of the peace and a bar of lawyers that gave the

peasants two sources of legal support

However:
o Officials could only be tried under special circumstances and with the
o
o

governments permission
Military courts retained their own jurisdiction
Ex-serfs were restricted to special courts and the governments kept informal

pressure on the judges to comply with official policies and attitudes

Elected districts and provincial assemblies called Zemstva (zemstvo in singular) were
created and represented the first form of popular involvement in the government of

Russia
Although all classes of men could vote/enter, the assemblies were dominated by the

upper class
The zemtsva had limited powers over public health, public education and prisons, but the
provincial governor could veto their decisions if they were deemed to be contrary to the
laws and the general welfare of the state

Zemstva = baby step towards democracy

Other reforms included:
1) The introduction of a public budget of government finances
2) Universities having greater autonomy over their curricula and opening up admission
to lower class
3) Restrictions on vodka production and sales were lifted
4) Legislation was introduced to limit censorship
8

5) Military service became compulsory for all classes and the term of service was
reduced from 25 years to 6 years
After the Polish rebellion in 1863, Alexander began to follow the advice of more reactionary
people and became more repressive
Background to 19th Century Philosophies

After 1815 the combined forces of industrialization and of the French Revolution led to the

multiplication of doctrines and movements of many sorts.

Absolute monarchism and reaction began to challenge with new ideas

Conservationism, nonetheless, remained strong

Support of traditional institutions:

Autocracy
Church
Nobility
Military

Opposed the idea of a constitution or representative government

Liberalism

Supported a parliamentary/ representative form of government

Not as supportive of traditional institutions
Made up of businessman and enterprising landowners, so naturally they supported

capitalize free enterprise

Nationalist

Socialism

Called for a radical solution to the problems of society:

o The whole population should own and control the means of production, rather
than private individuals
Grew out of the Enlightenment faith in progress, belief in the basic goodness of human

race, and concern for social justice

There were many different groups of socialists that were influenced by a number of writers,

one of the most significance being Karl Marx

For Marx the entirety of human existence could be boiled down to an economic struggle

between the haves and the have nots.

Eventually the proletariat (urban poor) would rise to power and overthrow the bourgeoisie

and then all would live happily (and equally) after

Under the Marxist model, societies pass through stages of development

The last stage was socialism, but that was preceded by capitalism

Radical Response to the Reforms of Alexander II

Members of the Intelligentsia saw Alexanders reforms as a fraud.

Initially their goals were not outrageousthey wanted land for the people, union and a

parliamentary style government

However, as they met more fierce reaction from the tsar, they become more radical

Populism (Narodnost) (1960s and 1870s)

They had great faith in the peasants as a political force

They believed that Russia should follow a unique path to socialism by using the existing

style of communal peasant living the mir

They were also influenced by a strong anarchist streak believeing that the deed of

violence was the ultimate expression of practical politics

Populism then split into two factions
1) Those following Lovrov who proclaimed the peaceful movement of Going to the
People
2) Those following Bakunin who believed that the peasants were ready to overthrow

the government
Lovrov, prevailed and the summer of 1874 was known as the Mad Summer when
thousands of wealthy students left their studies to go out to the country side and

prepare the people

With the failure of Going to the People, another movement emerged known as Land
and Liberty, led by Chaikovtsi and Plekhanov, which saw massive demonstration

organized
Out of Land and Liberty came a more radical group called The Peoples Will whose

goals were:
a) Murder the Tsar
b) The violent destruction of the state
c) The redistribution of economic power on socialist lines
Their use of terror alienated the populists from the liberals and from the public at large
Nonetheless, they did inspire all the revolutionaries from the 1870s onward by their
challenge to Tsardom

The Social Revolutionaries (SRs)

Growing out of the populist movement were the radical ideologies of Nihilism and Anarchism
Later, in the 1890s, various radical groups formed the social Revolutionary party, led by Chernov

10

The party gained support by recruiting from the growing urban workforce, all the while
maintaining the destruction of the tyrant system as their goal
The party was riddled with internal conflict and splits between left and right elements
A) Anarchistswanted to continue in the tradition of political terror and assassination
B) Revolutionarieswho allocated a more moderate stance of cooperating with other
parties in working for an immediate improvement in the condition of the workers and
peasants
Between 1900 and 1905 the terrorist faction dominated and were responsible for over 2000
political assassinations
After the 1905 revolution the situation charges

The Social Democrats (Marxism) (1898)

By the 1880s, with the failure of other movements, many intellectuals began to consider
Marxism.
Marxist theory received a boost in Russia in the 1890s due to the great spurt of
industrialization that occurred of that time making the fullillment of a proletarian revolution seem
possible
Plekhanov was one of the earliest leading figures in the Russian Marxist movement.
Like other political movements, those that followed Marxism in Russia often ended up
quarrelling with each other over doctrinal issues
Some found Plekhanov too theoretical in his approach and urged more active revolutionary
policies
The most outstanding spokesman for this viewpoint was Vladimir Ulyanov (AKA Lenin!!!)
Lenin promoted the idea of a small revolutionary elite to lead the masses rather than a broad
grouping of progressive, reformist and anti- tsarist elements.

Russia at the Turn of the Century

The People
The total population was about 125 million, made up of more than 20 ethnic groups
o
o

Russians (56 million)

Poles (8 million)
11

Jews (5 million)

The people of the Russian Empire Lived in a highly stratified social structure which saw a great
underdevelopment, of the commercial, professional and proletariat class.
Peasants remained outside of active participation in Russian citizenship.
Economics
Russia was rich in oil and minerals
By 1900 Russia had only recently begun to industrialize under Sergei Witte, Russias finance
minister
Witte focused heavily on developing communications and transportation as a prerequisite to
industrial growth.
By 1913, with the help of foreign investment, Russia was the worlds fifth largest industrial nation
However, considering Russias size and resources, its manufacturing, as well as agriculture
output was low
The opposition to Autocracy
A) Liberalism
a. Liberal minded men had continued to work through the Zemtsvo system towards
making piecemeal local reforms
b. Between 1895 and1905 Russian liberalism had broadened its base to include the
new industrial professional classes
c. By 1902, under the reactionary Minister of the interior, Plehve, the system of local
government was eliminated and Nicholas had publicly called hopes for a
constitutional parliament a senseless dream
d. However, libearals continued to meet and even formed a coherent political party
called the Liberation league
B) Socialism
a. Was led primarily be empires living in Western Europe
b. Leaders and members of the various socialist groups met to organize themselves
in congresses held in Western Europe
c. Out of these meetings came a split in the social Democrats

The Russo-Japanese War

Given the repressive social, political and economic situation, by the early 20th century the
Russian people were ripe for radical change
12

Recognizing this, the government looked in deflect attention from its internal troubles as

well as gain prestige by expanding its eastern frontiers in Asia.

It was believed that a short, victorious war would give the Russian government back the

support of the people

There had existed some tension between Russia and Japan for control of Manchuria and

the Korean peninsula

Russia used this tension to justify a war with Japan which resulted in the Russo-

Japanese war of 1904-1905

It took less than a year for the Japanese to soundly defeat the Russians on land and at
sea

The 1905 Revolution

The poor performance in the Russo-Japanese war brought to the surface discontent that

had been brewing for a time

In January a series of strikes and anti-government demonstrations occurred throughout

Russia
On January 22 1905, about 200,000 unarmed workers marched to the Tsars Winter
Palace in St. Petersburg to petition the Tsar fore forms aimed at achieving a better

system for distribution of food and employment opportunities

This petition, written by a priest, Father Gapon, was really about social issues
Initially the protests of 1905 were not political
When the marchers neared the palace, the officers at the gate panicked and opened fire
This day became known as Bloody Sunday and was the spark that ignited the 1905
Revolution because it:
o Caused many of those people who had still respected the Tsar to hate him
o Increased support for revolutionaries in that they claimed (albeit illegitimately)
leadership roles in the ensuing unrest

1905 Revolution Continued

Started a wave of riots, strikes and murders in the empire

Caused many non-Russian areas to start to demand independence
In May 1905 news of the Baltic Fleet defeat further fueled unrest
In June there were mutinies within the navy
In October a general strike brought the nation to a standstill and the Tsar was forced to
make some concessions

13

Political Reactions to the Chaos of 1905

As the unrest continued throughout 1905, various political groups were also establishing
themselves

The Kadets (constitutional democrats)

This was the largest and most radical of the liberal parties
They wanted Russia to develop as a constitutional monarchy in which a democratically
elected national assembly would restrict the powers of the Tsar
This was part of the liberal intelligentsia, containing:
o Progressive landlords
o Smaller industrial entrepreneurs
o Professionals and academics
Paul Milyukov was a prominent Kadet

The Octobrists

Were the voices of the conservatives among the liberals?

They were mainly drawn from large commercial, industrial and landowning interests

The Soviets

These workers councils were formed at the spontaneous initiative of workers in an

attempt to co-ordinate strikes and other activities

Although the original goal of these soviets was to push for better working conditions,

some revolutionaries quickly realized potential for political purpose

Lev Trotsky, an independent socialist sympathetic to the Mensheviks, became the leader
of the St Petersburg Soviet

The Tsars Response

The government recognized that some concessions had to be made, but in giving
ground, they intended to divide the opposition
A) The October Manifesto was designed to placate the liberals. It Promised:
a. The creation of a legislative Duma, elected by a wide franchise
b. Fundamental civil liberties
B) The next concession was the Peasants Manifesto which promised to:
a. Abolish the collective responsibilities of the Mir. Thus giving peasants
individual ownership of land
b. Cancel all pre-existing tax debts
c. Cancel all redemption fees after January 1907
14

Immediately the general lawlessness and number of land seizures dropped

C) With only the proletariat left to worry about, the government changed from a position
of concession to one of suppression
a. They used the troops that had returned from the far east to destroy the soviet
b. By December 1905 the soviets had all been disbanded

The Dumas, 1906-1914

I have a constitution in my head, but as to my heart, I spit on it.
-Nicholas II
The Fundamental Laws
Issued in May 1906, these laws were to be the basis for the new constitutional government
They were contradicted the October Manifesto in several ways:

By affiring that supreme autocratic power belonged to the tsar

Declaring that the Duma would have two chambers, one elected, one appointed by the

Tsar
The appointed chamber would have the power of legislative veto
Declaring that the Tsar would have exclusive control over foreign affairs
Through article 87 giving the Tsar the right to rule by decree during emergencies

Although with a few broken ribs, the stardom came out of the experience of 1905 alive and
strong enough.
Trotsky
The First Duma (April- June 1906)

The liberal and reformist parties who immediately voiced their dissatisfaction with the

fundamental laws and demand further reforms dominated the First Duma.
The Tsar would not tolerate this and dismissed the duma after less than 3 months
During this time he also appointed Peter Stolypin as Prime Minister who dealt harshly
with those calling out for revolution

The Second Duma (February- June 1907)

Saw a decrease influence of the middle (Kadets) and an increase in strength for both the
left and right
However, they were too critical of the government and dissolved after 3 months
Rather than eliminating the duma altogether and thus risk
a. More domestic chaos and
b. Losing international support
15

Stolypin introduced restrictions to the electoral system which would ensure a more docile
duma

Proportional Representation
1906
Peasants
Propertied

% of population
80
20

Representation in the Duma

50
50

% of population
80
20

Representation in the Duma

20
80

1907 and onwards

Peasants
Propertied

Stolypin was a firm supporter of the autocracy, however, the realized that in order to save

it, a large degree of reform was needed

Although his views and actions won him enemies on both sides of the spectrum, even

they confessed that he was an honest, courageous and honorable man

After ensuring that the revolutionary chaos was quelled through suppression and terror,

he turned to reform
Stolypins strategy was to nurture the conservative outlook amongst the peasants that

would act as a counter- revolutionary force

He did this agricultural reforms which led to the further growth of a new class of wealthy

peasant, the Kulaks, who were loyal to the Tsar

However, there is evidence to suggest that these reforms did not go far enough to make

a real change to the social and economic structure of Russia

Stolypin was assassinated in 1911 by a SR who was also an Okhrana agent

Problems Plaguing Russia to 1914

A) Foreign Debt
a. Although Wittes policy of obtaining foreign investment and loans to expand
industry helped in the short term, in the long run Russia could not cope with the
payments
B) Rural Life

16

a. I terms of social and economic improvements, not much had happened since
1861
C) Urban Life
a. With the introduction of social insurance and trade unions after 1905, conditions
did improve, but not enough to deal with the rabid urbanization
b. The harsh methods used by the government to deal with strikers increased
proletarian tension
D) Political Life
a. Growing revolutionary tendencies
b. Continued political stagnation due to the reactionary views and ineptitude of the
Tsar
E) Foreign Affairs
a. Russia now had WWI to fight which brought social, political and economic chaos

1906-1907

Throughout these years Russia was in constant turmoil and chaos

The peoples grievances included:
Disappointment over the limitations of the Duma
The terrible working conditions of the Proletariat
The peasants still had to pay high taxes and rents
The harsh winter of 1917 also added to the misery of the people
Rasputins influence
The effects of the WWI
It seemed as though only the tsar and those he took advice from failed to take note of the
extreme distress of the Russian People

The Role Of Rasputin in the Downfall of Tsardom

Rasputin was a peasant who:

o Claimed to be a holy man with supernatural powers
o Was a drunker and a womanizer
o Became a trusted member of the royal court
o Came to have considerable power due to his strong influence over the tsar
o Brought great shame and scandal on the royal family
o Became the focus of much hatred on the tsarist system
On December 29, 1916, in an attempt to save the Monarchy, a group of aristocrats
assassinated Rasputin

17

The Great War and its impact on Russia

Russia entered WWI on August 1, 1914 when Germany declared war on her
Initially the war was greeted with great enthusiasm and a sense of nationalism that

united Russia
WWI impacted almost every part of Russian society, ultimately, some historians say,
heading to the demise of the autocracy

Socialists and WWI

Prior to the outbreak of WWI, there was a high level of unity between socialists from
different countries across Europe
The obvious socialist response to WWI would have been to:
a. Welcome it as the conflict that would usher in the utopian era (Marx)
b. Not participate, but rather prepare for the post-war era
However, in 1914 socialists internationalism collapses into hostile nationalism
Rather than seeing each other as members of the same class struggle team, many
socialists saw themselves in terms of their nationality and chose to support their country

rather than the socialist movement

Lenin was a rare exception. His response was Revolutionary Defeatism
He proposed that soldiers stop fighting because they were really only fighting for the

ruling classes, not for the people

Defeat in WWI, according to Lenin, could mean Civil War, within countries and it was out
of this chaos that worldwide socialist revolution could erupt

March (February) Revolution

7th

20,000 steel workers locked out, other workers strike in sympathy

Thousands of women demonstrate calling for bread, bringing even more workers out to

8th
strike
9th

Large crowds are repeatedly dispersed by police and soldiers

10th
18

250,000 workers on strike, Petrograd are paralyzed.

Tsar orders army to end strikes

Troops fired on crowds, killing 40.

Duma advises Tsar to form a new government
Tsar orders Duma to disband

Soldiers in Petrograd perform mutiny

Duma refuses to dissolve, instead it forms itself into a 12 man committee to take over the

government of Russia
Now named the Provisional government
Workers re-established Petrograd Soviets

Tsar Telegrams the Duma offering to share power, Duma refuses

Army generals telegram the Tsar informing him of the withdrawal of support from the

11th

12th

13th

armed forces
14th

Petrograd Soviet issues order no.1 which deprives all army officers of authority, giving it

instead to the elected representations of the soldier

Tsar leaves army headquarters for Petrograd to take control

The Tsars train is stopped 250km from Petrograd by revolutionaries

Nicholas II abdicates in favor of his brother

Grand Duke Michael renounces the title

300 years of Romanov rule ends

15th

16th

The Provisional Government

Initially this body was quite liberal (center-right) in its composition, but became

increasingly socialist (center-left)

The three main parties were the Kadets, and the Social Revolutionaries and Mensheviks

19

The Socialists parties became frustrated, and thus more open to radical ideas, with what

seemed like the governments lack of action

The Provisional Government main concerns were:
1) To continue the war
2) To set up a western-style parliamentary government
3) Land Reforms
However to continue the war was inevitable as during this time Russias economy relies

on their allies loans and if they were to surrender they must pay reparations
Also, the chaos of the war prevented for a proper election to take place, thus there

wasnt a chance to set up a western-style parliamentary government

Finally, land reforms could not be made because of large population of the country out in

war
The Provisional Government under attack

With the governments determination to continue the war, it was decided that a major

offensive against Austria was needed

The June Offensive was a miserable failure and sparked significant unrest
This grew into the July days which saw Petrograd workers, soldiers and sailors rioting

to have the soviets be given the role of becoming the government

The Bolsheviks played a significant role in these riots
On July 8, the provisional government appointed Alexander Kerensky as its new prime

minister in the hope that he could quell the riots

Kerensky was a logical choice to try to unite the ever more left wing government

because he had been

o A member of the Duma (made him acceptable to liberals)
o Minister of Justice in the provisional government
o Minister of war in the provisional government
o A socialist revolutionary
However, neither the right, nor the extreme left (Bolsheviks) found him acceptable
In July, Kerensky was successful in putting down the riots by labeling the Bolsheviks as

German Collaborators
This was so because Lenin used German railways to reach Russia and received money

from the German government for Bolshevik growth

The military was also used to arrest and harass the leaders of the demonstration
However, General Kornilov, commander in-chief of the army wanted even more counter

revolutionary actions
Kerensky knew that this would bring the Provisional Government into a potential war
situation with the Petrograd Soviet, and therefore did not agree with Kornilov

20

As a consequence, in August Kronilov tried to mount a military attack against the Soviet
and the provisional government which was known as the Kornilov Revolt
Kerenskys only option was to use the leftists to defend Petrograd, which resulted in:
a. Using agitators to destroy the loyalty of Kornilovs soldiers
b. Using workers to deny Kornilov use of the railways and telegraphs
c. Releasing Bolsheviks that had been jailed in July
d. Arming the Petrograd Soviet, including the Bolshevik Red Guards

Petrograd Soviet

Initially the Petrograd Soviet established itself as the supervisors of the Provisional
Government to ensure that the interests of the soldiers and workers were guarded
However, the Petrograd Soviet gained in importance because
o The Provisional Government often times failed to take action
o New Soviets were springing up in other cities and looked to Petrograd for leadership
o Soviet Order Number 1
Initially moderate socialists had a bigger influence on the Petrograd Soviet, however as
the year wore on it became more radical, eventually being taken over by the Bolsheviks

