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EXTRACTIONMETHODSOFNATURALESSENTIALOILS
Essentialoilsareusedinawidevarietyofconsumergoodssuchasdetergents,soaps,
toiletproducts,cosmetics,pharmaceuticals,perfumes,confectioneryfoodproducts,softdrinks,
distilledalcoholicbeverages(harddrinks)andinsecticides.Theworldproductionand
consumptionofessentialoilsandperfumesareincreasingveryfast.Productiontechnologyisan
essentialelementtoimprovetheoverallyieldandqualityofessentialoil.Thetraditional
technologiespertainingtoessentialoilprocessingareofgreatsignificanceandarestillbeing
usedinmanypartsoftheglobe.Waterdistillation,waterandsteamdistillation,steam
distillation,cohobation,macerationandenfleuragearethemosttraditionalandcommonlyused
methods.Macerationisadaptablewhenoilyieldfromdistillationispoor.Distillationmethods
aregoodforpowderedalmonds,rosepetalsandroseblossoms,whereassolventextractionis
suitableforexpensive,delicateandthermallyunstablematerialslikejasmine,tuberose,and
hyacinth.Waterdistillationisthemostfavoredmethodofproductionofcitronellaoilfromplant
material.
Sourcesofnaturalessentialoil
Essentialoilsaregenerallyderivedfromoneormoreplantparts,suchasflowers(e.g.
rose,jasmine,carnation,clove,mimosa,rosemary,lavander),leaves(e.g.mint,Ocimumspp.,
lemongrass,jamrosa),leavesandstems(e.g.geranium,patchouli,petitgrain,verbena,
cinnamon),bark(e.g.cinnamon,cassia,canella),wood(e.g.cedar,sandal,pine),roots(e.g.
angelica,sassafras,vetiver,saussurea,valerian),seeds(e.gfennel,coriander,caraway,dill,
nutmeg),fruits(bergamot,orange,lemon,juniper),rhizomes(e.g.ginger,calamus,curcuma,
orris)andgumsoroleoresinexudations(e.g.balsamofPeru, Myroxylonbalsamum,storax,myrrh,
benzoin).
MethodsofProducingEssentialOils
Regardinghydrodistillation,theessentialoilsindustryhasdevelopedterminologyto
distinguishthreetypes:waterdistillation;waterandsteamdistillation;anddirectsteam
distillation.

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OriginallyintroducedbyVonRechenberg,thesetermshavebecomeestablishedinthe
essentialoilindustry.Allthreemethodsaresubjecttothesametheoreticalconsiderationswhich
dealwithdistillationoftwophasesystems.Thedifferencesliemainlyinthemethodsof
handlingthematerial.
Somevolatileoilscannotbedistilledwithoutdecompositionandthusareusually
obtainedbyexpression(lemonoil,orangeoil)orbyothermechanicalmeans.Incertain
countries,thegeneralmethodforobtainingcitrusoilinvolvespuncturingtheoilglandsby
rollingthefruitoveratroughlinedwithsharpprojectionsthatarelongenoughtopenetratethe
epidermisandpiercetheoilglandslocatedwithinouterportionofthepeel(ecuellemethod).A
pressingactiononthefruitremovestheoilfromtheglands,andafinesprayofwaterwashesthe
oilfromthemashedpeelwhilethejuiceisextractedthroughacentraltubethatcoresthefruit.
Theresultingoilwateremulsionisseparatedbycentrifugation.Avariationofthisprocessisto
removethepeelfromthefruitbeforetheoilisextracted.
Often,thevolatileoilcontentoffreshplantparts(flowerpetals)issosmallthatoil
removalisnotcommerciallyfeasiblebytheaforementionedmethods.Insuchinstances,an
odorless,bland,fixedoilorfatisspreadinathinlayeronglassplates.Theflowerpetalsare
placedonthefatforafewhours;thenrepeatedly,theoilpetalsareremoved,andanewlayerof
petalsisintroduced.Afterthefathasabsorbedasmuchfragranceaspossible,theoilmaybe
removedbyextractionwithalcohol.Thisprocess,knownasenfleurage,wasformerlyused

extensivelyintheproductionofperfumesandpomades.
Intheperfumeindustry,mostmodernessentialoilproductionisaccomplishedby
extraction,usingvolatilesolventssuchaspetroleumetherandhexane.Thechiefadvantagesof
extractionoverdistillationisthatuniformtemperature(usually50C)canbemaintainedduring
theprocess,Asaresult,extractedoilshaveamorenaturalodorthatisunmatchedbydistilled
oils,whichmayhaveundergonechemicalalterationbythehightemperature.Thisfeatureisof
considerableimportancetotheperfumeindustry;however,theestablisheddistillationmethodis
oflowercostthantheextractionprocess.
Destructivedistillationmeansdistillingvolatileoilintheabsenceofair.Whenwoodor
resinofmembersofthePinaceaeorCupressaceaeisheatedwithoutair,decompositiontakes
placeandanumberofvolatilecompoundsaredrivenoff.Theresidualmassischarcoal.The
condensedvolatilematterusuallyseparatesinto2layers:anaqueouslayercontainingwood

