USA Volleyball Sports Medicine and Performance Commission

Biomechanics Resource Advisory Team

The Biomechanics of Blocking

Peter Vint , Ph.D.

USOC Coaching and Sport Sciences Division
Performance Technology Department
June 8, 2006

Introduction
Blocking is bane of many, if not most, competitive volleyball teams. Poor
blocking not only affords the opposing attacker an easier hitting opportunity, but it also
puts the back row floor defenders at a distinct disadvantage. Volleyball blocking
technique is dependent upon several factors including anticipation, decision making,
movement speed, and jumping ability. After the introduction of the multi-tempo
offensive, the requirements and responsibilities of the volleyball blocker have been
elevated to an extremely demanding level. For middle blockers in particular, decision
making and movement speed play decisive roles in blocking performance. Mike Hebert,
head coach of the University of Minnesota Women's Volleyball Team, summarizes the
role of the middle blocker:
Middle blockers have, in my opinion, the toughest
assignment in the game of volleyball. They are responsible
for protecting against all quick attacks in the middle zones
of the net, yet are also expected to close and form tight
blocks against all outside attacks. Meanwhile, opposing
setters are devising ways (faking to quick hitters,
disguising their own delivery styles, and using head
shoulder fakes of their own) to entice the middle blocker
into making a mistake. Middle blockers must be tireless,
explosive jumpers with exceptional lateral speed. They are
the cornerstone of any successful defense. (p. 79).
This article presents a basic overview of volleyball blocking technique with a
special emphasis on blocking footwork, lateral movement, and vertical jumping.
Blocking Related Research
Most of the information that is available on the biomechanics of proper blocking
technique comes from coaching text books and trade magazine articles. As such, while
they may provide some valuable practical information for coaches or athletes, these
sources offer very little quantitative substantiation for the techniques that are advocated.
However, there have been a few studies in the scientific literature which have provided
information relevant to certain aspects of the blocking performance. In particular, these
sources involve aspects of blocking footwork technique and the vertical jump. A brief
summary of the most pertinent research is provided below.

Blocking Footwork Technique

There are very few published studies that have sought to determine the best
footwork technique for the lateral movement sequence in volleyball blocking. One of the
first studies to investigate the most effective blocking footwork technique was performed
by Cox (1978). The slide step, cross-over step, and jab cross-over step techniques were
performed by 45 collegiate males (See Figure 1). Lateral movement time was measured
with a pair of pressure sensitive floor mats that were connected with a computer and a
timing mechanism. Upon a visual signal, participants were instructed to move laterally as
quickly as possible from one mat to the next using a pre-determined footwork technique.
The average movement times for the slide, cross-over, and jab cross-over techniques
were 1.284, 1.329, and 1.349 seconds, respectively. Statistical analysis of the data
confirmed that the slide step yielded significantly faster movement times than either the
cross-over or the jab cross-over. In addition, it was concluded that the cross-over step
technique was faster than the jab cross-over. However, the fact that none of the
participants in this study had competitive volleyball experience severely limited the
application of these results.
Cox (1980) completed a second study that applied a similar protocol with 42
competitive volleyball players. However, in this study, a preferred step technique was
substituted for the jab cross-over technique. In the preferred step conditions, participants
were instructed to move laterally as quickly as possible using whatever footwork pattern
they desired. The average movement times for the preferred, slide, and cross-over
techniques were 1.306, 1.302, and 1.345 seconds, respectively. Cox (1980) concluded
that both the preferred and slide techniques were significantly faster than the cross-over
technique; however, there was no difference between the preferred and the slide. In an
interesting observation, Cox (1980) reported that during the preferred trials, participants
invariably used some combination of the prescribed techniques when performing the
lateral movement.
Despite arriving at convincing results, the application of Coxs first studies was
limited by the exclusion of a jump at the end of the lateral movement. During blocking, it
is not enough to simply move quickly from one point to another. A vertical jump and
reach must be performed at the conclusion of the lateral movement if the blocker is to
reach the attacked ball. Cox recognized the limitation and addressed this issue in his third
study. In this study, Cox and his colleagues extended the protocol presented in an earlier
study (Cox, 1978) by applying a vertical jump at the end of a lateral movement. The
results of this study demonstrated that the cross-over and jab cross-over techniques were
superior in terms of getting the blocker off the ground and into the proper blocking
3