The Bolsheviks Takeover the Soviets

After the abdication of Nicholas II, Bolsheviks in exile returned to Petrograd

Prior to the return of Lenin, The Bolsheviks were willing to work with other socialists

groups
When Lenin arrived back in April, he declared that the March Revolution had created a

bourgeois republic and called for the overthrow of the Provisional Government
Lenin planned to use the Soviets as the tool through which the Bolsheviks would take

over the state

However, his April Theses succeeded only in isolating the Bolsheviks from other

Socialist groups
The non-Bolshevik members of the Soviet decided instead to work with the Provisional
Government- which had the unfortunate effect of connecting them to the failures of the

provisional government
This, along with the increasing radicalization of the masses, made the Bolsheviks more

popular
The Bolsheviks also had the advantage of German Funding with which to produce
propaganda and build an army of their own- Red Guard

21

Although the Bolsheviks suffered a setback during the July days, they capitalized on the

situation in August after the Kornilov Revolt

By early September, the Bolsheviks had become the majority in most of the Soviets and
began making plans for the takeover of the state

The Collapse of the Provisional Government / (The October/November/Bolshevik Revolt)

The Bolsheviks did not seize power, it fell into their hands
-Lynch

Was November 1917 a coup by the Bolsheviks, or an abdication by the Provisional

Government?
Since the March Revolution, Lenins unswerving aim was to overthrow the Provisional

Government and seize power

By September he was calling for an immediate seizure
He felt this urgency because:
1) There was an all-Russian Congress of Soviets planned for early November
a. There was no guarantee that this meeting would result in support for a
revolution, so Lenin wanted to take over power before the meeting
2) The Constituent Assembly was to be elected in November and again, there were no
guarantees of Bolshevik electoral success
3) Lenin feared another, potentially successful counter-revolutionary attack
4) After the Kornilov Revolt, Bolshevik popularity was at an all-time high, and Lenin

wanted to capitalize this

However, Lenin had to work hard to convince the Bolshevik control committee that an

immediate attack was wise

Kerensky suspected that a Bolshevik attack was imminent and began to act against the

Bolsheviks on November 6
Lenin took this as the cue to begin the revolution
The groundwork had already been laid by Trotsky through the formation of the Red
Guards and the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC)

Red Guards

Combat forces of the Bolshevik Party- initially made up of fairly elderly men recruited
from the workers in the factories

22

Military Revolutionary Committee

Set up by the Petrograd Soviet in late October to organize the defense of Petrograd

against the Germans or another reactionary attack

It was the only effective military force in Petrograd and Trotsky controlled it.
On the night of November 6/7 the Red Guards and the MRC secured strategic locations
throughout Petrograd and were able to announce at the meeting of the All Russian
Congress of Soviets that the Revolution was complete

The Bolsheviks Get Organized

At the All Russian Congress of Soviet, the Bolsheviks announced the structure of their

new government
The Sovnarkom would consist of 14 commissars all of whom were Bolsheviks, and Lenin

was the chairman

The Mensheviks and the Right Social Revolutionaries did not agree with this and walked

out of the meeting in protest

At these meetings Lenin also declared that there would be peace and land

The Bolsheviks Early Struggles

After the defeat of the Provisional Government, the Bolsheviks initial opposition came
from the left- the Mensheviks, Kadets and Social Revolutionaries

The Treaty of Brest- Litovsk, March 1918

Central Powers Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria

Armistice an agreement to stop fighting so that a peace treaty can be made
The Bolsheviks asked the central powers for an armistice in early December
However, the German demands were very high and this caused further confusion and

division among the left in Russia, even among Bolsheviks

Bukarin argued that they should fighting and that would encourage the outbreak of a

workers revolution in Germany

The Bolsheviks continued the debate about whether to make peace or not, hoping that

revolution would break out in the rest of Europe

Meanwhile, the Germans resumed hostilities against Russia, and by February 1918 they
had occupied the Ukraine and were even threatening Petrograd

23

Therefore, on March 3, 1918, the treaty of Brest-Litvosk was signed with very high cost
for the Bolsheviks:
a) They lost; Poland, Finland, Estonia, Lithuania and parts of the Ukraine
b) Humiliation
c) The support of many Russians, especially the Social Revolution whose base of

support was in the Ukraine

However this enabled them to:
a) Keep the armys support
b) End hardship at home
c) Give their new government a bit of breathing space

The Formation of the Cheka

Formed on December 20, 1917

On August 30, 1918, Fanny Kaplan, a Right SR assassin, seriously wounds Lenin with 3

pistol shots
On the same day, another SR assassin kills M.S. Uritsky, President of the Petrograd

Cheka
Other attempts were made against Trotsky, V. Volodarsky and Bakharin
With tensions rising inside Russia, the Bolsheviks felt it necessary to from a body to

combat counterrevolution and sabotage

With this group, the main instrument of Bolshevik repression, the revolution entered a

period known as the Red Terror.

Felix Dzerzhinsky was the director of the Cheka during these early years.
The Cheka was responsible for the assassination of the Tsar and his family on July 16,
1918.

The Russian Civil War, 1918-1921

Foreign Reaction to Bolshevism in Russia:

Frustration and anger from the allies that Russia dropped out of the war
Anger from foreign investors, especially the French, that all foreign debts incurred by the

Tsarist government were now void

Fear from all capitalist governments that there would be a spreading of the revolution to
the rest of Europe.

Foreign Actions toward the Bolsheviks:

Various countries gave support to Russian forces fighting against the Bolsheviks
The new Russia was excluded from the League of nations

24

At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, the boundaries of the new Russian state were

revised
The peacemakers decided to build a dam against the spread of Communism
o This was known as the cordon sanitaire and included Finland, Estonia, Latvia,

Lithuania, Poland and Romania

The newly recreated Poland declared war on the Bolsheviks in an attempt to gain the
Ukraine in 1920

Domestic Reactions to Bolshevism:

Mass exodus of people not wishing to live under Communism

Counter-Revolutionary White movements:
o An All-Russian government in Siberia which came to be dominated by admiral
o

Kolchak, a strong reactionary

The formation of a Volunteer Army in southern Russia under Generals Kornilov

and Denikin
In Moscow and Petrograd Social Revolutionaries took up arms against the Bolsheviks

Independence Movements:

Ukrainian peasants called Greens fought both the Reds and the Whites for Ukrainian

independence.
Regions such as the Caucasus, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan tried to get their

independence.
There was a short lived attempt at Siberian independence.

The anti-Communist Russians represented every hue of the political spectrum

During this time, the left wing were filled with the Mensheviks and SRs, the right wing were
filled with white reactionaries such as Kornilov and on the middle there are anti-Bolsheviks

as well such as the Kadets.

From the radical Mensheviks to the liberal Kadets and all the way to the reactionary Whites,

the political spectrum was filled with anti-Bolshevik groups.

The allies were using White generals like dogs to take down the Bolsheviks

Bolshevik Victory
Reasons for:
A. They had gained popular support because of their reforms, whereas the Whites had lost
support because:
a. They could be associated with the Tsar, landlords and foreign intervention

25

b. The harsh treatment of the people in the lands that they had captured
B. Trotsky and his outstanding military leadership of the Red Army.
C. The Reds held a strategic location:
a. Moscow and Petrograd with their factories
b. The railways allowed them to quickly move their supplies and troops
c. Their area held the majority of the population
D. The Cheka was effectively used to hunt down people who sympathized with the Whites
and to force the peasants to hand food over to the government
E. The Bolsheviks were united in fighting for a single purpose and for their very survival
a. They had strong leadership with Lenin and Trotsky
b. The Whites lacked unity in purpose and central leadership
F. War communism kept the Red Army supplied with food and weapons. It involved:
a. Nationalization of all factories with more than 10 workers. Sovnarkom decided
what each factory would produce.
b. Tight military type control over all workers.
i. Labor conscription was introduced (cant choose your own job)
ii. These measures caused discontent among the workers and a fall in
industrial output
c. Peasants were forced to give all surplus food to the state with no opportunity to
make profit (requisitioning). This caused:
i. Food shortages in 1919-1920
ii. Full scale famine by 1921 which was made worse by bad weather and
disease
d. Food clothing and fuel rationing was introduced in the cities
e. As the money lost value due to overprinting, many formerly cash payments such
as rent, fares, etc. were abolished
In some instances people were expected to barter for their goods instead of using
money
Results of the Civil War:
1.
2.
3.
4.

The survival of Bolshevik rule

The extension of Bolshevik rule over a wider area
Huge loss of life
The permanent Soviet fear that the capitalist powers would seek to destroy the Bolshevik

state
5. Famine, industrial collapse and the New Economic Policy

Global Impact
26

1. Colonial independence movements began to see an ally in the Bolsheviks

Why did Lenin place so much emphasis on trying to get colonies to rise up against their
European colonizers?
1. Colonies were prone to propaganda because they were unhappy
2. European countries would be weaker without the resources coming from the colonies
Communist state

By 1922 the communist party was the only legal political party in the USSR (Bolsheviks

= communist party now)

Communist party members became the favored class in the USSR
Within the party, Lenin had banned all opposition groups (ban on factionalism)
Although the government appeared to represent the will of the people as expressed
through their Soviets, in reality Soviet Russia had become a one party state ruled by a

dictator
Under the new constitution of 1923, Russia became the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR)

Autonomy was given to the republics in:

Cultural issues such as use of language, education and folkways

The administration of justice
The organization of agriculture

Federal authority was retained over:

Foreign policy
International trade
Defense
Economic planning

The New Economic Policy (NEP)

By 1921 it was apparent that the Russian proletariat was opposed to the dictatorship of the
proletariat as can be confirmed by the

Large scale anarchist revolts of 1920-1922

The Kronstadt mutiny of March 1921

Lenin realized that he would need to make some drastic changes to save his government
His NEP represented a temporary return to a capitalist economy with the main goals to:

Improve agricultural productivity

Overcome the famine

27

When recovery was assured, all would revert back to state control
Highlights:

Grain requisitioning was replaced by a tax, but only on about half the amount that had

been previously requisitioned, AND any surplus could be freely sold for profit.
An agrarian reform law ensured that small landowners (not the peasants) would keep
their land; therefore the peasants remained dispossessed wage earners, while the

landowners (Kulaks) gained in wealth.

Small factories were turned back over to capitalists who were known as NEPmen or neo-

bourgeois. (Larger industries remained in state hands.)

A limited amount of private commerce with foreigners was allowed
The government made several trade agreements with other countries under the NEP.

The impact of the NEP

Although there were some improvements in agricultural production, there were still some
major problems:
o The increased production caused a fall in the price of agricultural goods which
combined with increased prices for manufactured goods resulting in the Scissors
o

Crisis with the peasants being very disgruntled.

The free operation of the market system in agriculture was not ideologically

sound for many party members.

Growth in industry:
o Iron production increased
o Coal and textile production doubled
Transport and communications showed slow improvement
A money system was reintroduced
The state tightened its control over banking, transport, foreign trade and large-scale

domestic industries.
In order for a Marxist system to succeed, production levels and distribution networks

must be sufficient to meet the needs of all people before the move to collective or

cooperative ownership can take place.

Under the NEP these improvements were taking place, but because the system was
essentially capitalist, it was also creating a mentality which would resist collective or

cooperative ownership
This meant that in order for a move to collective or cooperative ownership to take place,
force and coercion would need to be used

Why do art and literature exist?

28

Expression of creative essence of the human soul (God)

People who have nothing better to do.
Enrich cultural heritage.
Its inherent human nature.
Fulfill our artistic needs.
Propaganda.
To express feelings and emotions
Communication
Entertainment
To hyperbolize everything.

What do you think of the notion that artistic expression had to serve the state?

You cant censor spirit; you cant censor love.

Religion

Respond to Marxs claim that religion is the opium of the people and that it only existed in

order to deaden the pain of life.

Lenin tried to eradicate religion. He was not ultimately successful. Why do you think that is?
o Humans have an innate need to place their faith in something bigger than
themselves (Religion: God. Atheism: humanity)

Women and Family

Love is a bourgeois concept based on a false view of the relations between the sexes

and between parents and children.

The state should be responsible for the raising of children.

The Power Vacuum Lenin Left by Lenin

Lenins death left a vacuum in the leadership of the Communist Party

Possible successors included:
Zinoviev
o
o
o

One of Lenins earliest Bolshevik comrades

Leader of the Petrograd Soviet
First president of the Comintern and member of Politburo

Kamenev
o

Early Bolshevik who spent time in exile in Siberia

29

More moderates than others in that he was willing to work with other socialist
parties

Trotsky
o
o

Early Menshevik, didnt switch to Bolshevism until May 1917

Chairman of the ST Petersburg soviet during the 1905 revolution and the

o
o

Petrograd Soviet in 1917

Organized the MRC which was the force behind the October revolution
Became Lenins commissar of foreign affairs responsible for taking Russia out of

o
o

the war
Became Commissar for war and organized the Red Army to fight the civil war
Member of the Politburo

1924-1929 The Power Struggle

Ultimately Stalin was successful in becoming the absolute dictator of the USSR through:

Behind the scenes maneuverings as General Secretary

Manipulating factions within the upper levels of the party
Eliminating all possible opposition, both within and outside of the party

Factions and issues

1922-1924

Stalin working to fill the party at all levels with his supporters

1924

Lenin died, his testament revealed that he wanted Stalin removed as General Secretary
Stalin formed a triumvirate with Kamenev and Zinoviev against Trotsky
They agreed to suppress Lenins testament and quickly establish the Cult of Lenin
Stalin moved all Trotskyites in the Party to posts far from Moscow
Trotsky was calling for:
o Party reform
o Continued World Revolution
o Rapid industrialization
o An end to the NEP
Stalin supported NEP and Socialism in one country

1925

Trotsky was forced to resign as Minister of War

The triumvirate fell apart

30

Stalin joined with Bukharin and other right-wing members of the Politburo who wished to
continue with the NEP and a gradual shift to industrialization

1926

Stalin attacked Zinoviev and Kamenev on matters of policy, so they joined forces with

Trotsky
Zinoviev was expelled from the Politburo and Comintern
Trotsky and Kamenev were expelled from Politburo

1927

Trotsky was expelled from the Party and exiled in Central Asia

1928

Stalin turned on Bukharin and had him removed from the Politburo, Pravda and the

Comintern
Stalin ended the NEP, moved towards rapid industrialization and began the campaign
against the Kulaks

1929

Trotsky was expelled from Russia

Stalin was in supreme control

Stalins rise to power in the Soviet Union was more a matter of luck than of ability.

The Elimination of Dissent

Stalin realized his methods and policies were bound to bring criticism and dissention,

two things he could not tolerate

Therefore, he set out to systematically remove any threat to himself- real or imagined
This became a campaign of terror known as the great purges that reached their climax in

1936-38
The murder and subsequent show trials for the murder of Kirov in 1934 began this period
Millions of Soviet citizens were executed or sent to the prison camps (Gulags) of which

the secret police were the administrators

The Party 70% of those in the 1934 Central Committee were executed in the next 5

years
Ordinary delegates: 1,108 of 1,966 were arrested or executed in the next 5 years
The purges also decimated the command of all parts of the military

31

A KGB report to the Politburo in 1960 said that between Jan. 1935 and Dec. 1941, 19.8

million people were arrested of whom seven million were shot

The purges were successful in crushing all opposition to Stalin and producing a climate
of fear and suspicion in which any criticism of the regime was impossible.

Styles of Government
Nicholas II- autocracy
Provisional government democracy
Lenincommunism
Stalin communism

The Great Terror

The historiographical controversies

State versus societal control over the terror

How planned was the terror

Number of victims

Byproduct of Marxist-Leninism? Or a unique product of the time?

What purpose does it serve?

The Totalitarian model

Stalins terror was rooted in Lenins Bolshevik past

The terror was intentionally initiated by Stalin to further his own agenda:
o

Eliminating rivals

Consolidating his dictatorship

Modernizing the USSR

The terror was a smooth running operation

Leading historians: Conquest, tucker, pipes.

Revisionism: the Conflict School

Rather than Stalin at the apex of the totalitarian pyramid, there were opposing groups
and key figures within the Party.

This is still a top down model.

Leading historians: Cohen, Getty

Revisionism: the Social Model

The masses played the greatest role in shaping Soviet history.

32

While Stalin initiated change, the regime only had limited control over the outcome of
their plans.

The terror provided the peasantry the opportunity to settle old scores, assign blame for
disasters and further their own ambitions.

Socialism in One Country

Goal:

To transform the USSR into a highly industrialized state, able to compete with more
advanced countries and of putting up a good fight against aggression by capitalist
nations.

Method:

The use of economic plans, which encompassed all fields of economic activity in all

parts of the country.

These came to be called the five year plans and were begun in 1928
Before Soviet industry could be transformed, Stalin had to ensure the success of Soviet
agriculture in order to:
a) Feed the increasing number of urban industrial workers
b) Produce surplus for export in order to generate foreign currency needed for
investment into industry

Collective Farms would be the vehicle through which agriculture would be transformed
because:
a) It would facilitate the use of modern methods and machines
b) There would be a surplus of labor that could move to the heavy industries
c) Collectivization would strengthen the grip of the government on rural life
d) Ideologically it fit with communism as it would end the ownership of private

property and the inequality of incomes

The Kulaks resisted collectivization fiercely.
The government responded by eliminating the kulaks as a class. They used the poorer
peasants, the police and the military in this class warfare.

Kolkhoz

The first and most common collective farms, which came under, the state plans
In addition to the vast collective fields, farmers were allowed small private lots to farm for
their own use
33

There was an obligation to provide the state with a fixed quota of produce per year in
order to receive payment for work

Sovkhoz

State farms where peasants were hired as workers of the state

They were paid wages regardless of the harvest; however, all produce went to the state
They had to use their wages to buy food and other necessities

The break with the NEP was a preemptive strike of the central party-state apparatus
Soviet society and Culture under Stalin: The reversal of radicalism (compared to under Lenin)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Education
Egalitarianism
Women and the family
Legal matters
Religion
Art and literature
Health

Traditional View
Stalin controlled his political system and exerted ruthlessness. Through this he had a successful
and effective regime. His agriculture policies caused problems but his industrial policies were
effective.
Revised View
Although his crimes were unjustified. He is now viewed in a more realistic manner other than a
mass murderer dictator. The central power had no control over the scattering of local authorities
and therefore the result has often failed or blown out of proportion.

34

European Diplomacy and The First World War (1870-1919)

Post Napeleonic Europe
Forces Shaping European Politics:

Conservatism or Reaction
Liberalism
Nationalism

The Peace of Vienna

Once they had defeated Napoleon, the major European powers were determined to

restore order, keep peace and squelch the ideals of the Revolution.
To decide on the best way to do this, they came together in a meeting called the

Congress of Vienna in 1815.