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naptha(methylalcohol)andpyroligneousacid(crudeacetic),andatarryliquidintheformof
pinetar,junipertar,orothertars,dependingonthewoodused.Thisdrydistillationisusually
conductedinretortsand,ifthewoodischippedorcoarselygroundandtheheatisapplied
rapidly,theyieldoftenrepresentsabout10%ofthewoodweightused.
Hydrodistillation
Inordertoisolateessentialoilsbyhydrodistillation,thearomaticplantmaterialispacked
inastillandasufficientquantityofwaterisaddedandbroughttoaboil;alternatively,livesteam
isinjectedintotheplantcharge.Duetotheinfluenceofhotwaterandsteam,theessentialoilis
freedfromtheoilglandsintheplanttissue.Thevapormixtureofwaterandoiliscondensedby
indirectcoolingwithwater.Fromthecondenser,distillateflowsintoaseparator,whereoil
separatesautomaticallyfromthedistillatewater.
MechanismofDistillation
Hydrodistillationofplantmaterialinvolvesthefollowingmainphysicochemicalprocesses:
i)Hydrodiffusion
ii)Hydrolysis
iii)Decompositionbyheat
Hydrodiffusion
Diffusionofessentialoilsandhotwaterthroughplantmembranesisknownas
hydrodiffusion.Insteamdistillation,thesteamdoesnotactuallypenetratethedrycell
membranes.Therefore,dryplantmaterialcanbeexhaustedwithdrysteamonlywhenallthe
volatileoilhasbeenfreedfromtheoilbearingcellsbyfirstthoroughcomminutionoftheplant
material.But,whentheplantmaterialissoakedwithwater,exchangeofvaporswithinthetissue
isbasedontheirpermeabilitywhileinswollencondition.Membranesofplantcellsarealmost
impermeabletovolatileoils.Therefore,intheactualprocess,atthetemperatureofboilingwater,
apartofvolatileoildissolvesinthewaterpresentwithintheglands,andthisoilwatersolution
permeates,byosmosis,theswollenmembranesandfinallyreachestheoutersurface,wherethe
oilisvaporizedbypassingsteam.
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Anotheraspectofhydrodiffusionisthatthespeedofoilvaporizationisnotinfluencedby
thevolatilityoftheoilcomponents,butbytheirdegreeofsolubilityinwater.Therefore,the
highboilingbutmorewatersolubleconstituentsofoilinplanttissuedistillbeforethelow
boilingbutlesswatersolubleconstituents.Sincehydrodiffusionratesareslow,distillationof
uncomminutedmaterialtakeslongertimethancomminutedmaterial.
Hydrolysis

Hydrolysisinthepresentcontextisdefinedasachemicalreactionbetweenwaterand
certainconstituentsofessentialoils.Estersareconstituentsofessentialoilsand,inthepresence
ofwater,especiallyathightemperatures,theytendtoreactwithwatertoformacidsand
alcohols.However,thereactionsarenotcompleteineitherdirectionandtherelationship
betweenthemolalconcentrationsofvariousconstituentsatequilibriumiswrittenas:
(alcohol)x(acid)
K=
(ester)x(water)
whereKistheequilibriumconstant.
Therefore,iftheamountofwaterislarge,theamountsofalcoholandacidwillalsobe
large,resultinginadecreasedyieldofessentialoil.Furthermore,sincethisisatimedependent
reaction,theextenttowhichhydrolysisproceedsdependsonthetimeofcontactbetweenoiland
water.Thisisoneofthedisadvantagesofwaterdistillation.
EffectofHeat
Almostallconstituentsofessentialoilsareunstableathightemperature.Toobtainthe
bestqualityoil,distillationmustbedoneatlowtemperatures.Thetemperatureinsteam
distillationisdeterminedentirelybytheoperatingpressure,whereasinwaterdistillationandin
waterandsteamdistillationtheoperatingpressureisusuallyatmospheric.Allthepreviously
describedthreeeffects,i.e.hydrodiffusion,hydrolysisandthermaldecomposition,occur
simultaneouslyandaffectoneanother.Therateofdiffusionusuallyincreaseswithtemperatures
asdoesthesolubilityofessentialoilsinwater.Thesameistruefortherateandextentof
hydrolysis.However,itispossibletoobtainbetteryieldandqualityofoilsby:(1)maintaining