position quickly (Cox, 1982). However, although the data were available, Cox et al.
(1982) failed to include a measure of the time taken to complete the total movement and
jump sequence.
In 1991, Buekers finally put it all together. In this study, the footwork technique
which resulted in the fastest lateral movement and jumping times among ten national
caliber female volleyball players was evaluated. The three footwork techniques which
were tested included the slide step, cross-over step, and running step (See Figure 1). Two
pressure sensitive floor mats and an opto-electric timing system were used to evaluate the
time taken to move laterally, jump, and reach over (i.e., penetrate) the net for each of the
three footwork techniques. Regarding overall movement, jump, and reach time, the
running technique was found superior to either of the remaining methods. However, the
advantage gained by the running technique was strictly confined to the lateral
displacement sequence. Table 1 shows that the slide and cross-over steps were actually
much faster than the running technique regarding the time needed to complete the final
preparation for the block jump.
Table 1. Means and standard deviations for the movement times of the three-step techniques
(Buekers, 1991).
Slide Steps

Cross-Over
Steps

Running Steps

Mean
2.013

SD
0.976

Mean
1.937

SD
0.889

Mean
1.899

SD
0.762

Time Spent in Preparation for

Jump (s)

0.086

0.107

0.080

0.111

0.137

0.132

Lateral Displacement Time (s)

0.271

0.027

0.242

0.091

0.377

0.071

Total Time (s)

Buekers (1991) concluded that the optimal step technique should vary as a
function of the lateral distance that must be traveled by the blocker. That is, for short
distances, when lateral movement time is not the major concern, it was recommended
that the slide step be used since it allows the blocker to maintain a more appropriate body
position throughout the movement. However, when the blocker must travel quickly to the
outside to assist with an outside attack, the running technique was advocated for its
overall superiority in lateral movement, jump, and reach time.

Step 2

Step 4

(a)

Step 3

Step 1
Step 1

Step 3

(b)

Step 2
Step 2

Step 4

(c)

Step 1

Step 3
Step 2

(d)

Step 3

Step 1

Figure 1. Footwork patterns involved in the (a) slide step, (b) cross-over step, (c) jab
cross-over step, and (d) running step techniques. Left and right footwork patterns are
shown in the black and hatched figures, respectively.
Vertical Jumping
Of course, once the blocker has arrived at the final outside position, a vertical
jump must still be completed. Volleyball block jumping is somewhat unique in that the
blocker is prohibited from using an extensive arm swing because of the proximity to the
net. Although several investigators have reported that a vigorous arm swing may improve
vertical jumping performance by about 10%, this finding is of little benefit to the
volleyball blocker. However, there are components of the block jump that are similar to
typical vertical jumping.
If the blocker is afforded the time (which is not always the case particularly
when the middle blocker is concerned), the vertical jump performance may be enhanced
by rapidly squatting down just prior to the propulsive phase of the jump. This lowering
sequence is called a countermovement because it occurs in a direction that is counter or

opposite to the direction of the desired movement. During the descent of the
countermovement (squatting movement), the hips, knees, and ankles are flexed into
positions that stretch the muscles that will act to later extend those same joints during the
upward phase of the jump. Research has suggested that besides improving the force
producing capacities of the muscle itself, this pre-stretch mechanism improves jumping
performance by utilizing some of the elastic properties of muscles and tendons; by
increasing the distance over which force can be exerted, thereby prolonging the upwards
propulsion phase; and by taking up some of the muscular slack which is associated with
the initial stages of the development of muscular tension.
With regard to the countermovement, it is important to understand that the
optimal depth and rate of the countermovement will probably be different for each
athlete. Since athletes will have slightly different physiques and differences in muscular
strength, each athlete should be encouraged to develop their own countermovement that
results in their best individual jumping performance. However, some athletes may
develop a countermovement that does little to enhance their jumping ability. Some may
squat too much, some not enough. Some may squat down too slowly, some too quickly,
and some will squat down and hold this position for a brief time. While each athlete is
different, there are some general guidelines for proper countermovement mechanics that
can be followed.
Too much depth in the countermovement can actually impair vertical jumping
performance. While you are probably more familiar with the athlete who employs too
little of a countermovement, it has been shown that the other extreme also decreases
performance. The rate at which the countermovement is performed (i.e. the speed at
which the athlete squats down) will also influence jump height the faster the
countermovement, the higher the jump height. This result in itself provides firm evidence
that under no circumstances (barring some tactical situation) should the athlete hold the
countermovement in the lowered position for any significant length of time.
There are several ways to enhance the countermovement. The easiest and most
direct way to improve the countermovement is simply to increase the speed and the depth
to which the body is lowered in preparation for the jump (again, the best combination of
speed and depth should be found for each athlete). Depth can be increased by increasing
the degree of flexion at the hips, knees, and ankles. This eccentric (stretch) loading of the
ankle plantar flexor (calf) musculature can be further accentuated if the athlete starts the
countermovement from a position in which they are supported on the balls of their feet.
Recent research suggests that stationary jumps that involve a short half-step
approach may provide an important advantage to the blocker (see Figure 2). Although
6