Main figures at the Vienna Congress:
o Metternich of Austria
o Castlereagh of Britain
o Alexander I of Russia
o Hardenberg of Prussia
o Talleyrand of France

Principles of the Congress of Vienna

1. Legitimacy
All former ruling families should be restored to their thrones
2. Containment
The map of Europe was redrawn to ring France with stronger countries
3. Compensation
This principle ensured that countries that had suffered loss of land under Napoleon
would be compensated and that no important power suffered a loss as a result of the
Congress work
4. The restoration of the Balance of Power in Europe

35

The distribution of military and economic power that prevents any one nation from
becoming too strong

Highlights from the Congress of Vienna:

There was no great, long lasting war in Europe for the next 100 years
Nationalist groups in Italy and Poland were frustrated by the fact that they were

placed under hated foreign rule

Nationalist groups in Austria were frustrated because they were denied self-

government
The German desire for national unity came closer to fulfillment
Britain was recognized as the strongest European imperial nation
Both Prussia and Russia gained in influence further west in Europe
The Great Powers agreed to hold future congresses to review the political situation
and enforce the peace

The Peace of Settlements of 1814-1815 Reading Summary:

Possession of colonial islands

Peace in Europe for 100 years.
Poland
Territory problems
Nationalism and Liberalism was thwarted
Prussia and Russia shifted powers westwards

The Concert of Europe

After the Congress of Vienna ended in June of 1815, the major participants wanted to

ensure that the Balance of Power they so carefully established would last
So in November 1815 the four members of the Grand Alliance came together to form the
Quadruple Alliance. (Later, in 1818, France joined and it was called the Quintuple

Alliance.)
Through this Alliance System they hoped to work together, by meeting periodically, to

avoid major wars and to suppress any emerging nationalism and/or liberalism.
This Alliance System came to be called The Concert of Europe and Metternich was the

driving force behind it

This was a forerunner of the more modern international organizations dedicated to
maintaining peace.

The Long Term Causes of WWI

36

1. Nationalism
- The general atmosphere nurtured through new means of communication:
Germany
65 million population
18 million tons of steel
190 million tons of coal

France
40 million population
5 million tons of steel
40 million tons of coal

The increase in literacy and mass printing techniques caused newspapers

and magazines to be widely read

The often promoted nationalistic stories

Examples of aggressive nationalism:

A. Germany, under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, had fought a series of wars
aimed to unify the German states:
a. 1864 defeated Denmark
b. 1866 defeated Austria
c. 1871 defeated France
- The German Empire came into being in 1871.
- Germany was very proud of its new position and was looking to extend its
-

power and territory.

In 1980 Bismarck was forced to resign by the new German Kaiser, Wilhelm II.
Kaiser Wilhelm set the German empire on a New Course (nueu Kurs) in
terms of a more aggressive foreign policy then what Bismarck had been

building.
B. The French were still bitter about losses from the 1870-71 Franco-Prussian War and
wanted revenge for the loss of Alsace-Lorraine
C. Pan-Slavism
a. As the largest Slavic country, Russia felt a duty to lead and defend all
Slavs.
2. Economic and Imperial Rivalries
- Most European countries felt threatened by Germanys rapid economic growth
- Italy (unified in the 1860s) and Germany wanted to catch-up with the other Great
Powers to become World Powers. Imperial rivalry in Asia between Russia and
Japanese had brought the first war between major powers since the 1870s in the
form of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05.
3. Militarism and the Arms Race

37

Militarism is a situation in which a nations military has too much influence on its
politics.

How does a country come to the point where its military has too much influence?
a) Which part of the population supports a big military? Weapons manufacturers.
They make money by selling weapons thus they are rich thus they have a lot
of say in politics. Of Prussia it was said: other states have an army, in Prussia,
the army has a state. Junkers
b) Also, weapons manufacturing was good for the countries economy.
Look at page 44 of Pope and read all the info regarding Source F

The rise of militarism grew partly out of the ideas of Social Darwinism and the
survival of the fittest. (The strong got what they wanted as shown by Prussia
against Denmark, Austria and France, and Italy in losing in its African imperialist

attempts.)
As international rivalries intensified, each country believed that they needed to keep
their armed forces stronger than any potential enemy.
This led to:

Conscription, compulsory military service

An arms race

Look at military spending figures on page 20 of Pope Look at chart on page 20-21 of Pope

From a British cartoon at the time:

We must build a bigger navy than the enemy will build when he hears were building a
bigger navy than hes building.

The arms race was encouraged by the new technologies of the Second Industrial
Revolution (Alfred Noble explosives technology applied to small caliber weapons,
especially machine guns and heavy long-range artillery, new iron-clad ships, and

railways essential for mobilization)

The fiercest competition was the naval rivalry between Britain and Germany.
Germanys strength, under Bismarck, lay in its army. Bismarck had wanted Germany
and Britain to be friends A land rat has no quarrel with a water rat, but the Kaiser
didnt like the fact that Britain was so much stronger navally and also saw a strong
navy as a means to acquire more colonies.
Look at pages 40-41 Source B info. And pages 42-43 Source D.

In 1906 Britain launched a new kind of super-battleship called the H.M.S.

Dreadnought which became the standard for all battleships of this era

38

Soon Germany was producing Dreadnoughts of their own and the race was on.

(When the war broke out in 1914 Britain had 28 and Germany had 18, although the
quality of the Germany ships were slightly better.
Kaiser William II boasted:

All the long years of my reign, my colleagues, the monarchs of Europe, have not
paid attention to what I have to say. Soon, with my great navy to endorse my words,
they will be more respectful.
o Fear of war gave military leaders more influence with governments turning to
o

the generals and admirals for advice on matters of peace and war.
The overall effect of militarism is that it increased the tensions between the
Great Powers and led to a cyclical process that was difficult to stop.

4. The Entangling Alliances

(By the 1870 the Metternich system, of Balance of Power was in serious danger
because of the emergence of Italy and Germany. Nations of Europe began to deal with
this new political situation by forming alliances. They were acting in pride, competition,
revenge and fear of each other.)
By 1907 the alliance system threatened the peace because it divided Europe into two
armed camps. (Triple Alliance & Triple Entente)
(The process by which this came to be began in 1870 with the creation of Italy and
Germany and the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian war.)
Pre-War Crises Short-Term Causes
A. Morocco, 1905
Germany vs. France
Background:

In 1904, with the formation of the Anglo-French Entente the British recognized French

interests in Morocco.
Although the Germans themselves had no interest in Morocco, they saw an opportunity
to use Morocco as a tool to split up the new entente. Would Britain really support
France?

The Crisis:

In March 1905 Kaiser Wilhelm on a visit to Tangier declared that he was in favor of a fully
independent Morocco and called for an international conference to discuss the future of
Morocco.

39

Although the French Foreign Minister, Delcass, opposed the meeting, the Germans

were able to force it to go ahead, scoring a diplomatic victory.

At the meeting (January 1906), however, while Moroccan independence was affirmed,
France was given control over the Moroccan police and state bank.

Impact:

Germany, not France was isolated diplomatically.

The Entente was strengthened.
British suspicions of Germany increased which:
a. Led to closer military conversations between Britain and France
b. Led to an entente between Britain and Russia

B. Bosnia-Herzegovina, 1908-09 (first Balkan Crisis)

(Russia vs Germany and Austria-Hungary; Austria-Hungary vs Serbia)
Background:

Bosnia-Herzegovina was mainly populated by Serbs but had been occupied by Austria

since the Congress of Berlin 1878.

There was a Turkish revolt in 1908 and Austria used this excuse to annex BosniaHerzegovina from the Ottoman Empire. Wheeling and dealing by the Austrians to beat
Russia in their own gamethey were each looking for concessions in the Balkans and

Russia walked away with not.

Russia had by this time turned their attention back towards Europe, especially the
Balkans after their sound defeat in the Russo-Japanese War.

The Crisis:

The Serbs also wanted to claim Bosnia and were backed by the Russians to the point of

war.
Russia was forced to back down because Germany offered military support to Austria
and Russia was at that time too weak to go against Germany and Austria. (A strategy
Germany tried again in 1914.

Impact:

Russia lost face and some Serbs started to doubt Russias commitment to them.
The Serbs continue to claim Bosnia and their hatred of Austria grows.
The rift between Germany and Russia grows.
In an attempt to weaken Austrian influence, Russia encourages formation of the Balkan
League. (Dedicated to uniting Slavs in the Balkans)

C. Morocco, 1911 (Agadir Crisis)

Germany vs. France - supported by Britain

40

Background:

The Sultan of Morocco was having problems with rebels.

France sent their army in to occupy Morocco and stop revolts.

The Crisis:

Germany protested and sent gun boat (Panther) to Agadir for a show of strength.

(Supposedly to protect German commercial interests.)

Britain supported France and both countries prepared to go to war, but Germany backed
off in return for concessions in central Africa. (They didnt get much because Britain was
so keen on helping the French in order to make sure that Gibraltar didnt fall into German
hands.)

Impact:

Diplomatic defeat for Germany and further sensitized Britain and France to the German

threat.
France given freedom to act in Morocco.
D. First Balkan War, 1912-13

Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Greece (The Balkan League) vs. Ottoman Empire
Background:

Serbia was looking for a port on the Adriatic coast Russia supported this, Austria didnt
The Balkan states decided to attack the Ottoman Empire while they were at war with
Italy.

Crisis:

Britain and Germany were able to restrain their alliance/entente partners, thus the war
stayed localized.

Impact:

Balkan League drives the Ottoman Empire out of the Balkans.

The Balkan states could not decide how to divide up the land they conquered and this
led to war amongst them.
E. The Second Balkan War, 1913

Serbia, Greece, Romania, Ottoman Empire vs. Bulgaria.

Background:

Following the First Balkan War, Bulgaria claimed more territory (Macedonia) than the

Serbians were willing to let them have.

Both Greece and Serbia want Albania.

Crisis:

41

Serbia, Greece and Ottoman Empire attacked Bulgaria

Russia supported Serbias claim to Albania.
Austria wouldnt allow Serbia to grow in strength by taking Albania.

Impact:

Independent nation of Albania is formed

Serbian nationalism is thwarted and thus fanned
Russia looks weak because they backed down from Austria again. (The Balkan Slavs

are really starting to lose confidence in Russia)

Serbia did enlarge its territory and power which becomes a big threat to Austria
The Turks asked for help from the Germans to reorganize their military, thus allowing the
Germans to greatly increase their influence in the Ottoman Empire
F. Berlin to Baghdad Railway
There was another factor behind all the tension in the Balkans, and that was the
fact that Germany had hopes of dominating the region through their influence

with the Ottomans.

Therefore it was in Germanys best interest to prop up the Ottoman Empire
instead of letting Austria and Russia basically divide up the Balkans.

G. Assassination at Sarajevo, 1914

(The July Crisis)
Serbian Nationalism vs. Austria; Austria and Germany vs. Serbia and Russia
Background:

Serbia resented the fact that Bosnia had gone to Austria. They, and many Slavs within
Bosnia wanted to join Serbia to form a larger Slavic nation. These people were willing to

fight Austria for it.

Within Bosnia there was an underground group called the Black Hand whose goal was

to unite Serbs living under Austrian and Turkish control

Austria was trying to stamp out this Slavic nationalism before it led to the disintegration

of the Empire
Russia realized that if it abandoned its Balkan Slavic brothers again she would lose all

influence in that region

Archduke Francis Ferdinand was the heir to the Austrian throne

The Crisis:

After several unsuccessful assassination attempts, the Archduke and his wife were shot

by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand. (June 28,1914)

Austria were furious and asked the Germans where they stood on this issue

42

The Kaiser gave the Austrians a Blank Cheque

Austria issued an ultimatum to Serbia (July 23) which would effectively mean the end of

Serbian sovereignty
Russia pledged its support for the Serbs and the Serbs put their trust in Russia.

Impact:

World War One

H. Mobilizations and Military Timetables

Technology, especially industrial and military infrastructure played an important role in

the outbreak of hostilities in 1914

Moving all the men and equipment to the fronts required the redirecting of all

transportation and support facilities for this purpose

This required a highly planned and coordinated effort and therefore came under the

leadership of the military generals who were generally bellicose in every country.
Due to the size of the Russian Empire, as well as her relative industrial backwardness,
and the fact that she faced two potential enemies on her borders, they had more

difficulties when planning their mobilizations.

Once an army was mobilized it was particularly difficult to change those directions

midstream
If a nation was mobilizing against you on your borders you had to react because if you
didnt they would have the offensive advantage if war was declared.

Tribunal
Pope 55, 80, 33
Lowe 101, 113
Martel 95
Russias Balkan Policy, Pan-Slavism
Serbia involvement with Black Hand, wrong to want all Serbian people

Serbia embarked on a policy of instilling revolutionary ideas into the Serb subjects of the

Austro-Hungarian Monarchy
Serbian press stir up their readers to hatred or contempt towards Austria-Hungary
Large number of agents are employed in carrying on by every means the agitation

against Austria-Hungary
Decision for ultimatum: Take new and urgent steps at Belgrade with a view to inducing
the Serbian Government to stop the incendiary movement that is threatening the security
and integrity of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.

43

Why did the Austrians attempt to eliminate Serbia as a sovereign state?

Serbia was a threat to the Austro-Hungarian Empire because they were an expansionist force in
the Balkans and they were sparking revolutionary ideas to the already crumbling AustroHungarian Empire. Serbia also agitated Austria-Hungary by assassinating the heir to the throne,
Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
Why did Russia decide to risk war by mobilizing in support of Serbia?
Russia was losing grip on their influence in the Balkans as in previous affairs they have failed to
help their Slav brothers. Russia also had a firm idea of Pan-Slavism; they were obliged to help
their Slav brothers, Serbia. Russia wanted and needed the Balkans for access to the Bosporus
and Dardanelles; therefore they could not risk losing influence in the Balkans. Nicholas II hoped
to improve the nationalism in Russia. Germanys actions surrounding the assassination also
influenced Russias decision to mobilize in support of Serbia.
How did the Germans become involved in a dispute that apparently had little to do with them?
Germany was growing rapidly and they wanted to expand. Beginning with the unification of
Germany, they wanted to show the world their strength. They began to want colonies in order to
become super world powers. Germanys expansion motives (Weltpolitik) led to them become
involved in the dispute. They were also under alliance with Austria-Hungary and they were
obliged to support Austria-Hungary. Russia was threatening Germany with their economic
potential and Germany wanted to finish off Russia sooner rather later. They were also hoping
that Britain would not get involved in this affair.
Why did the French decide to mobilize their troops when war broke out in the east?
The French were furious after the Franco-Prussian War as they lost Alsace-Lorraine. Thus, they
mobilized at the opportunity for revenge and to reclaim Alsace-Lorraine. France also had an
obligation as they were under alliance with Russia.
Why did the British choose to go to war for the sake of Belgium? Or did they?
The British had an obligation to protect Belgium in a treaty they signed. As Germany invaded
neutral Belgium, they had to come in the aid of their allies. Another more likely reason is that the
British were scared that if Germany claimed France, they would have access to the English
Channels. Britain also wanted to maintain the balance of power, as they were scared of
Germanys expansionist force.
What happened to the Italians?
The Italians backed off the Triple Alliance after stating that their Alliance was defensive, thus

44

they were not bound to the Alliance. The Italians then observed the war and decided to enter the
Entente side, which seemed to be winning.
Is it not true that the war within Europe was really a contest to see who would be master outside
it?
Partly. It added to the tension; Moroccan crisis. Other factors contributed more to the war.

Beliefs and Attitudes about War in 1914

Although unpleasant and dangerous, war was a legitimate instrument of politics.

A war would be short, lasting only a few weeks or months and decided in a few great

battles
Some leaders saw in war the potential to unite their populations and take the focus off of

their own internal problems. (Austria-Hungary and Russia)

Many saw war as the vehicle through which a new social order could be established and
thus it was highly desirable and exciting. (Socialists/Communists)

The Outbreak of the War in the West

The Schlieffen Plan

The underlying rationale as that at some point Germany would face a war on two fronts,

against France and Russia.

It was designed to quickly knock out France and then fight Russia at a slower pace.
It was designed to avoid attacking the heavily wooded and mountainous parts of Eastern

France (Ardennes Forest)

Rather they would attack through Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg using a very
strong right-wing to encircle Paris

Reasons for Failure:

1. The plan was revised before 1914 by Colonel von Moltke because he feared the
French offensive Plan 17 (to take back Alsace-Lorraine) would threaten German
communications
Changes:
- Made the left-wing stronger
- Did not pass through the Netherlands or Luxembourg which created a
bottleneck in Belgium
2. There was too little attention paid to:
- Over-extended supply lines
- Inadequate communication systems
- Impact of battle

45

3. It underestimated:
- The strength of Belgian resistance
- The speed of Russian mobilization
- Britains entry into the war.
The Germans never got past the Marne River in their attempt to take Paris.
After the German defeat at the Battle of the Marne, the Western Front became a race to
the sea to see who would control the ports that were vital for the Ententes military

supplies.
Once on the coast, both armies dug in and what had been a war of mobilization came to
a grinding halt with both armies hiding behind a great line of trenches stretching from the

English Channel to Switzerland.

For the next four years this line remained largely unchanged despite many unsuccessful
attempts by each side to break through.

The Changing Nature of Warfare

A. Old Ideas versus New Technology
19th Century Warfare:
Infantry attacks with men standing should to shoulder armed with muskets or

early rifles
Cavalry charges providing the decisive breakthroughs
Cannons
Battles lasting days with wars finished in weeks/months

20th Century Technology:

Rifles that could shoot a round every 3-4 seconds

Machine guns that could fire 7-8 rounds per second
Artillery such as the howitzer that had a range of 9-16km and could fire shrapnel

shells of between 130-900 kg.

These massive increases in firepower led the generals to believe that their

attacks were guaranteed.

The number of casualties in WWI was so much higher than ever before because
the generals were fighting with 20th century defensive weapons while using 19th

century attacking ideas.

Therefore each side searched for new and improved offensive weapons:
Tanks
- A British Invention, initially limited in effectiveness, but became a decisive
weapon
Poison Gas

46

Although terrifying, this was not a very effective weapon due to the
introduction of gas masks, and to the fact that it was wind dependent

Aircraft
-

Played a limited role in WWI

Mostly used for reconnaissance, although some Zeppelins and planes

were used to drop bombs

Later airplanes were equipped with machine guns which led to aerial dog
fights

Total War

WWI lasted so long because it involved industrially advanced alliances which were

relatively evenly matched

Therefore each nation began to use every available resource to fight and gain advantage
This involved:
o The development of government control over the means of production,
o
o
o
o

communications and the marketing of the nations resources

Government direction of the nations labor resources.
The mobilization of previously unused resources, for example, female labor.
Government control of the allocation of scarce resources
Government control over non-economic areas of the population such as
conscription, propaganda, censorship and security.

Measures and Efforts Taken As Part of Total War

Political

Military leaders took more control and became more politically active
Royal rulers/monarchs lost power and military leaders took on more responsibilities.
Citizens of the country were not allowed to move freely, needed permission from

government
Conscription introduced to complement the needs of total war
Propaganda which contained inaccurate facts.

Social

Anti-German propaganda was used to increase the morale of the citizens.

Censorship; Pro-German articles banned, news that can stir up doubt in the civilians

(facts about pre-war crisis)

Working hours in Britain extended to support the war effort and weapons manufacturers

maintained their level of production

Rationed resources (flour, wheat) to support the military needs

47

Decreased the age limits for conscription and allowed more women to help in the war

effort
Women given more jobs in the industrial sector
Women wear shorter skirts to save hemp and linen for the war effort
Pub hours limited to maintain focus in the workers
Some sport events were halted; boxing and horse racing in particular
The government controlled transportation.

Economic

Economic enterprises were taken over by the government; communist-esque

Controlled the wage so that some companies can expand and some can decline
Controlled trade, export import, placed heavy importance on raw material for weaponry
Strikes were made legal
Selling bonds to support the war effort
Lowered interest rates which leads to more inflation

Total War caused the governments of the belligerent nations to focus all its resources by taking
over most of the countrys affair for the war effort.
Major Battles of the Western Front (1915-1917)
1915 February/March
Battle of Champagne

French Offensive
Gained eight kilometers at the cost of 90,000 casualties

1915 April/May
Second Battle of Ypres

German Offensive
First use of chlorine gas
50,000 British died

1916 February December

Battle of Verdun

German Offensive
Goal: to bleed the French white. To kill as many French soldiers as possible.
First use of flame throwers
No significant change in territory
o French casualties: 377,000
o German casualties: 337,000
The Germans launched no other offenses on the Western Front until 1918

48

1916 July November

Battle of the Somme

French and British offensive

Under the command of British General Haig, the goal was a decisive
breakthrough
In total:
o 620,000 British & French deaths
o 450,000 German deaths

The situation in early 1917:

The Allies were facing a critical situation because:

o Russia was in the throes of revolution
o The USA still had not entered the war and even when they did in April, they were
o

months away from being ready to fight.

The French army began to mutiny.

1917 August November

Battle of Passchendaele

British offensive
British casualties around 300,000

The Eastern Front

On the Eastern Front, the Russians were the first to attack both Germany and Austria-

Hungary
The Russians attacked Eastern Prussia, but because they were poorly equipped and
supplied they were soundly defeated by the Germans at the Battles of Tannenburg and

the Masurian Lakes.

Russian advances in Austria-Hungary were more successful.
In 1915, because of the stalemate in the West, the Germans decided to concentrate on

an attack of Russia.
Despite some strong counter-offensives by General Brusilov, the Germans captured a

large section of Russian land.

After 1918 when the new Russian Communist made peace, this land was surrendered.
Hindenburg and Dundendorf war heroes of Germany

War at Sea

The Allies were the first to take the offensive at sea.

They did this by blockading German ports to prevent food and other important supplies
from being imported into Germany.
49

In response to this, the Germans began using their submarines to sink British merchant

ships.
The Allied response to this submarine campaign was the convoy system, which was

highly successful and put Britain in a much safer position.

A significant aspect of the German submarine campaign was the U-boat commanders
were told to sink ANY ships traveling to Britain.

U-Boat Encounter Choices

Full speed away

Fire torpedoes
Quietly head for the bottom
Move in and fire your gun

Naval Battles:

There were very few actual naval battles during WWI

The most significant one was the Battle of Jutland on May 16, 1916, which occurred off

the coast of Denmark.

Both sides claimed victory in this battle, however, most historians view it as an Allied
victory as the result was the prevention of the German fleet from entering the Atlantic.

The Mediterranean

Upon entering the war late in 1914, the Ottoman Empire posed many problems for the
Allies:
o By blockading the Dardanelles, they prevented British and French help from
o
o

reaching Russia
They threatened British trade interests in the Mediterranean
They drew Russian forces away from the Eastern Front by attacking the

Caucasus Mountains
The result was Russian victory in the Caucasus
Defeat for the Turks led them to believe that Armenians living in this region had been
disloyal to them, which in turn brought about the first European genocide of the 20th

century.
In March 11915 the British navy, led by Winston Churchill, attempted to open the

Dardanelles and take Constantinople by ships alone.

This attack was abandoned on the first day after 6 British ships were sunk by the Turks.
A second attack in the same region was planned for April 1915 on the Turks Gallipoli
peninsula.

50

The British underestimating the Turks abilities, allowed only one division of soldiers to
leave the Western front. The rest of the soldiers came from France, Australia and New

Zealand.
Although outnumbered, the Turks were able to repel the invasion due to:
o The outstanding leadership of the German General von Sanders and the Turkish
o
o
o
o

commander, Mustapha Kemal

The superior strategic positions on the slopes
Poor Allied leadership
The extreme climate conditions which incapacitated many Allied soldiers
The Allies did not decide to retreat until late December by which time hundreds of

their soldiers had frozen to death.

The British supported and used Arab nationalism within the Ottoman Empire to
loosen the Turkish control over the Middle East.

The Italian Front

Italy joined the war in April 1915 on the side of the Allies largely due to being promised

Austrian land at the successful conclusion of the war.

Although the Italians were unable to achieve success in any of their offenses against the
Austrians, with Allied help, they were able to hold the Italian front.

The Balkans

Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in October 1915.

The Serbs were able to fight off the Austrians, however, when Austria, Germany and

Bulgaria joined tzo attack in October 1915, Belgrade quickly fell.

In December 1916 Romania was defeated by Germany and Bulgaria.

Asia and the Pacific

Japan came into the war quite early (August 1914) with the goal to take over the German

spheres of influence in Pacific.

The Allies promised to support Japans claim to these lands after the war.
The British Dominions of Australia and New Zealand seized other German islands in the
Pacific.

Africa

In western Africa, British and French troops seized German coastal colonies.
The Union of South Africa (British) took over the German colony of German Southwest
Africa

51

Changing Tides of War 1917-1918

By 1917 the situation looked favorable for the Central Powers for several reasons:
o Chaos in Russia
o Romania, Serbia and Montenegro had all been defeated
o France saw increasing anti-war demonstrations and talk of mutiny in the army
o On the Western Front, the Germans had fallen back to their strong Hindenburg
o

Line
U-Boat warfare, which had been reinstated in February 1917, had been very

successful in destroying Allied shipping

Even though America had entered the war on April 6, they were not prepared
enough to have a significant impact in Europe in 1917.

Why did America enter the war?

Resumption of unrestricted U-Boat warfare

Zimmermann Telegram of January 19, 1917
The fall of Tsardom in March made fighting on the side of the Allies in defense of

democracy more believable

Considerable sums of money had been invested and loaned to the Allies by both private
bankers and the US government making an Allied defeat very unfavorable.

The Defeat of the Central Powers

Why did the Germans surrender?
1. Effective counter measures to U-Boats were developed
2. Impact of blockade in causing food and munitions shortages in Germany
3. Failure of the Ludendorff (or German Spring) Offensive due to:
a. Overstretched supply lines
b. Germans fell victim to their own scorched earth policy
c. Large number of Germans deserters
d. US troops had arrived in huge numbers allowing for an Allied counter-

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

offensive
e. Allied better use of radio and tanks
The collapse of Germanys allies
US contribution in terms of morale, money and men
Germanys inability to attract new allies
Uprisings in conquered areas in the East
Unrest in Germany
a. Many Germans revolted against what was in essence the dictatorship of
Ludendorff and Hindenburg

52

b. Although the Kaiser gave some concessions to more democratic rights, it

wasnt enough to satisfy the people, including soldiers and sailors who were
at the point of mutiny.
c. On November 9 the Kaiser abdicated and Germany became a republic
No Compromise Peace

By the beginning of 1917 within both the belligerent camps there were civilians who tried

to negotiate peace and generals who still pushed for military victory
The problem with negotiations was that what was seen as compromise for one side was
seen as defeat for the other:
o The Allies wanted a return to the status quo of 1914:
- Germany could keep her colonies and her fleet, but had to get out of the
occupied territories of Russia, France and Belgium and perhaps have to
o

pay to restore them.

The Germans wanted a return to the status quo of 1916:
- They keep Lorraine and military control over Belgium, as well as

additional colonies and perhaps parts of Poland.

Therefore it appeared a decisive victory was needed to achieve any compromise which

would mean a dictated peace for the losers.

That is why the American war aims, Wilsons Fourteen Points, were so appealing to the
Germans.

German Domestic Politics and the Armistice

Realizing that military defeat was imminent, in October, Ludendorff advised the Kaiser to

appoint a civilian government to negotiate an armistice.

Reasons:
o A constitutional government would be more acceptable to the Allies and would
o

thus get better peace terms.

Ludendorff and the German High Command did not want to take the blame and

shame for losing the war.

Thus Germany became a liberal constitutional monarchy
Wilhelms abdication both as German Emperor and King of Prussia was abruptly

announced by the Chancellor, Prince Max von Baden, on 9 November 1918.

Friedrick Ebert, a Social Democrat (SPD) became chancellor the First of the German

Republic.
On November 11, 1998 the new German government accepted the Allies peace terms
bringing an end to the fighting of WWI.
53

Believing that they had fought to an honorable draw on the Western Front, while being
totally victorious in the East, German leaders now waited to be summoned to Paris to
assist the Allies in a crusade against Bolshevism.

The Paris Peace Conference

What was originally called the Preliminary Conference of Peace began on 18 January

1919.
He stage of the conference was meant to be the time for the 32 Allied and Associated
Powers to coordinate their negotiating plans ahead of peace talks with the Central

Powers.
However, due to the rapid disintegration of the Central Powers during these months this
preliminary conference was transformed into the final peace conference, which explains

why none of the Central Powers were part of the negotiations.

This factor also added confusion for the delegates because many believed that it was an

initial negotiating position that they were preparing, not the actual terms of the treaty.
Due to the large number of delegates from various nations, eventually the important
decision making function was taken over by a Council of Four sometimes referred to as

the Big Four:

o Woodrow Wilson, USA
o Georges Clemenceau, France
o David Lloyd George, Britain
o Vittorio Orlando, Italy
It took the Big Four until May to agree on the terms of the treaty to be presented to

Germany.
After the German treaty terms were decided, the leading statesmen of the Big Four
returned to their countries and left the working out of the remaining treaties with the
Central Powers to their ambassadors.

The message of this cartoon is that Germany would have treated the Allies much more harshly if
they had won the war.
The Paris Peace Settlements
The first clause in each of the treaties was the Covenant of the League of Nations.
Eastern Europe

54

It was agreed that in Eastern Europe the countries should be sizable and economically
viable in order to provide stability and withstand any future German or Bolshevik

pressure.
They also agreed with the idea of self-determination
However, the final borders were as much a product of the post-war military clashes in

Eastern Europe as the decisions made in Paris.

The existence of large minorities in the new states was an ongoing concern.
That is why when it came to defending these new Eastern European states, Britain and
others were less than committed.

Treaty of St. Germain with Austria, September 1919

Treaty of Trianon with Hungary, June 1920

Recognized Austria and Hungary as separate states.

Each had to give up land, reduce their armed forces and pay reparations
Forbade Austria to unite with Germany (Anschluss)
Created new states based on Wilsons Self Determination Poland, Czechoslovakia &
Yugoslavia

Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria, November 1919

Gave land to Yugoslavia and Greece

Reduced armed forces
Ordered reparations

Treaty of Sevres with Turkey, 1920

Transformed the political geography of the Eastern Mediterranean:

o Turkey and Arabia became independent countries
o The rest of the old Empire was broken into League of Nations Mandates:
Britain Palestine, Jordan, Iraq
France Lebanon & Syria
o Demilitarized the Turkish Straits and put them under League control

Treaty of Versailles with Germany, June 1919

Military restrictions:

Max. 100,000 men in the army

Max. 6 battleships & no subs
No air force
No tanks
Production of military goods limited to certain factories and these were monitored by the

Allies
Demilitarized the Rhineland
Put the Saar Valley under League control for 15 years, after that it went to a plebiscite
and the people chose to go to Germany
55

Took land away

o To France, Belgium, Denmark, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Lithuania
Colonies given to the League to distribute as mandates
Forbade Anschluss with Austria
Blamed the war on Germany and their Allies War Guilt Clause Article 231, therefore
giving justification for the huge reparations demanded of Germany by France and Britain

France is sucking the life out of Germany through the Treaty of Versailles, while Britain and
America are depicted as bats are just lingering around waiting for the same opportunity.

Freedom of seas including the opening of Bosporus and Dardanelles

o Britain
The occupation of Rhineland for 15 years and permanent demilitarization
o France
The formation of the League of Nations
o United States
Germany and Austria not permitted to unite
o France
The majority of German colonies to put under league control
o United States (France and Britain later on because they get to keep them as
mandates)
A defensive alliance between Britain, France and USA incase Germany got aggressive
again
o France
Self determination for the people of the Balkans
o United States
Blame on the war to be put on Germany and Allies
o Britain, France, US, Italy
German Navy to be limited in size
o Britain and France
The dismantling of the Austrian-Hungary Empire
o Italy

Enforcing the Treaty, 1920-23

Complicating factors:
1. Russia
The Russian Civil War added to the confusion of the peace settlements

56

The Allies continued to send war material and troops to help the Whites after

WWI
Following the Bolshevik victory, other nations were not sure what kind of
diplomatic relations to build with Soviet Russia, and so for the most part, shunned

them
This caused Lenin to begin diplomatic relations with the other European pariah

state Germany.
In 1922 this grew into the Treaty of Rapallo by which each state recognized the
other, renounced any past financial claims, and opened the way for secret military

collaboration.
2. France and Britain
Essentially Britain and France were left to implement the treaty which had been

negotiated on the assumption of American participation.

However, they had conflicting ideas:
Britain
a. Concerned with empire, wanted balance of power in Europe
b. Wanted a prosperous and peaceful Germany that could pay the
reparations and help rebuild European economy
c. Many in Britain felt that indeed the Treaty had been unfair and that it
should be amended
France was mostly concerned with permanently weakening Germany and forcing
her to fulfill the Treaty terms.

Neither nation was strong enough to get their own way

At the same time, the overriding aim of German foreign policy was revision of the

Treaty.
Therefore, during the first half of the 1920s the German response to the Allied
attempts to carry out the Treaty was either outright defiance or procrastination in

an attempt to split the former allies

It was thought by finally fixing the sum of the reparations(in April 1921 at 132
milliard gold marks) it would help the Germans to know the full extent of their debt
and begin raising credit.

The Ruhr Crisis

In July 1922 the Germans requested a three-year moratorium on reparation payments.

At the same time Britain announced that America was demanding the repayment of
British wartime debts, and thus in turn, had to insist on the repayment of the equivalent
amount from her former allies.
57

Raymond Poincare, the new French Prime Minister saw no other solution than to occupy

the Ruhr as the only means to force Germany to pay.

French and Belgium troops entered the Ruhr in January 1923
The Germans responded with passive resistance and strikes which triggered hyper-

inflation
The French responded to passive resistance harshly; over 100 workers were killed and

100,000 protestors were removed

Not knowing how to respond, Britain adopted a position of benevolent passivity.
For the French it was an expensive occupation, which weakened the franc.
Finally in September the new German Chancellor, Gustav Stresemann, called off passive

resistance.
The French agreed to an Anglo-American initiative to look into the reparations issue.
The Ruhr Crisis marked the end of attempts to carry out the Treaty of Versailles by force
and the beginning of the gradual revision of the Treaty itself.

Source-based questions on Chapter 3

1. Revising the Treaties
a. Study Source C
Source C is a speech from the German, Walther Rathenau. The line our country has
been mutilated in line 7 signifies the loss of territory Germany suffered due to the treaty.
The treaty has cut Germany into pieces, creating new states and the said land that
Germany lost was crucial for a lot of their resources. The treaty mutilated Germany,
which caused a shortage of resources in Germany.
b. Study Source D
Source D is a secret message from the French Minister of Finance requesting an
economic entente with Germany. What was meant in line 11 is that France wanted a
mutual understanding, an alliance with Germany regarding the reparation fees. The
French kept vetoing the moratorium so Germany turned over to Russia and signed the
Treaty of Rapallo.
The League of Nations
Rationale:

To promote international cooperation

To guarantee international peace and security

Membership:

Open to any independent state, except for Germany (1926) and the USSR (1934).
There were 48 original members
58

The Structure of the League

The Secretariat

Carried out all the administrative functions

The Assembly

All members attended and debated once a year

Admitted new nations, controlled the budget and elected non-permanent members to the
council

The Council

Dominated by permanent members: Britain, France, Italy, Japan and Germany

Non-permanent members (originally 4, but up to 11 in 1936)
Dealt with problems when the Assembly was not in session
Could organize sanctions against offending members

League Positives
Some new and good ideas brought about through the League:

Article 14
Mandates, Article 22
Agencies established to deal with:
o Labour laws
o Human trafficking
o Drug trafficking
o Supervision of the arms trade
o Prevention and control of diseases

League Problems
Some difficulties encountered by the League:
Collective Security:
all members undertake to respect and preserve as against external aggression the territorial
integrity and political independence of all members of the League.

This became the cornerstone of the League and the basis for a new theory for

international relations.
It sought to banish the old alliance systems (treaties), which were designed to protect or

defend against specific threats or specific nations.

Nations entered into these treaties to defend or advance their own vital interests
It is on the basis of the treaties that foreign policy decisions were made.
Collective security is less concrete in that it does not specify where threats may come

from or what the response should be under certain circumstances

It assumes that all nations:

59

a. Are equally prepared to act in defense of the principle that aggression is

wrong and must be resisted.
b. Will see each challenge to peace in exactly the same light and will be willing,
regardless of costs or effect to their own interests, to defend the principle.
Collective Security failed because:

It requires a level of altruism which doesnt seem realizable

It asked nations to surrender their freedom of action and enforce policies with which they
disagreed or to intervene against countries with whom they were friends or had profitable

relationships.
It wasnt very collective' when three of the worlds largest nations were not even
members of the League.

Members (or lack thereof)

Outlaw states (Germany and USSR) had no desire to support the League or its principles.

Rather, the League was seen as the keeper of the Versailles status quo which both were

trying to revise.
Their exclusion caused to work together in the Treaty of Rapallo (1922), which rendered
the disarmament clauses of Versailles pointless because the League couldnt do

anything about their economic and military cooperation.

Furthermore, the exclusion of the USSR confirmed their suspicion that there was a

conspiracy to destroy them.

US rejection of the League and its principles undermined the Leagues credibility.
As America was the wealthiest nation, it had the greatest potential to intervene in issues

in the interest of maintaining peace.