jumps that were preceded by the half-step approach did not necessarily result in higher
jump heights, they did allow the jumpers to leave the ground in less time than traditional
jumps that were initiated from a stationary position. What this means is that while
blockers may or may not jump higher with this step-in technique, they will get into the
air faster. And, when a blocker can get into the air faster without sacrificing jump height,
they will have a better opportunity to seal the net and execute a more successful block.

Figure 2. Starting position for the legs during the half-step approach jump technique.
The trailing foot should be placed in a comfortable position about one-half step behind
the lead foot. At the same time the athlete begins to lower their body, the trailing foot
should be brought forward to joint the lead foot. The jump continues as normal with both
feet aligned. Horizontal motion of the body should be minimized by the time the athlete
leaves the ground.

The Importance of Being Early

Research has shown that during the attack, approximately 0.34 seconds elapse
from the instant of takeoff until the instant of ball contact. Since the preparatory phase
(rising into the air and cocking the arm) lasts about 0.29 seconds, only 0.05 seconds are
needed to initiate the forward motion of the attack and strike the ball (Chung, 1988). For
a blocker, this finding has some important implications.
To get a feel for this time frame, try to start and stop a stopwatch as quickly as
possible. You will probably find that you cannot come close to 0.05 seconds. When
applied to the case of the blocker, it is clear that if the blocker has not sealed the net by
the time the attacker has begun to accelerate their arm in the forward direction, they will
not have the time to penetrate the net before the ball has passed them. The only way to
make sure that the net is sealed, therefore, is to penetrate the net early well before the
attacker begins their forward arm swing.
Conclusion
Unfortunately, little research has been done on the biomechanics of blocking. As
a result, it is somewhat difficult to make an informed, objective decision on the
techniques that may optimize an athletes blocking performance. The take home message
presented here is that:
1.

2.

the best blocking footwork technique appears to depend on the lateral distance
that the blocker has to cover. For shorter distances, the slide step technique has
been advocated since it allows the blocker to maintain a more appropriate body
position throughout the movement. For longer distances, when the middle blocker
must travel quickly to the outside to assist with an outside attack, the running
technique has been recommended for its overall superiority in lateral movement,
jump, and reach time.
a blockers jumping performance may be enhanced by taking advantage of a rapid
countermovement prior to the upward phase of the jump.
a)
the optimal depth and rate of this countermovement will be different for
each athlete. Individual athletes should be encouraged to experiment with
different speeds and depths of lowering to find the combination that works
best for them.

b)

3.

4.

if an athlete stays in a squatted position prior to the jump, they are likely
to lose any beneficial effects that may have been gained from the
countermovement. Therefore, the countermovement jump should be
performed in a fluid, continuous manner.
blockers can get off the ground faster, without sacrificing jump height, by using a
short, half-step approach prior to the upward phase of the jump. This may allow
the blocker to penetrate the net earlier and improve the chances of blocking the
ball.
blockers should understand that the time taken for a hitter to accelerate the arm in
the forward direction is extremely short. In order to seal the net properly,
blockers must penetrate the net early well before the well before the attacker
begins their forward arm swing.

References
Buekers, M.J.A. (1991). The time comparison of the block in volleyball: A comparison
of different step techniques. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62 (2), 232235.
Chung, C.S. (1988). Three-dimensional analysis of the shoulder and elbow during the
volleyball spike. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington,
IN.
Cox, R.H. (1978). Choice response time speeds of the slide and cross-over steps as used
in volleyball. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 49 (4), 430-436.
Cox, R.H. (1980). Response times of the slide and cross-over steps as used by volleyball
players. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 51 (3), 430-436.
Cox, R.H., Noble, L., & Johnson, R.E. (1982). Effectiveness of the slide and cross-over
steps in volleyball blocking. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 53 (2), 101107.
Hebert, M. (1991). Insights and Strategies for Winning Volleyball. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.