Because the US didnt join, the Anglo-American security guarantee to France was
cancelled as the UK would not commit to intervention in Europe without SU support and

was suspicious of French ambitions.

The differing attitude towards Versailles was problematic because the French wanted the

League to enforce the settlement, while the British wanted to rebuild Germany.
Thus the two major powers of the League often disagreed on what actions should be

taken
Members could quit and did!
Reflects the view that the League was too dominated by the European WWI Allies Great

Powers mentality
There was no penalty for quitting

Military

It had no forces of its own; it had to rely on member countries declaring war on countries
that broke the covenant

60

Decisions

Had to be unanimous, although the votes of countries directly involved in the dispute

were not considered

Could only make recommendations, could not force the members to take the action

Disarmament

In a world where many nations had grievances or territorial ambitions and distrusted their

neighbors, disarmament would have little chance.

Although disarmament was one of the major goals of the League, much of the efforts to
achieve it were actually accomplished outside the League.

The Washington Conference (1921-1922)

After WWI there had been growing tension between Japan and the US over mutual

suspicions of intentions in China

This was a scary prospect for Britain as she was still under the 1902 defensive alliance
with Japan, which could mean that she would need to side with Japan in a war against

the USA
There also existed a significant naval arms race between Britain, US and Japan.
Due to the need to reduce military expenditures as well as the rising tension, all three

agreed to meet to discuss naval arms reductions.

They agreed to limit the size and number of battleships, as well as the size of cruises

and aircraft carriers to a constant ratio of USA, Britain and Japan; 5:5:3
Additionally, USA, Britain, France and Japan signed the Four Power Agreement which

guaranteed them their possessions in Asia.

The Nine Power Agreement confirmed the Open Door for China and guarantees its

territorial integrity.
The success of this conference can be credited to:
o The fact that each nation felt it benefited
o The small number of participants
o The timing after the war when disarmament was a popular concept
By the early 30s these agreements were largely ignored after Japans invasion of
Manchuria

The London Naval Conference (1930)

Timed well as it coincided with the onset of the Great Depression and countries were

looking to further reduce their naval arms.

The USA, Britain, France, Italy and Japan all agreed to reductions in their naval
capacities, as well as new rules governing U-boat warfare

61

The London treaty was not renewed in 1936 because of the aggressive stance of the
Japanese and Italians, as well as her fear the others had about rapid Japanese and
Germany rearmament programs

The Geneva Disarmament Conference (1932-4)

Was a League organized attempt at world disarmament that included the USA and
USSR as well
Problems:
o Less positive attitude towards international cooperation due to the impact of the
o

Depression
The French were unwilling to disarm without some guarantees of security which

o
o

Britain and others were unwilling to give

Disagreement over what constituted offensive versus defensive weapons
Germany used the conference as a platform to push the claim that they were

being unfairly discriminated against through their military restrictions

When Germany demands for military parity were not considered, they left the

conference (1932)
The conference failed to achieve its goal.

France Between the Wars

WWI had a very high cost for France:

Approximately 10% of the active male population had been killed

Approximately 10% of the most valuable industrial and agricultural had been destroyed
War debts of approximately 7 billion dollars owed to USA and Britain

Accordingly, many Frenchmen felt that the Versailles did nothing to solve the German Problem
Economy

Despite the impact of WWI, the French economy was able to make quite a remarkable
recovery in the 1920s because:
o Improved taxation system, as well as spending reform enabled the French to
o
o
o

stabilize their currency.

Tourism brought a lot of money into the country.
Alsace-Lorraine gave the French rich mineral deposits and factories.
Modern factories were established in areas where the destruction of WWI had
destroyed the old ones.

Domestic Politics

French politics were quite unstable during this period

There was a polarization between political parties, ranging from extreme right wing to far
left

62

Therefore, with each election came a coalition government, which proved to be very
ineffective in setting policy.

Foreign Affairs

Frances hopes for security were not met in either agreement with Britain nor in the
League of Nations, therefore, she explored several other options:
o Building a system of defensive alliances with other European nations through the

o
o

1920s:
Belgium 1920
Poland 1921&1925
Czechoslovakia 1924
Romania 1926
Yugoslavia 1927
Following a policy of compromise and conciliation with Germany
However, there were a number of factors that changed French foreign strategy

into the 1930s:

1. The death of Stresemann and the rise of fascism in Europe
2. The Wall Street crash
Thus, the French turned forward a more defensive and passive mentality that is

best exemplified in the Maginot Mentality

The French also began to seriously rearm their military strength starting in 1936.

Britain Between the Wars

Although WWI left Britain with large war debts and a great loss of manpower, she also

gained a certain friends faade of prestige from the mandates awarded to her.
However, her commitment to empire was also her main weakness due to the huge cost
of administering and defending it

Economy
The British economy was in decline:

Due to the wartime lapse in the production of non-military goods, and the rise in

industrialization of non-Western nations, the British lost a lot of their markets

War debts
Layoffs in the coal mining industry led to huge protest strikes
Very high unemployment rates, 25%

All these factors led Britain to:

1. Abandon free trade and introduced protective tariffs
2. Adopted the policy of Imperial Preference
3. Make dramatic cuts in military spending
Politics
63

The Labour Party (Ramsey McDonald) did replace the Liberal Party however they were

moderate in their policies

Through this time of economic stress Britain moved towards the development of a

welfare state
Although politicians, both conservative and Labour, recognized the need for rearmament
in the early 1920s, public opinion did not support it, so it was delayed

Foreign Affairs

The British approach to diplomacy in the 1920s, especially with regards to Germany, was

based on economic self-interest

There was a relatively strong support (at least in the early years) in Britain for Hitler due

to his strong anti-Communist stance and the perceived harshness for Versailles
By the early 1920s, the British were beginning to realize the need for rearmament in light

of the aggressive acts committed by Japan, Germany and Italy

By 1936 British rearmament was in full swing, however it would be several years before

they reached war preparedness.

As such the British, led by Neville Chamberlain (1937) followed a policy known as
appeasement.

The Dawes Plan (April 1924)

The Franco-Belgian occupation of the Ruhr in 1923 resulted in catastrophic inflation for
the Weimar government which made the situation untenable
o Germany was on the brink of total collapse which could result in the Germans

embracing communism
o Further, Germanys collapse would also prevent European economic recovery
Stresemann was willing to call off passive resistance and announced that Germany
would comply with her Treaty obligations
o This has come to be called the Policy of Fulfillment whereby the Germans cooperated with the terms of the Treaty in order to gain concessions in the future
o

from the Allied Powers.

It proved successful as the Germans did gain a number of concessions and

became a respected member of the international community.

The French were also willing to come to an agreement, as the occupation had been

costly economically and in terms of damaging relations with Britain and the U.S.
Most importantly, the Americans were eager to see European economic recovery and

thus have their loans repaid

Therefore, the Dawes Plan (London Conference of 1924) was arranged to ensure that
the Germans could continue with their reparations payments.

64

o
o
o
o

French agreements to evacuate the Ruhr within 12 months

The reparations payments were rescheduled to fit with German ability to pay
The Germans could borrow money from abroad, mostly from America
The end of the Ruhr occupation marked the end of efforts to use reparations as a

method of keeping Germany weak

The Dawes Plan opened the way for the economic recovery of Germany.

Locarno Diplomacy

Even after the Dawes Plan, there was still considerable tension between Germany and

France.
Throughout 1923, the Germans had made several offers to the French for neither side to

resort to war, however, the hardline French premier, Poincare, refused.

New political leaders in both Britain (Austen Chamberlain as Foreign Minister) and
France (Avistide Briand as Foreign Minister) in 1924 did much to open the way for

friendlier relations between countries

Therefore in October 1925 a conference was held at Locarno out of which came a set of
four treaties known collectively as the Locarno Pact:
o Germany guaranteed the 1919 borders with Belgium and France and promised
not to change its borders with Poland and Czechoslovakia except through

negotiations.
Britain gave a military guarantee to the borders of France and Belgium if

Germany invaded (but not for Poland and Czechoslovakia)

France created an alliance with Poland and Czechoslovakia against future

German aggression.
All concerned parties agreed to the permanent demilitarization of the Rhineland

(France could not threaten to occupy the Ruhr again)

Germany would be accepted into the League of Nations and have a seat on the

Council which restored its status as a great European power.

The Locarno era was seen by many as proof that Europes tensions had been resolved.
a. German willingness to accept Versailles.
b. Failure of the spread of communism
c. Economic prosperity of the 1920s.
However:

The League wasnt strengthened in any way and it was the means through which

the French were given a military guarantee

Germany didnt accept the Eastern border decisions of the Treaty
Germanys renewal of Rapallo in 1926 meant that they could continue re-arming.

65

Much of the goodwill between nations was based on economic prosperity, when
that crashed, so did much of the goodwill.

The Weimar Republic (1918-1933)

Beginnings:

From Nov 9 1918, an entirely socialist provisional government took power under Eberts
leadership
From the start, this new government faced threats from:
1. The extreme Left the Spartacists led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht
2. The extreme Right the Freikorps units groups of ex-soldier and others, all of
whom were aggressive nationalists and fiercely anti-socialist
The constitution of the Weimar Republic was approved by the National Assembly
(Reichstag) in August 1919.

Weimar Constitution:

The Reichstag was to be elected every 4 years on the basis of proportional

representation each party would get a representative for every 60,000 votes.
o This resulted in coalition governments as the smaller parties were able to gain

seats.
The Chancellor was supposed to come from the largest party in the Reichstag
Although Weimar was a republic with an elected parliament, the constitution also created

the position of President which held considerable power.

The powers of this position show an underlying lack of faith in the democratic Reichstag
The President was to be elected directly by the people every 7 years.

The President:

Was the supreme commander of the military

Appointed all important officials, military and civilian, including the Chancellor.
Alone held the power to summon and dissolve the Reichstag
Through Article 48, could sign into law emergency bills without the consent of the
Reichstag, which gave him the power to suspend civil liberties, take emergency powers

and rule by decree.

As President between 1919 to 1925 Ebert used this power occasionally to help the
Chancellors pass normal legislation which the Reichstag could not agree on due to the

nature of the coalitions.

After 1925, however, President Hindenburg often abused this special power which led to
increasingly authoritarian government.

The Crisis Years of 1919-1923

66

Why?

Jan.1919 The Spartacists

Jan.1919 Communist coup in Bavaria
Further disturbances throughout 1920-21
2 prominent politicians assassinated by far right groups
1920 The Kapp Putsch
1921 Reparations Committee
1921 Inflation
1923 Ruhr Crisis & Hyper-inflation

The German mark to the US dollar

1914
1918
1923 (Nov)
Why?

4.2
8.9
42,000,000,000

Historians do not agree on a single cause. Some explanations are:

The reparations caused the hyper-inflation

The cost of the war, and the system of deficit spending, compounded by the reparations
The Germans deliberately provoked the crisis to avoid having to pay the reparations

Did the Weimar Republic save itself between 1919-1923?

Successful in suppressing the Kapp Putsch and organized passive resistance to

overcome French Powers in the Ruhr

Effective use of Article 48 by Ebert.
Effective Chancellorship, cutting expenditures and introduction of Rentenmark, won the

western powers view that Germany was rehabilitating

Dawes Plan

The Golden Years 1924-29 (?)

Economics Dancing on a volcano

Through the Dawes Plan of 1924 French troops were pulled out of the Ruhr and

Germanys reparation payments were rescheduled.

American loans were also essential for the expansion of German industry.
The level of prosperity did rise as this money was used to finance industrial expansion

and fund a variety of public works schemes, both of which provided employment.
However, there were some weaknesses in the Weimars economic system:
1. The post 1923 recovery was too reliant on externally generated credit.
a. Most of the loans were American and short-term, which meant they were very
vulnerable to fluctuations on the US stock market.

67

2. While the capacity of the German factories increased, there did not exist the demand
for the goods they were producing.
a. Thus, owners began looking at non-consumer manufacturing as a way to
make money rearmament.
3. The government stepped in to arbitrate labor disputes, which had the short term
effect of preventing strikes, but the long term effect of making the industrialists more
rigid and authoritarian in their relationship with the workers.
4. Agriculture never modernized the way German industry did and therefore never grew

in any consistent way.

Overall, the economy of the Weimar Republic did recover between 1924 and 1929, but
this recovery was highly fragile.

Politics

Support from the radical parties fell while the moderate parties that supported the

Republic increased in support.

This evidence has led many historians to conclude that the Republic was stable during
this period and it was the economic crisis of 1929-1930 that sent it tumbling. But! What
the election results do not show us is:
A. The extent of the breakdown of political consensus of the part of the spectrum that
supported the Republic
Left | KPD SPD Z DDP DVP DNVP NSDAP | Right
o
o
o

SPD, Z, DDP, DVP worked well for foreign Policy

Z, DDP, DVP, DNVP worked well on domestic policy
Therefore, often Reichstag coalitions had to be manufactured for each item of

legislation, which made for a very unstable government.

B. Changes in the nature and strength of the right.
o The DNVP moved further to the right as a response to government involvement in
o

industrial and labour practices.

Changes in the NSDAP mad it more of a mainstream, respectable party.
- Hitler realized that rather than using violence to overthrow the
government, he would need to participate in regular politics in order to
-

achieve power.
He also recognized his party into regional units called Gau in order to

strengthen his hold on the party.

o The DNVP and the NSDAP began to form a close coalition by 1929.
C. Hindenburg became president in 1925 and his behavior became increasingly
authoritarian.

68

The Weimar Collapse and the Rise of Hitler

Upon his release from prisoin in 1925 Hitler found that the political and economic climate

in Germany was much more stable, and therefore the Nazis lost some of their support.
The period between 1925 and 1929 marked a low in terms of support for the Nazis, but

Hitler used this time to rebuild and restructure the party.

Hitler devised ways in which to involve many segments of the population with the party

thus making it a mass movement by the early 1930s.

During these years, a number of military-type groups developed within the Nazi

movement.
One of these was the SA (Brown Shirts)
By the early 1930s the SA was several times larger in numbers than the German army.
With the economic chaos created by the Great Depression came an increased

polarization of the German population towards either the Nazis or the Communists.
Under these circumstances, Brning (center Party) was appointed Chancellor (March
1930), but was not successful at gaining the support of the Reichstag and had to rely on
support of Hindenburg and Article 48 to rule, thus marking a return to authoritarian style

leadership.
When the Reichstag passed a vote of no confidence in Brning, he made the mistake of

calling for new elections in September 1930.

Yet, Brning stayed on as Chancellor because the SPD supported him.
Even though they hated his economic policies, they were afraid of what would happen of

Brnings government fell and the Nazis came to power.

What would have earned Brning the nickname The Hunger Chancellor?
o His deflationary program
Aims:

To balance the budget?

To worsen the effects of the Depression in order to end reparations?

How did he seek to achieve his aims?

Increase taxes
Severe cuts in government spending which was felt most by the
unemployment because their welfare benefits were cut

Outcome?

His policies made things so bad in Germany that people lost confidence in

him (unemployment, bank crashes, political violence on the streets)

His proposed land reform lost him the support of the agrarian elite which

included Hindenburg
The government deficit was cut

69

Reparations suspended in July 1931 and cancelled in June 1932 (one

month after Brning lost office)

In April 1932 Brning worked to get Hindenburg re-elected as President
By this time Hitler had grown in popularity and had gained 37% of the vote in his attempt

to become President.
Because of Hitlers growing strength and popularity, his seizing power through the SA

was seen as a real threat.

Therefore Brning had the SA banned and some on the right opposed this ban.
General Schleicher saw a potential in having the SA incorporated into the German army.
On May 30, 1932 Brning was forced to resign because he had lost the support of

Hindenburg.
This meant that he could no longer make use of Article 48.

The Messy Months May 1932 Jan 1933

May Dec Franz von Papen

Schleicher convinced Hindenburg to appoint Papen to lead a cabinet of elites.

Papen lifted the ban on the SA and agreed to Hitlers demand to call new elections.
Despite the huge Nazi showing in the 1932 election, Hindenburg refused to make Hitler

Chancellor and instead kept Papen in that position.

This caused chaos in the Reichstag and under Schleichers advice, Hindenburg was

forced to dissolve it and call another election.

The new Reichstag was as unworkable as the previous one.
Papen, wanting to remain as a Chancellor, proposed to Hindenburg that the Reichstag
be permanently replaced and that the army be used to suppress any opposition.

Dec Jan

Schleicher convinced Hindenburg that Papens plan would start a civil war and instead

had himself appointed Chancellor.

He failed in trying to split the Nazi Party and also in gaining the support of the trade

unions.
At the same time he lost the support of the right wing elite.
Behind the scenes Papen plotted with Hitler to return to government.
Hitler would be Chancellor and Papen would be Vice-Chancellor.
This was backed by a coalition of representatives from big businesses and the army.
Hindenburg dismissed Schleicher on January 28, 1933.

Hitler was appointed as Chancellor on January 30, 1933.

Japanese Aggression After WWI

70

Japan was the only other nation, besides the USA to emerge from WWI stronger than it
had been before, and there was a desire to build an empire on this success.

Emperor Hirohito 1901 1989

Japan had limited natural resources and therefore felt it necessary to make themselves

less dependent on other nations (especially USA for oil)

They were also looking for locations to resettle their surplus populations.
Their solution was to look for new areas within Asia to colonize.

Manchuria

The Japanese saw Manchuria as a very significant reason because it was a good
physical barrier between Russia and the Japanese mainland, and it was a good starting

place from which to spread through and take over China.

They had invested large sums of money into railway construction through out the region.
In the late 1920s Chinese companies began building their own railways.
This threatened the Japanese and increased tensions in the area.
On Sept. 18, 1931 a section of a Japanese railway was mysteriously blown-up and the
Japanese used this as a reason to send in troops to defend their investments in

Manchuria.
The defense turned into an occupation and the Leagued condemned it.
o Japan quit the League.
o The League did not come to Chinas aid.
On March 9, 1932, the Independent Republic of Manchuko (a Japanese puppet state)

was proclaimed.
In 1934 the Japanese gave notice they were breaking the conditions of the Washington

Naval Treaty and began to massively build up their navy.

The USSR was very concerned about Japanese expansion. They formed a defensive

alliance with Mongolia.

Japan interpreted this as aggression and in 1936 signed a similar treaty of their own with

Germany, the Anti-Comintern Pact (also known as the Tripartite Pact)

By July 1937 Japan declared war on China and within the next several months had

effective control over large portions of China.

Fascism

Although Mussolini was the first to use the term to identify his movement, it came to refer
to man similar movements in Europe between the wars.
General characteristics of fascism:
o Hostility to parliamentary democracy and communism
o Support for authoritarian and military values
o Aggressive nationalism
71

The mobilization of mass support behind a charismatic leader.

Italy Between the Wars

Italys political and economic situation after WWI was similar to other post-war European

countries inflation, unemployment, food shortages, political polarization and violence.

Between 1918-1920 there was a period known as Biennio Rosso (two red years) in

which there were huge protests from farmers and industrial workers.
These protests were led by socialists and trade-union leaders.
The moderate liberal coalition government failed to take decisive action to stop these

protests.
Industrialists and landowners feared a Bolshevik revolution and felt the government was

unwilling or powerless to stop it.

They therefore began to support the right-wing radicals, the Fascists Black Shirts

(Squadristi) who used terror against any socialist groups.

Throughout 1921-1922 the Blackshirts continued their terror and by late 1922 they had

control over most of the towns and cities in Northern Italy.

The situation was getting critical with Mussolini planning to march into Rome and take

over the government.

Prime Minister Facta requested a declaration of martial law from the King.
Instead the King preferred to try to negotiate with Mussolini by offering him a position in

the government.
Mussolini would not accept any part in a government he did not lead, so on October 30,

1922 the King made him the Prime Minister of the new government.
New elections were held in 1924 in which Mussolinis fascists won a majority through the

use of violence and initimidation.

Upon his win in the 1924 elections, Mussolini proceeded to pass a law in 1925 that gave

him total power. With these powers he:

o Banned all political opposition
o Banned trade unions
o Censored the press.
o Purged all anti-Fascists from the bureaucracy
o Replaced all elected officials with appointed Fascists.
o Set up a secret police and special courts.
To gain a broader base of support he ended his antagonism with the Catholic Church in

1929.
When the depression hit he began a program of public works to combat unemployment.

72

Italian Foreign Policy Under Mussolini

Italy was in the fortunate position of appearing to be the lesser of evils when compared

to Hitler and therefore both France and Britain took pains not to alienate Mussolini.
Using this to his advantage, Mussolini tried to take on the role of mediator between

France & Britain and Germany to overturn the Treaty of Versailles.

However, the increasing German threats (to Austria in particular) converted him to a firm

supporter of the territorial status quo

In the early 1930s Mussolini even took several steps to check Hitlers foreign aggression:
1. 1934 mobilized his troops along the Austrian border when Hitler gave support
to the Austrian Nazis to stage a coup.
2. 1935 met with the British and French to condemn German rearmament and to

maintain the peace settlements (Stresa Conference)

At the same time, however, Mussolini was also looking towards his own imperialist

expansion, specifically in the Balkans and North Africa.

His first target was the independent nation of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) which the Italians had

been trying to gain since the 1880s.

In October 1935 Italy invaded Abyssinia
Results:
1. The invasion had a high economic cost which weakened Italy considerably
2. Haile Selassie (emperor of Abyssinia) protested before the League.
3. Made Mussolini believe he was strong militarily.
4. Mussolini, isolated from his Stressa partners, looked to Hitler for support
In return for this support, he agreed not to cooperate with the British and
French if German troops entered the Rhineland.

Totalitarianism
Dictatorship
Seeks limited (usually political)

control
Seeks a pacified and submissive

population
Seeks only to rule over the
individual and society

Totalitarianism
Seeks to dominate all aspects of

national life
Mobilizes and makes use of mass

political participation
Seeks the complete
reconstruction of the individual
and society
73

Is often seen as a temporary

response during a crisis or

Believes in a permanent
reconstruction of the country

emergency
Both in theory and practice, totalitarianism began after World War I

Reason:
a) During the war, governments had taken over more and more aspects of their country
in order to focus the countrys resources into winning the war.
Examples:
Conscription both into the military and into the workforce
Rationing
Control of transportation networks
b) The chaotic political, economic and social situations

Common Characteristics of Totalitarian States

Single party state with unquestioning obedience to a single ruler, which leads to a

personality cult.
State control over the economy
Strict censorship and government control over the media
Use of schools and media to indoctrinate and mobilize citizens
Police spies and state terrorism used to deny personal freedom.
Highly nationalist, often to the point of racist
Individual identity is taken away and replaced with a group identity based on either race

or class
Glorification of violence and war

Italian and German Response

Mussolini was the first to commit aid to the nationalists, but Hitler is quick to participate

also
Italian and German Fascist aid came in the form of soldiers, weapons and military
strategists

Motives behind German participation:

A venue to test their new weapons and military capabilities

A chance to help bring about the demise of left wingers, especially communists.
By helping instill a fascist government in Spain, it would force France to fight a war on

74

two fronts net time and would cut off.

For Hitler it was a chance to work together with Mussolini, forge Rome-Berlin Axis and

this keep Mussolini attention away from his aggressive plans for the central Europe.
It gave Germany access to Spains raw materials to feed their re-armament.

French and British Response

Officially, both France and Britain did not participate and went even further to create the

Non-intervention agreement of 1936.

This stance led to some degree of disagreement within both countries, and in fact France
did have several short periods where aids

Motives behind this malevolent neutrality:

Both nations were in their twilight years and didn't want another European war that would

completely destroy the balance of power.

Neither nation particularly wanted to see a communist government come to power in

Spain
It wasn't quite certain whether Mussolini would go in with Hitler and neither France nor

Britain wanted to push him into Hitlers arms by opposing hum directly in Spain.
Economically and in terms of arms of military readiness, neither country was able to
participate on a grand scale.

Soviets Response

Was the only government send aid to the Republican side

Motives behind participation:

Ideological battle between fascism and communism

Stalin wanted to ensure that his band of communism prevailed in Spain
Didn't want to see France get surrounded by fascist states
Stalin hoped that the Soviets support for the Republicans would encourage France and
Britain to do the same.

In the end.

Foreign intervention served only to lengthen the duration of the war

Brought Germany and Italy Together in the Rome-Berlin Axis
Weakened Italys economy due to military spending
Ironically it also pushed Stalin into the arms of Hitler.

From Nihilism to Nazism

Nihilism is a philosophy that began in the 19 th century that, simply stated,
says that there is no meaning or value to life.
75

This conclusion is reached based on the claim that there is no reality that is
independent of the human mind.
Friedrich Nietzsche
(1844-1900) is perhaps the most influential of the nihilistic thinkers of the 19 th
century.
This atheistic worldview thinking played a significant role in the development
of the Nazi movement because Hitler was a disciple of Nietzsche.
Nihilisms influence on Nazi doctrines:
If there is no God, then Creation is a myth and evolution is correct.
Evolutionary theories can be applied to human races and societies
Social Darwinism.
With the death of God came the denial of any objective moral values
and therefore who was to say that killing Jews was wrong?

Factors Favoring for the Emergence of Hitler

The Weimar Republic had many inherent weaknesses, which created
widespread disillusionment in the population.
The Nazis were able to take advantage of this situation in which people were
abandoning traditional political loyalties by appealing to various sectors of
the electorate individuality.
Hitler also used several general policies to cut through class differences.
These included:
A nationalist offensive proclaiming Versailles a stab in th eback
An emphasis on the need for German geographical expansion or living
space (Lebensraum)
The identification of race enemies such as the Jews.
Miscalculation by the Right
Rather than a return to party politics, many of the right felt that
government through a broad based movement of the right would be
best for Germany.
To accomplish this, they needed the radical impetus of the Nazis to
destroy the Republic
Once this was accomplished, the Nazis would be brought into line
with the more conservative forces
The Nazi Party and its Associations
Gau
The Nazi party organized itself geographically by dividing into 35 regions
These regions were called Gau and each one was to be led by a governor or
Gauleiter
Each Gau was further divided into local branches, which each local leader
reporting directly to his Gauletier who reported directly to Hitler.
Nazi Associations

76

To broaden their base of popular support and further influence the German
people, the NSDAP established a variety of groups, which appealed to
different segments of society.

Structure of Nazi Society

1. Fuhrer
2. Volkgemeinschaft or National Community replaced the old social order of
class and political differences.
The individual was seen to be less important than the state and therefore
should be made to serve the leader and the state
Was defined in ethnic terms, thus German regeneration depended on
creating a racially pure state or Herrenvolk (master race)
From Chancellor to Dictator
Upon his appointment as Chancellor, Hitler still came under the authority of
Hindenburg who had the armys (Reichswehr) support.
Therefore Hitler had to tread carefully to avoid upsetting Hindenburg and
getting dismissed.
Step 1: Increase NSDAP seats in the Reichstag
o Immediately upon his appointment as Chancellor on January 30, 1933,
Hitler called for dissolution of the Reichstag (Feb. 1) and new electrons
to be held in early March.
o On February 27, the Reichstag building mysteriously burnt down and
Hitler was able to blame this on the Communists and further inflame
anti-Communist sentiment.
o On Feb. 28 He used this event and the hysteria that followed to have
Hindenburg enact Article 48 and severely limit other parties through
the suspension of civil rights.
o The Nazis also ran a program of voter intimidation through the threat
of SA violence.
o The tactics succeed in increasing the Nazi presence in the Reichstag
from 196 to 288 in the March 5, 1933 elections.
Step 2: Change the Constitution
o In order to accomplish this, Hitler needed a 2/3 vote in the Reichstag
which he got by:
Banning the KPD from the Reichstag
Guaranteeing Catholic liberties, thus gaining the support of the
Center Party
o On March 24, 1933, with a vote of 441 to 94, Hitler was able to make
significant change to the constitution, which allowed the Cabinet
(essentially Hitler) to pass decrees without the Presidents
involvement.
o This came to be called the Enabling Act.
o Law for Terminating the Suffering of the People and the Nation

77

It was renewed in 1938 and became the virtual constitution of the

Third Reich.
o It took Hitler only a few months to destroy democracy in Germany
through a process called Gleichschaltung (Co-ordination)
o Most institutions which might have harbored opposition to the Nazis
were undermined:
Trade unions were dissolved and replaced by a Nazi Organization
(May 2)
The civil service was purged of non-Nazis (April 7)
The Nazi party became the only legal party (July 14)
The Catholic Church was compromised into signing the
concordat with the government (July 20, 1933)
Schools and universities had to follow Nazi curriculum.
State governments were subordinated to Berlin (January 1934)
o How was this possible in such a short time?
The effective use of terror through the establishment of
concentration camps.
The penetration of Nazi propaganda into every area of German
life
Many Germans felt that Hitler was right
Economic recovery had actually started before he came to
power, but it looked as though he was responsible.
Step 3: Eliminate all other potential threats
o The Reichswehr was still under the control of conservative generals.
Hitler knew he had to carefully gain the support of the generals
and eventually control army
o Meanwhile, the SA, under Rohm, had become a very large and
powerful force.
o Rohm wished to merge the SA and the Reichswehr, with himself as the
leader
o Hitler was able to use another of the Nazi militia groups, the SS
(formed in 1925) to:
a) Destroy the SA
b) Gain the support of the Reichswehr
o This was accomplished through an event that has come to be known as
The Night of the Long Knives (June 30, 1934) when Rohm and other
SA leaders were shot, along with hundreds (?) of SA members.
o Hitler also used this event to remove others that were a threat to his
leadership.
o This event, along with Hitlers ambitious rearmament plans, and
denunciation of Versailles, guaranteed army support for Hitler.
Step 4: Crown himself Fhrer
o August 1, 1934: Hitler passed a new law that merges the office of
President and Chancellor into Fhrer and Reich Chancellor
o August 2, 1934:
Hindenburg died
o

78

Army takes an oath of personal loyalty to Hitler.

The SS State
The SS (Schutzstaffel) was established in 1925 by Hitler for task of a police
nature that could not be entrusted to the SA.
Heinrich Himmler became its leader in 1929 and expanded the SS into the
Partys own police force of 52,000 men by 1933.
The SS were the ones responsible for carrying out the SA purge and were
rewarded for this by becoming independent of the SA as awell as being able
to form armed groups, such as the Waffen-SS
The SS was the elite militia group of Germany, basically acting as Hitlers
private army.
The SS saw itself as being the force that would ultimately rule Europe;
therefore they recruited Aryan members from other countries as well.
By 1933 the Gestapo (Prussian secret police) had also been absorbed under
the SS umbrella.
The Gestapo had been set up by Gring and was responsible for the
elimination of political resistance, taking extra legal orders directly from
Hitler.
It was the Gestapo that decided who could be sent to concentration camps.
The concepts of protective custody and preventative arrest were invented
to justify the detention of many.
The Gestapo was not large, approximately 15,000 members to police a nation
of nearly 80 million people.
This shows the extent of police informants in the era.
The SS undertook a number of different functions for the Nazi state:
1. The Waffen-SS units were military formations and played a significant role
in several of the campaigns of the war
2. The SS took over the running of the concentration camps after 1934.
3. The SS was used to control some of the industrial enterprises in Germany.
4. After 1934 the SS became the principal agent in applying the states racial
policies.
5. During the war, the SS organized the whole network of conquered
territories as well as the programs for slave labor and extermination.
The fact that the SS did have a lot of influence over foreign policy and the
military sphere brought it into conflict with other institutions like the Foreign
Office and even the Nazi Party.
Nazi Social Control
The main task of schools was to educate the youth for service to the state.
This was accomplished through:
o Ensuring that teachers were supportive through forcing them to join
the Nazi teachers union and receiving training in Nazi ideology.
o Changing the curriculum:
Physical fitness was increased to two hours a day.
PE was valued the most to make the youth tough and fearless.
79

Nazi ideas were incorporated into subject, particularly biology

and history.
Religious education was stopped
o Co-educational schools were reduced in an attempt to provide
appropriate lessons for girls and boys.
o Special schools were established to train the future Nazi elite.
In general, educational standards dropped during Nazi rule due to the climate
of anti-intellectualism, propagandist elements and focus on extra-curricular
activities.
Youth Movements
The main task was to introduce youth to become active participants in the
Nazi state.
The Hitler Youth was the main organization for boys aged 10-18.
For the girls there was the League of Maidens which stressed the
importance of motherhood, fitness and racial purity.
Women & Family
Family was supposed to be foundation of Nazi society.
They tried to construct a society in which women would be wives and
mothers.
Religion
Hitler saw Christianity as:
o Weak, reflecting the values of an inferior race
o A threat to his reordering of society
He tried to gain control of the Protestant churches by unifying them into the
Protestant Reich Church that pledged their loyalty to him.
This backfired as the Confessional Church broke away.
By 1937 it was clear that Hitler was not keeping his side of the Concordat
with the Catholic Church.
This led to an attack on Nazi belief and methods by Pope Pius XI.
Pius XII, who became Pope in 1939 took a much softer stance against the
Nazis. (In 1998 the Vatican officially apologized for its lack of opposition to
the Holocaust.)
Society in General
All media, theatre, film, music, books, art, rallies were controlled by The
Ministry of Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda.

The Nazi Economy

Because Nazism was primarily a racist ideology, it had no firm economic
foundation, and therefore economic policy was often a series of compromises
between opposing forces.
Hitler was elected with the promise to give the German people bread and
jobs
Economic priorities:
Reduce unemployment.
80

Autarky-economic self-sufficiency.
Lebensraum-Living space in Eastern Europe.
Transform the economy to focus rearmament and war.
Hjalmar Schact held the position of Minister of Economic from 1934 to 1937.
He followed a policy of job-creation and wage controls to prevent the threat of
inflation and currency instability.
What was the aim of the public works programs? (National Labor Service)
a. Gave men jobs in public work schemes such as building schools,
motorways. Ditches and etc.
b. Men had to wear a uniform and live in camps and were given free meals
and pocket money.
c. To kick start the economy and to improve the living conditions of the
German people.
d. To build impressive buildings and make the German people would feel
proud.
e. To improve the public transport network for industrial and military use.
Other factors accounting for the fall in unemployment:
By 1934 all Jews were sacked from civil service jobs which were then given
to German workers. (Unemployed Jews were not registered).
Women lost their jobs which were given to men.
People who refused jobs offered by the labor service were arrested and
put into concentration camps.
Unmarried men under 35 were forced into the National Labor Service.
Opponents if the Nazis who were in concentration camps.
Part time workers were counted as full workers
Conscription from 1935 took thousands of young men into the military
service.
Schacht continued many of the projects that had been initiated under the
Weimar Governments.
He fell out with Hitler over the spread of rearmament and was replaced by
Hermann Goering in 1936.
Up to that point Schacht had been somewhat of a moderating influence on
the economic and racial policies of the Nazis.
By 1936 Hitler believed that the economic recovery had been sufficient to
introduce an accelerating of the rearmament and this introduced his Four
Year Plan.
Aims of the four years plan 1936:
Speed up rearmament
Make Germany self sufficient as possible of both industrial and
agricultural imports-autarky.
Have both military and economy ready for war by 1940.
Was the 4-year plan a success?
Unemployment dropped quickly 4.8 million in 1933 to 0.5 million in 1938.

81

Wages rose slightly but were still lower in 1938 than they had been in
1928.
Working hours went up to 49 hours per week in 1939-52 hours in 1943 to
over 60 hours per week by 1945.
Autarky was not achieved which meant that Germany is still reliant on
imports.
There were fewer consumer goods.
Trade unions were replaced by beauty of Labor and strength through joy
who organized better conditions and leisure activities.
Historians differ in their interpretation of what Hitler meant to be ready for
war.
Was it total war, or limited war based on blitzkrieg.
The cartoon signifies that the basis of German prosperity are armaments and
weaponries.

Nazi Racial Policies

Beliefs:
The Nordic Germans (Aryans) were the master race (Herrenvolk), and all
other races were arranged in a hierarchy beneath them.
eugenics (the science of producing fine offspring by the control of inherited
qualities)
The Nazis saw it as their duty to protect the purity of the Aryan race from:
o Jews
o Gypsies (Roma)
o work-shy
o Hereditary asocial
o Those with mental and/or physical handicaps
In July 1933 the Law for the Prevention of Hereditary Diseased Offspring
allowed for compulsory sterilization.
Actions towards the Jews:
1933:
Jews fired from civil service, law and university positions
A boycott of Jewish shops and business ordered
1934:
Jews banned from public places such as parks, playing fields, restaurants and
swimming pools
1935:
The Nuremburg Laws
o Restrict citizenship and the right to vote to Aryans
o Marriage or sexual relations between Jews and Germans forbidden
1936-8:
More professional activists of Jews banned or restricted
November 9, 1938 Crystal night, an SS campaign to destroy Jewish shops,
homes and synagogues throughout Germany.
82

1939:

Jews no longer permitted to run shops or businesses

Jewish children excluded from schools and universities
Jews forbidden to own radios, hold drivers licenses, buy cakes and chocolates
Jews given curfews
Jews had to hand overall gold and jewelry
Between 1933 and 1939, about half of the Jewish population in Germany
emigrated
Those that did not, would soon find themselves being relocated.

German Foreign Policy of the 1930s

Historiography
There are essentially three different views with regards to Hitlers foreign policy:
a. Hitler followed a deliberate policy to create war.
b. The last thing Hitler wanted was a war with the great powers.
He would rather gain territory by bluff. Threat and diplomacy
c. He was an opportunist, having no coherent plan for expansion or war, but he
responded to various crises as they arose.
German Foreign Policy of the 1930s:
Under Brning in 1930, German foreign policy was already becoming more
revisionist/aggressive (?):
o He made an attempt to build a customs union with Austria
o Given Germanys financial situation and the growing nationalist
resentment to the reparations, Brning was able to convince the US
and Britain to cancel the reparations at the Lausanne Conference in
June 1932.
o At the World Disarmament Conference in February 1932, Brning
secured the right to increase the German military.
o Continued Germanys rearmament in secret
When Hitler came to power, he continued the revisionist trend, but with
less caution.
Hitlers Foreign Policy was built on three aims:
o To reverse the Treaty of Versailles
o To create a Greater Germany by uniting all German speaking
people
o The creation of Lebensraum living space for the Germans
a) Hitlers Action:
Hitler pulled out of the next Disarmament Conference (October 1933) and
quit the League because he wasnt granted parity of armaments with
other nations.
Reaction of other nations:
The British tried to bring Hitler back to the Conference by offering to level
out the sizes of the German and French armies, while allowing Germany to
have an air force half the size of Frances.

83


b)

c)

d)

e)

f)

g)

h)

i)

France did not agree, and the conference fell apart in April 1934, by which
time Hitler had already accomplished a fair amount of rearmament.
Hitlers Action:
Did not renew the Rapallo Treaty in late 1933.
Reaction of other nations:
Britain in particular was pleased as they still wished to use Germany as a
barrier in Central Europe against communism.
Stalin continued to try to build relations between the USSR and Germany.
Hitlers Action:
In January of 1934 he signed a Non-Aggression Pact with Poland.
Why?
It served as an act of diplomacy to make Germany seem less aggressive.
To weaken the French position as they also had a treaty with the Poles.
Hitlers Action:
An attempted Nazi coup in Austria in June of 1934.
Reaction of other nations:
This heightened the tension between Hitler and Mussolini, as Mussolini did
not approve of the idea of a Nazi Austria on Italys border.
Led Britain and France to guarantee Austrian independence.
Hitlers Action:
By early 1935 the massive push towards rearmament in Germany had
become apparent and German military strength was drawing close to that
of France and Britain.
Reaction of other nations:
Britain introduces new rearmament plans
France extends their period of military service
Hitlers Action:
In March 1935, Hitler announced the existence of the Luftwaffe and
declared that there would be conscription and that Germany would no
longer obey the military restrictions of Versailles.
Hitlers Action:
In early March 1936, Hitler ordered German troops into the Rhineland
(remilitarization).
Reaction of other nations:
Britain did nothing as they had been expecting this move for a while.
France was terribly alarmed but did not take any military action.
Due to Frances inaction, Belgium broke off their treaty with them.
Mussolini had already promised not to cooperate with any British or French
actions because he needed a new ally after the break-up of the Stresa
Front over his Abyssinian policy.
Hitlers Action:
In the summer of 1936, Hitler sent military aid to help Franco in the
Spanish Civil War.
Hitlers Action:
In October 1936 Hitler and Mussolini signed a friendship pact (October
protocols), which created an alliance known as the Rome-Berlin Axis.
84

j) Hitlers Action:
In November 1936 Hitler signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan.
In November 1936 Italy also joined this alliance.
k) Hitlers Action:
On March 12, 1938 Hitler integrated Austria into the Third Reich
Anschluss
Reaction of other nations:
France didnt have a government at the time and thus took no action
Britain issued a weak protest, but accepted the Nazi takeover of Austria.
Italy previously given Hitler assurances that they would accept Anschluss.
l) The Czechoslovakian Crisis, 1938-39
ACT 1
During the spring and summer of 1938 relations between Germany and
Czechoslovakia worsened as Hitler backed the Sudeten Germans even
though President Benes had already made considerable concessions to
them.
By September the situation within Czechoslovakia was extremely tense,
with outbreaks of violence.
Benes was forced to order martial law to quiet down the Sudeten Nazis.
On September 15, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain decided to
step in and try to negotiate a peaceful settlement.
Hitler insisted that the Sudetenland be passed to Germany or else there
would be war.
Chamberlain offered to negotiate this transfer and Hitler agreed (only
because Hitler never expected the Czechs to agree with this.)
Chamberlain first got the French to agree, and once they did, the Czechs
had no choice.
Upon his return to Germany (Sept. 22) with this signed settlement,
Chamberlain was greeted by an annoyed Hitler (because he wanted a
small war).
Hitler then made further demands and threatened to go to war if they
were not met by October 1.
ACT II
In the midst of the crisis, Mussolini called for a four-power conference and
Hitler agreed.
This was the Munich Conference (September 29) which include
Germany, France, Britain and Italy.
Chamberlain and Daladier agree to Hitlers demands in return for vague
promises to guarantee the territory of the rest of Czechoslovakia.
Benes resigned after his appeals were not heard
The Czechs not only lost land, but also their strategic defensive position in
the Sudeten Mountains, which left them vulnerable to further German
aggression.
This event did cause the British an the French to come close, and in
February 1939 they formed an Anglo-French defensive alliance.
85

The total rejection of Soviet input at Munich convinced Stalin that the
western powers were not interested in upholding collective security and
were not greatly alarmed by Hitlers advance in Eastern Europe.
ACT III
What remained of Czechoslovakia fell even deeper into civil strife with the
Czechs fighting the Slovaks.
In March 1939 the Czech President appealed for Hitlers help, and then
was forced to agree to allow German troops into the country to restore
order and in doing so provided Hitler with legal justification for occupying
Czechoslovakia.
The British and French did not take any military action, giving the excuse
that because the Czech government had fallen before the German troops
moved in, the guarantee given at Munich did not apply.
The Pact of Steel
On May 22, 1939, the Rome Berlin alliance axis was made an offensive
military alliance when other nations agreed to support each other if one was
involved in a war
15. The Nazi Soviet Aggression pact
The Agreement:
Each country agreed not to support any third power if that third power
attacked the other.
They promised to consult each other on matters of common interest
They promised not to join any alliance aimed at the other.
Stalins Viewpoint:
It removed the capitalist threat (Hitler) against the Soviet Union.
It offered him some recompense for being so poorly treated by Britain
and France
It would give him time to continue his military build-up before an
offensive war
It offered him territory which could act as a buffer for the USSR
Hitlers Viewpoint:
It removed the danger of having to fight a two-front war
It gave him more territory in the east with only having to fight a limited
war for it
With it, he hoped to scare Britain and France out of their guarantee to
protect Poland.
Soviet Foreign Policy in the Interwar years
a) Essay response: The Soviet pact with Germany in August 1939 was the result
to desperation, not any long-term policy. Discuss.
b) Working with a partner, graphically display Soviet foreign policy during from
WWI to the signing of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression pact.
Phases of WWII in Europe
86

1. Blitzkrieg, 1939-40
2. Battle of Britain, 1940
3. Operation Barbarossa, 1941-42
4. The defeat of Germany 1942-45
The Partition of Poland and the Baltic States

The Germans invaded Poland in September 1 st

With the help of the Soviets, who attacked on the 17 th, they forced the Polish
army to surrender on September 27. (Casualties: 14,000 Germans; 60,000
Poles; 25,000 Civilians; 700,000 POW)

Poland was divided between Germany and the USSR according to the secret
August Agreement.

Both the Nazis and the Soviets committed atrocities against the Polish people

During the late months of 1939 the Soviets also took over the Baltic States as
agreed to in the secret protocol.

Finland resisted and was invaded by the Soviets in November.

Despite putting up a valiant effort and being aided with supplies, weapons
and volunteers from France and Britain, the Finns surrendered.

They were allowed to keep their independence in return for coastal areas
which Stalin felt was crucial to the defense of Russia.
Blitzkrieg
Blitzkrieg was a new method of mechanized warfare that was based on the
airplane and tank and depended on surprise, speed and lots of ground force.
The Germans needed a swift way to defeat other nations because they did
not have the resources for a prolonged war.
The pattern of Blitzkrieg
a. Bombers attacked enemy airfields and communication centers
b. Parachutists dropped behind enemy lines to capture bridges and other
important targets.
c. Dive bombers moved ahead of the tanks attacking enemy strong
points.
d. Tanks broke through weak points in the enemy line and traveled
quickly over long distances.
e. Motorized infantry followed to mop up resistance.
This strategy worked extremely well against Poland, Norway, Denmark,
Belgium, Holland and France.
Sitzkrieg?
After the fall of Poland, the Germans did not make another lightning strike
until April 1940.
These six months came to be known as the Phony War because no fighting
actually took place.
Hitler used this time to strengthen his forces, where other nations made
some miscalculations:
a. The British and French put a little too much faith in secret peace
negotiations with Hitler who they felt would be impeded by their
blockade and economic warfare.
87

b. The British rearmament effort was not forceful enough.

c. The French felt secure enough behind their Maginot line.
d. The neutral countries felt secure in the neutrality (especially Belgium
and Norway who would not allow foreign forces on their soil.)
e. The French and British felt that the major attack would come through
central Belgium and therefore stationed their main forces along the
French border.
On April 9 Hitler unleashed Blitzkrieg in Denmark, forcing their surrender that
same day.
At the same time they attacked Norway, which was strategic to protect the
North Sea access to Sweden from which the Nazis got resources.
By early June, Norway had fallen.
The success of the Germans caused political crises in both France and Britain:
o Daladier is replaced by Reynaud
o Chamberlain was replaced by Churchill
On May 10, Hitler invaded the low countries and France:
o The Netherlands was defeated in 5 days.
o It took 17 days to defeat Belgium
o France lasted fro about 6 weeks
The low countries were occupied
Roughly two-thirds of Northern France was occupied while a small puppet
regime was set up in the south called Vichy France under General Petain.
Just prior to the French surrender, Mussolini entered the war by attacking
France.
Britain was left alone to fight the Axis.
Battle of Britain (1940)
This became the major turning point in the was as the Nazis aggression was
thwarted for the first time, casting them to ultimately have to fight a twofront war.
In order to launch a successful invasion of Britain, Hitler needed to knock out
the RAF.
Therefore, during July and August, the Luftwaffe made attacks on shipping in
the channel, as well as airfield and munitions factories.
Unable to sustain the high losses in the dogfights, in September Hitler turned
to bombing Britains cities in an attempt to break Britain morale and force an
armistice.
Although the bombing outlasted until May, by October Hitler had already
called off the invasion of Britain (Operation Sea Lion)
There were a number of factors, which ensured British success in this
campaign.
A. Intelligence
- Possession of the key to German radio codes (Ultra) gave the British
advance warning of German plans.
- Captured spies were turned into double agents and fed back inaccurate
information to the Nazis

88

Radar provided key information about the location of incoming

bombers.
B. British factories were able to turn out huge numbers of new planes.
C. The Nazis switch from strategic bombing to blitzkrieg allowed the RAF to
recover its previous losses.
D. The performance of British and other volunteer pilots were outstanding
The Mediterranean & North Africa
Prior to launching its attack on the USSR, the Wehrmacht sent successful
action in North Africa and the Balkans.
By July 1941 Romania and Bulgaria had joined the Axis, and they had
defeated Greece and Yugoslavia.
The fall of Crete was especially serious for Britain as it put the Eastern
Mediterranean in danger of German control which could cut off access
through the Suez Canal to the oil-fields of the Middle East as well as India and
the Far East.
Operation Barbarossa 1941-42
Although the Germans made remarkable progress with their blitzkrieg
techniques, the winter of 1941-42 stopped their advances.
They resumed their attack in June, 1942 with an attack on Stalingrad to
capture the oil fields of the Caucasus region and with an attempt to capture
Moscow.
The Soviets successfully counter-attacked and thus began the beginning of
Nazi defeat on the Eastern Front.
To what extent was the Soviet Union prepared for
Yes
No
They were prepared because of

their five years plan.

They had the largest number of

tanks in the world

Ready for an offensive war.

war in 1941?
The Red Army was in disarray
due to the purges
Stalin did not want war and even
still tried to appease Hitler
(shows that USSR is still
incapable of war)
Not prepared for a defensive war.
Stalins political blunders led to
the Red Armys lack of readiness.

89

An inarguably crucial moment in Soviet Union history, Operation Barbarossa

of 1941 tested the Soviet Union to the limit. The Soviet Union through the Five
Year Plan had been rearming and stockpiling adequate military equipment
including tanks, aircraft, munitions, etc. They were in fact based on their
equipment ready for an offensive war. However in 1941, a series of political
blunders by Stalin compounded to the fact that the Red Army was not ready for a
defensive war. Stalin made a series of miscalculations regarding Hitlers actions
and the Red Army itself was in disarray due to the purges. The Soviet Union was
in fact ready for a war, but not for the war waged upon them in 1941.

Was the rapidity of Soviet defeat in 1941 due entirely to errors of made judgement
made by Stalin?
Yes
No
Stalins miscalculation led to the
German effectiveness
Minority defections
unpreparedness of the Red
Army.
Stalin warded of warnings from
his intelligence which gave
Germany the element of
surprise.
Red Army purges
Did not order mobilization

From European to World War

Although officially isolationist, the USA found ways to help the Allies through
the Lend-Lease Act through which the Americans became the self-proclaimed
arsenal of democracy.
Lend-Lease promised to lend or sell war materials to any country whose
defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States.
In August 1941 Roosevelt met secretly with Churchill and they issued the
Atlantic Charter.
Atlantic Charter goals:
a. The final destruction of Nazi tyranny.
b. The right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which
they lived.
c. A permanent system of general security.
Since the 1930s Japan had been trying to conquer China and with the
outbreak of war in Europe, they saw an opportunity to grab European
possession in Asia.
To stop Japanese aggression, the US banned the sale of war materials, such
as iron and steel, to Japan.

90

On December 7, 1941 Japan attacked the United States in Hawaii bringing the
USA into the war.
Three days later Germany and Italy also declared war on the USA.
Thus making the USA and the Soviet Union allies.
Now the Big Three could work together to defeat their common enemies

Occupied Europe and the Final Solution

Repressions in Eastern Europe, especially in Russia was worse than
elsewhere, however, in all occupied countries the populations suffered.
All occupied countries were made to pay for the cost of occupation and many
civilians were forced into slave labor for the Nazis.
In Poland over a million Germans were brought in as part of the colonization
program dislocating local inhabitants. The active destruction of Polish culture
took place.
As Germany invaded European countries, they began to round up the Jews
and ship them to isolated concentration camps.
In Poland and other occupied eastern European countries, Jews were made to
live in ghettos where they were often starved or worked to death.
With the invasion of Russia in 1941 special SS groups were formed
[Einsatsgruppen] to deal with all resistance fighters, Communist party
officials and Jews.
In January 1942 Nazi leaders met to discuss strategy to kill all European Jews
at the Wannsee Conference.
Final Solution
It was decided that secret extermination camps, equipped with gas
chambers, would be built in Poland.
From all over Europe Jews and others would be brought to these camps.
What tactics did the Nazis use to get the Jews to leave the Ghettos?
1. Starvation
o The Jews in the Warsaw Ghetto were only fed a 1000 calories a day
o A human being needs 24000 calories a day to maintain their weight
o Hungry people are easier to control
2. Terror
o The SS publicly shot people for smuggling food or for any act of
resistance
3. Deception
o The Jews were told that they were going to resettlement areas in the
East.
o In some Ghettos the Jews had to purchase their own train tickets
o They were told to bring the tools of their trade and pots and pans
About 4.5 million Jews were killed in these camps
All together the Nazis killed about 6 million European Jews
German Defeat

91

Operation Overlord
With the U-boat threat defeated and the Luftwaffe almost eliminated, the
western Allies were ready to mount a cross-channel invasion.
The Germans were expecting thus and thus had defensive preparations in
France and the Low countries however, they didnt know where exactly to
expect the assault.
Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed overall commander of the operation.
Normandy was chosen as the landing point.
After almost a year of meticulous planning, D-Day was launched on June
6,1944
The Allies overcame the problem of Normandy having no port by bringing
over two floating harbors.
23,000 Allied airborne were dropped over Normandy in the early dawn.
The landings at Normandy took the Germans by surprise, and it took them
several days to really believe that this was the main attack, thus they kept
many of their forces at Calais in anticipation of the real attack.
By July 17 the Allies had managed to land over a million troops in France.
By the end of August the Allies had liberated France.
The war in the west now became a push by the Allies towards Germany.
They experienced a major setback in September with the failure of Operation
Market Garden to take the bridges over the Rhine in Arnhem, Holland.
By the autumn of 1944, the Allied advance into occupied Europe had stalled.
Nonetheless, Montgomery was confident that the Germans were in near
defeat.
On December 16, Hitler launched his last major counteroffensive, which took
Eisenhower by surprise.
Although ultimately unsuccessful, the Battle of the Bulge had a high cost for
both sides.
o US suffered 81,000 casualties; 19,000 dead
o Germans lost nearly 100,000 men and much equipment
The main consequence was that by committing Germanys last reserves to
the Western Front, it guaranteed the Red Army a rapid advance in its winter
offensive, which began in January 1945.
The Soviet winter offensive was devastating losses for the Germans as they
were totally outmanned and under equipped.
The Germans put up stiff resistance on many fronts, and the month of April
1945 saw almost as many American deaths as in June 1944.
Roosevelt died April 12, 1945 and was replaced by Harry Truman who
continued on with the war effort.
On April 28, 1945 Mussolini was shot by Italian partisans.
Since mid-January, Hitler hand confined himself to his bunker under the
Chancellery in Berlin from which he issued increasingly unrealistic orders.

92

Eisenhower, knowing that Berlin would fall into the Soviet post-war zone, and
not wanting to risk the high casualties, as well as honoring the high price in
casualties paid by the Red Army, allowed the Red Army the prize of Berlin.
The Germans threw everything they had into defending Berlin from the
Soviets.
The Red Armys Battle for Belin began on April 14.
Hitler ordered the total destruction of Germany as punishment to the German
people for failing him. Although Armaments Minister Speer did not boey this
order, many Germans kept fighting even though they knew the war was lost.
As the Russians neared Hitlers bunker, on April 30, Hitler committed suicide.
Admiral Donitz was Hitlers appointed successor.
Full, unconditional surrender was on May 7, with May 8 being celebrated as
Victory in Europe (VE) day.

Introduction to the Cold War

A basic understanding of the Cold War:
1. A fundamental conflict between capitalism and communism
a. Capitalism is an economic system in which the production of goods and
their distribution depend on the investment of private capital with a
view to making profit. Run by individuals rather than the state.
b. Communism sees capitalism as evil exploitation of the working class
and believes that liberal parliamentary democracy is a sham which
conceals the controlling role of big business and capital in society.
Rather, it sets out to create a society where there is no private wealth
nor need for government.
2. An increasingly bipolar conflict between the USA and USSR.
3. There was a prolonged arms race with an intense build up of both nuclear and
conventional weapons.
4. Both sides denied each others legitimacy as a regime and attempted to
attack each other by every means short of war.
5. Each side suppressed its internal dissidents.
Superpower Decision Making Teheran
It was under conditions of mutual fear and suspicion that The Big Three meet
for the first time in Teheran in November of 1943 to make plans for Europe
once Hitler was defeated.
It was agreed that after the war, Eastern Poland would became part of the
Soviet Union, and in return, Poland would get some German land.
Stalin agreed that as soon as Germany was defeated, the Soviets would
declare war on Japan.
The most significant decision to be made at the Teheran Conference was the
agreement of Britain and the USA to open a Second Front against Germany in
the West.
This was against Churchills better judgment, as his preference was to launch
a second front in the Balkans.

93

A major weakness of the Teheran Conference is that no political agreements

were made about the future of eastern Europe, and that largely guaranteed
Soviet domination once their Red Army was in place.
Churchill would have preferred to have some more concrete agreements that
marked out spheres of influence, but Roosevelt would not agree to this.
Yalta, February 1945
Stalin agreed to support the proposed United Nations.
Stalin confirmed that he would fight Japan once Germany was defeated. In
return he would get some Japanese held territory.
With regards to Germany:
All agreed on the priority of unconditional surrender
Germany would be de-Nazified and demilitarized.
German reparations were to be partly in the form of forced labor.
Those Nazis responsible for the holocaust and other war crimes would be put
on trial.
Germany and Berlin would be split into 4 occupied zones:
By this point, the Americans and British were quite concerned about the fact
that the Soviets, by virtue to the Red Army occupation, had de facto control
over eastern Europe.
Battle field facts that diplomacy could not alter"
Therefore, they tried to make an agreement that would limit the Soviets
control in this region.
Declaration on Liberated Europe was signed
The Declaration contained no mechanisms for the enforcement of its
principles.
By signing the document Stalin bought himself time to consolidate his
territorial gains.
The Western Allies also agreed to the forced repatriation of all Soviet citizens
The allies left Yalta placated, but wary.
Stalin was able to keep Eastern Europe within the Soviet sphere of influence
without having to directly confront the West.
Algebra versus Arithmetic
Stalin is said to have remarked that he viewed declarations as algebra.
For Stalin Yalta represented algebra, where his practical arithmetic included:
a. The Red Armys occupation of Eastern Europe
b. The huge Soviet war dead figures
c. The cost of approximately US $40 billion to rebuild the USSR
He was looking for a Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe and
financial support either from the Allies or from reparations from a defeated
Germany.
Thus, although he signed the declarations at Yalta, there were early
indications (such as the arrest and deportation to labor camps of Polish
intellectuals and democrats) that he did not intend to be bound by them.

94

The United Nations Organization

Foundations: From Great Coalition to United Nations
In January 1942, the US, Britain, USSR and China, as well as 22 other states,
signed the United Nations Declaration, which formally inaugurated the
coalition established to defeat the Axis.
The August 1941 Atlantic Charter, reminiscent of Wilsons 14 points, became
the stated purposes and principles of the early United Nations.
By 1943 talk of the necessity of establishing at the earliest practicable
date a general international organization was begun.
The work of drafting the Charter of the UN took place in San Francisco,
beginning in April with completion in June 1945.
Found Purposes and Principles:
1. The maintenance of peace and security
2. The development of friendly relations between nations.
3. The furtherance of international cooperation in solving problems of an
economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character.
4. The establishment of a center for harmonizing the actions of nations.
Membership was to be open to all peace-loving states. However it was based upon
the recommendation of the Security Council and a 2/3 vote in the Assembly.
The General Assembly
Meets annually and in special sessions, as occasions require.
Draws up the UN budget, assesses each members share of costs, elects the
Secretary-General as well as the judges of the International Court of Justice,
receives reports from various UN agencies and recommends actions.
Each nation attends, but each only has one vote.
On issues regarding peace and security, a 2/3 majority is needed, while on
other issues, its a simple majority.
Recommendations of the Assembly are not binding; there is no power to carry
them out, except the force of public opinion and the willingness of disputing
powers to cooperate.
The Security Council
US, USSR, Britain, France and China (Big 5) were all made permanent
members, while there were 6 non-permanent members.
Maintains peace, settles disputes among nations, and prevents or resists
aggression.
Each of the Big 5 can prevent the Security Council from taking action by
using their veto.
The International Court of Justice
Jurisdiction of the Court extends to all cases which the parties refer to it and
all matters specially provided for in the Charter of the UN or the treaties and
conventions in force.
Potsdam, July 1945
Temperatures begin to drop
95

Factors affecting this change:

The war in Europe was over.
Basically all of Eastern Europe is occupied by the Red Army, which Stalin was
unwilling to withdraw. Evidence pointed to Stalin not honoring the Yalta
declaration.
Roosevelt had been replaced by Harry Truman who was much more
suspicious and pessimistic about negotiations with the Soviet Union.
The USA now had the bomb, so Truman didnt need anything from Stalin any
more.
Clement Atlee had replaced Churchill as Britains Prime Minister.
Decisions made at Potsdam
1. Germany
a. Details of military occupations zones infalized
b. Decision to treat Germany as a single economic unit.
c. 4-power Allied Control Council set up to handle future issues
2. Reparations
a. Each power was to collect industrial equipment from its own zone
b. Since its own zone was mainly agricultural, the USSR would receive
additional reparations from other zones
3. Poland
a. Western boundary to be moved west at the expense of Germany
4. Repatriation
a. German living in Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia were to return to
Germany.
Tensions:
1. Western suspicions about the Soviets intentions in Eastern Europe increased
because:
a. Soviets did not allow non-communist leaders to return to power
b. Far more Germans were expelled from the Eastern Europe than the
Western Allies had expected.
2. Soviet suspicions about US intentions increased because:
a. Truman did not tell Stalin that the USA intended to drop an atomic
bomb.
b. In May, America had abruptly cut Lend-Lease aid to the USSR.
Growth of Communism in Eastern Europe
1. Control of the police
2. Disappearance of pro democratic supporters
Factors working in the favor of the Communist Parties in all of Europe:
o Communists had been very active in the underground and resistance,
and therefore, they were very popular with the people.
o Postwar economic chaos makes a Communist Revolution more
appealing.
Joseph Stalin enforced the iron curtain and Churchill is trying to go around it.
Communist Fifth Columns
96

Any Group of people who aided the enemy from within their own country.
1. Manchuria
The Soviets began supporting the Chinese Communists
2. North Korea
The government become communist
3. Turkey
Stalin wanted a Soviet military presence in the Dardanelles and the
Bosporus
4. Iran
The Soviets would not remove their troops on time.
5. Greece
Greek Communists were fighting a civil war with the democratically
elected government.
New US Policies with the Truman Doctrine
1. Abandoned the policy of isolationism and became a leader in world affairs.
2. Began an open policy of resistance to Soviet expansion that came to be
known as Containment.
Possible explanations for Containments popularity in the West:
1. The West Saw the USSR in the same light as they saw Nazi Germany, and
purposed not to appease another aggressive regime.
2. The US felt threatened because:
They had been attacked
They had interests all over the world
Rapid advancements in weapons technology made existing arsenals
obsolete.
3. Fear of another world-wide economic collapse made it more imperative to
keep world commerce free.
4. The threat of the war with the USSR would have a positive impact on the
American morale and economy.
5. The US military needed an enemy in order to maintain its economic and
political status.
The Marshall Plan
(June, 1947)
An American program of aid to help Europe rebuild.
The US was concerned about European economic recovery and stability
because:
o Economic collapse makes fertile breeding ground for communism.
o They were concerned about the humanitarian needs of Europeans
o Europes poor economy threatened their own economic well-being.
Before 1947 US aid to Europe had been irregular.
US Secretary of State George Marshall called for the US to GIVE $20 Billion to
revive European economies.

97

This offer was made to any European states willing to work together towards
economic recovery.
It soon became clear that the Eastern Bloc countries would not be allowed to
participate.
Czechoslovakia
In 1945 President Benes agreed to pinpoint Communists to run important
ministries in return for Soviet help to reconstruct his country.
In 1946 a coalition government was set up with both Communists and nonCommunists.
In 1947, Stalin forbade the Czechs to join the Marshall plan.
In 1948 Czechoslovakia is firmly under a pro-Soviet Communist government.
Soviet Response to the Plan:
a. The Cominform (Nov. 47)
The Communist Information Bureau was a body of Communist
leaders whose function was to fan revolutionary zeal throughout
Europe through the use of propaganda.
b. The Comecom
The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (1949) was set up to
help with economic reconstruction.
The Yugoslavian Exception
The Yugoslavian Communists (led by Tito) were the only eastern European
country to liberate themselves from the Nazis and therefore they were never
occupied by the Red Army.
However, Tito was a Stalinist and loyal to the Soviet Union.
But he was not a yes man. He had his own ideas with regards to economic
strategies for Yugoslavia.
It was this independent spirit that posed a direct threat to Soviet hegemony
in the region.
In 1948 Stalin had Yugoslavia expelled from the Comecom, thinking that this
would bring Tito back in line.
Instead, Tito appealed to America for economic assistance and thereby
became the first Marxist nation to receive US aid and thus began the A
merican policy of aiding any state which opposed the Soviets.
The deflection of Yugoslavia from behind the curtain intensified Stalins fears
and thus he began another round of purges within the Communist elite of the
Satellite countries.
Consequences of the Marshall Plan
European economic recovery was accelerated through cooperation of 16
states in the OEEC.
It served US economic interests by restoring a world market.
It sharpened the divide between the Soviet Bloc and the West.
It proved to be the most successful US foreign policy program of the Cold
War.
98

The Berlin Blockade and Two Germanies

Two views on what to do with Germany:
The Soviets wanted:
o A weak Germany under four zones.
The Western Allies wanted:
o A new and improved Germany.
Negotiations on the future of Germany within the Control Council were
stagnant.
Fearful that a united Germany would be hostile to the USSR and that any new
western currency would undermine Soviet control in their zone, Stalin
blocked any cooperation between zones.
Therefore, early in 1948, the Western zones merged together and joined the
OEEC.
In June 1948 the Deustche Mark was introduced throughout the Western
German and Berlin zones.
Stalin issued the currency issue to test the resolve of the Western powers
regarding Germany by ordering a blockade of all ground access to the
Western zones of Berlin. (June 24, 1948)
During this time the Soviets organized mass rallies to convince Berliners to
support a united city council led by Communists.
They also cut electricity to the Western sectors to 4 hours per day.
Despite this, West Berliners continued to support the Western Allies and hang
on for democracy.
On May 12, 1949, the Soviets finally lifted the blockade.
Effects of the Berlin Blockade
Washington believed that in contrast to the weaknesses of appeasement, the
victory over the blockade was their first victory in the Cold War.
West German morale and trust in America to protect them from Soiet
aggression was greatly enhanced which made them willing to live in a state
that would be within Americas sphere of influence in Europe
In September 1949 the new Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany)
came into being.
o It was not allowed an army of its own, and US, British and French forces
remained on German soil as a safeguard against resurgent German
aggression as well as an invasion by Soviet ground forces.
In October 1949 the Soviet occupation zone became the German Democratic
Republic (East Germany).
o East Germany remained a one-party state under the German
Communist Party.
o Large numbers of Soviet troops remained stationed there to ensure
East Germans continued loyalty to Moscow.
Views on the division of Germany:

99

The hostility between the two Germanies after 1949 served to deepen
the suspicions and increase tensions so that Germany became, for
many, both the center of and symbol of the Cold War.
Others see this division giving a de facto balance while resolving the
historic problem of an overwhelmingly powerful and populous Germany
in Central Europe.

The Defense of Europe

In March 1948, concerned about possible Soviet aggression in Europe, several
western nations signed the Brussels Treaty, which brought the Western
European Union, a defensive alliance, into being.
However, western European nations believed that there could be no real
security against communist aggression without the deterrent of American
airpower and atomic weapons.
American congressmen supported the idea that the actual front line for the
defense of democracy wasnt the Atlantic Ocean, but rather than the River
Elbe which divided the two Germanies.
Moreover, they considered that economic aid wasnt enough and that
American military assistance was urgently required to enable Western
European nations to recover economically and politically.
After much negotiation, it was agreed that the area to be protected would be
enlarged from just the US and the Brussels Treaty nations to include Canada,
Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Norway and Portugal.
The North Atlantic Treaty organization came into being August 1949.
At the time of its conception, few Americans felt that they would actually be
required to come to the military defense of Europe, and thus saw NATO as a
shield and sword concept:
o The shield being European ground forces to halt a Soviet advance
o The sword being the US atomic weapons.
However, several events changed this limited and defensive concept of
NATO:
o The discovery in August 1949 that the Soviets had successfully tested
an atomic bomb.
o The communist takeover of China in October 1949
o The 1950 review of Americas armed Forces (NSC-68) which concluded
that Americas military power was inadequate to prevent the Soviets
from obtaining world domination.
o The invasion of South Korea in June 1950.
Something had to be done to bolster NATOs strength, however the
Europeans had no budget for increased military spending.
Therefore, the Americans took on the bulk of strengthening NATO by
assuming central military command of ground forces and promising to place
more troops in Europe.

100

The Americans were keen to see West Germany be allowed to contribute

troops to NATO, however this idea disconcerted their European allies,
particularly France.
In May 1955, West Germany became member of NATO.
In 1951 Greece and Turkey joined NATO. From Turkey the US had the
capability to launch air raids against the southern USSR as well as block any
Soviet attempt to advance on the oilfields of the Middle East.
The prospect of a strengthened NATO caused Stalin to significantly
strengthen his military power.
Military training and the allocation of military resources in the satellite states
was closely controlled by Moscow.
The establishment of a formal military alliance called the Warsaw Pact was
not publicly announced until May 1955.

Interpretations on the Cold War

The Orthodox or Traditional Explanation
Blames the USSR for the Cold War
Authoritarian socialism vs. Democratic capitalism.
Russian nationalist expansion
The Revisionist Explanation
Historians in the 1960s
Blame the USA for the Cold War
Repeated attacks made it natural for the USSR to create a condition of
security
USA seeking continual economic expansion and ultimate world domination.
The Post-Revisionist Explanation
Blames a lack of communication and understanding for the Cold War
Examples of Post-Revisionist Views:
o The Cold War grew out of a complicated interaction of external and
internal developments inside both the United States and the Soviet
Union.
o The external situation circumstances beyond the control of either
power- left Americans and Russians facing one another across
prostrated Europe at the end of World War II.
o Internal influences in the Soviet Union the search for security, the
role of ideology, massive postwar reconstruction needs, the personality
of stalin together with those in the United States- the ideal of selfdetermination, fear of communism, the illusion of omnipotence
fostered by American economic strength and the atomic bomb made
the resulting confrontation a hostile one.
o Leaders from both superpowers sought peace, but in doing so yielded
to considerations, which, while they did not precipitate war, made a
resolution of differences impossible. (John Lewis Gaddis)

101

The fall of the Manchu Dynasty

Up until the 91th century, China had been very closed to the outside world
and thus had developed a very unique culture over the centuries.
Also at the heart of Chinese society was the value of obedience to authority
be it familial, societal or political.
These two factors played a large role in the creation of a society that
disdained individualism and extolled conformity.
Up to the beginning of the 20th century China had a long history of imperial
rule.
The last royal house to rule China was that of the Manchus (Ching Dynasty)
who had ruled since 1644.
At the turn of the century China had several weaknesses when compared to
other nations:
o A large and ineffective bureaucracy
o Industrial backwardness.
The Chinese Revolution and the Early Republic (1911-16)
The years between 1900 and 1911 saw great economic, social and political
chaos in China with more and more rebellion and resistance to Machu rule.
Following a successful uprising in the south on October 10, 1911, Sun Yat-sen
proclaimed a new central government called the Republic of China with its
capital at Nanjing.
In February 1912, Pu Yi abdicated.
Sun Yat-sen formed a nationalist party (1912) called the Guomindang (GMD)
and was a popular reform figure.
The GMD had little influence as they were sidelined by the reactionary
Manchu General Yuan Shikai who was to be the provisional president until the
elections of 1912.
In the elections of 1912/1913 the GMD gained a majority of seats in the
parliament, however, Yuan used the army to repress the GMD and disbanded
the party and either killed its leading figures or chased them into exile.
The Era of the Warlords (1916-27)
In 1916 Yuan himself faced a military revolt and was deposed
This ushered in a period of chaos known as the Warlord Era (1916-1927).
The peasants suffered most during this time as they were levied with heavy
taxes to pay for the warlords armies.
Sun Yat-sen realized that the GMD needed a disciplined organizational and
military structure to unite all of China and looked to the USSR for help.
1921 saw the formation of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) which initially
also worked closely with the Comintern. Mao Tse-tung was a founding
member.

102

Maos belief was that China should not follow the USSR model of urban
revolution but rather favored a peasant revolution. This brought him into
conflict with the Comintern.
The GMD and CCP joined in a United Fort to combat the warlords and foreign
imperialists.
In 1925 Sun yat-sen died was replaced by Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang-Jieshi) who
was power hungry and ruthless.
The United Front was quite successful in defeating the warlords but Chiang
was alarmed by the growing power of the Communists.
By 1927, with the warlords defeated, Chiang turns on his CCP allies and tries
to obliterate them in a movement known as the White Terror of 1927.
Mao Zedong
Lenin
Both were pragmatic, did not adhere to Marxist theories at all times
Appealed to the people with ideas. (April Thesis)

Imposed himself on the party

through Futien.

Did not impose himself on the

party, gained his position.

The Yanan Soviet (1927-1937)

The remnants of the CCP fled under the leadership of Mao the hills of
southern China (Jiangxi province).
Here he trained the CCP in the tactics of peasant guerilla warfare.
Chiangs forces continued to try to destroy the CCP.
In 1934 the Communists undertook what have become known as The Long
March to Yanan to escape Chiangs army.
In Yanan, Mao overcame his rivals within the CCP and developed his own
brand of Marxism-Leninism with its heavy emphasis upon peasant revolution.
The Sino-Japanese War
By 1937 Japanese aggression in China stimulated a renewal of the CCP-GMD
United Front.
However, Chiang was still more concerned with defeating the CCP than the
Japanese while Maos struggle against the Japanese did much to endear him
to the Chinese people.
During this time both America and the USSR preferred to recognize the GMD
as the legitimate Chinese government.

103