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thetemperatureaslowaspossible,(2)usingaslittlewateraspossible,inthecaseofsteam
distillation,and(3)thoroughlycomminutingtheplantmaterialandpackingituniformlybefore
distillation.
ThreeTypesofHydrodistillation
Threearethreetypesofhydrodistillationforisolatingessentialoilsfromplantmaterials:
1.Waterdistillation
2.Waterandsteamdistillation
3.Directsteamdistillation
WaterDistillation
Inthismethod,thematerialiscompletelyimmersedinwater,whichisboiledbyapplying
heatbydirectfire,steamjacket,closedsteamjacket,closedsteamcoiloropensteamcoil.The
maincharacteristicofthisprocessisthatthereisdirectcontactbetweenboilingwaterandplant
material.
Whenthestillisheatedbydirectfire,adequateprecautionsarenecessarytopreventthe
chargefromoverheating.Whenasteamjacketorclosedsteamcoilisused,thereislessdanger
ofoverheating;withopensteamcoilsthisdangerisavoided.Butwithopensteam,caremustbe
takentopreventaccumulationofcondensedwaterwithinthestill.Therefore,thestillshouldbe
wellinsulated.Theplantmaterialinthestillmustbeagitatedasthewaterboils,otherwise
agglomerationsofdensematerialwillsettleonthebottomandbecomethermallydegraded.
Certainplantmaterialslikecinnamonbark,whicharerichinmucilage,mustbepowderedsothat
thechargecanreadilydisperseinthewater;asthetemperatureofthewaterincreases,the
mucilagewillbeleachedfromthegroundcinnamon.Thisgreatlyincreasestheviscosityofthe
waterchargemixture,therebyallowingittochar.Consequently,beforeanyfielddistillationis
done,asmallscalewaterdistillationinglasswareshouldbeperformedtoobservewhetherany
changestakeplaceduringthedistillationprocess.Fromthislaboratorytrial,theyieldofoilfrom

aknownweightoftheplantmaterialcanbedetermined.Thelaboratoryapparatusrecommended
fortrialdistillationsistheClevengersystem.
Duringwaterdistillation,allpartsoftheplantchargemustbekeptinmotionbyboiling
water;thisispossiblewhenthedistillationmaterialischargedlooselyandremainslooseinthe
boilingwater.Forthisreasononly,waterdistillationpossessesonedistinctadvantage,i.e.thatit

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permitsprocessingoffinelypowderedmaterialorplantpartsthat,bycontactwithlivesteam,
wouldotherwiseformlumpsthroughwhichthesteamcannotpenetrate.Otherpractical
advantagesofwaterdistillationarethatthestillsareinexpensive,easytoconstructandsuitable
forfieldoperation.Thesearestillwidelyusedwithportableequipmentinmanycountries.
Themaindisadvantageofwaterdistillationisthatcompleteextractionisnotpossible.
Besides,certainestersarepartlyhydrolyzedandsensitivesubstanceslikealdehydestendto
polymerize.Waterdistillationrequiresagreaternumberofstills,morespaceandmorefuel.It
demandsconsiderableexperienceandfamiliaritywiththemethod.Thehighboilingand
somewhatwatersolubleoilconstituentscannotbecompletelyvaporizedortheyrequirelarge
quantitiesofsteam.Thus,theprocessbecomesuneconomical.Forthesereasons,water
distillationisusedonlyincasesinwhichtheplantmaterialbyitsverynaturecannotbe
processedbywaterandsteamdistillationorbydirectsteamdistillation.
TraditionalMethodofProducingAttarUsingHydrodistillation
Floralattarsaredefinedasthedistillatesobtainedbyhydrodistillationofflowers(suchas
saffron,marigold,rose,jasmine,pandanus)insandalwoodoilorotherbasematerialslike
paraffin.Attarmanufacturingtakesplaceinremoteplacesbecausetheflowersmustbeprocessed
quicklyaftercollection.Theapparatusandequipmentusedtomanufactureattararelight,
flexible,easytorepair,andhaveafairdegreeofefficiency.Keepinginviewthesefacts,the
traditionaldegandbhapkaprocesshasbeenusedforcenturiesandisusedevennowwiththe
followingtraditionalequipment.
Deg(still)
Bhapka(receiver)
Chonga(bamboocondenser)
Traditionalbhatti(furnace)
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Gachchi(coolingwatertank)
Kuppi(leatherbottle)
DisadvantagesofWaterDistillation
Oilcomponentslikeestersaresensitivetohydrolysiswhileotherslikeacyclicmonoterpene
hydrocarbonsandaldehydesaresusceptibletopolymerization(sincethepHofwaterisoften
reducedduringdistillation,hydrolyticreactionsarefacilitated).
Oxygenatedcomponentssuchasphenolshaveatendencytodissolveinthestillwater,sotheir
completeremovalbydistillationisnotpossible.
Aswaterdistillationtendstobeasmalloperation(operatedbyoneortwopersons),ittakesa
longtimetoaccumulatemuchoil,sogoodqualityoilisoftenmixedwithbadqualityoil.
Thedistillationprocessistreatedasanartbylocaldistillers,whorarelytrytooptimizebothoil
yieldorquality.
Waterdistillationisaslowerprocessthaneitherwaterandsteamdistillationordirectsteam
distillation.
WaterandSteamDistillation
Inwaterandsteamdistillation,thesteamcanbegeneratedeitherinasatelliteboileror

withinthestill,althoughseparatedfromtheplantmaterial.Likewaterdistillation,waterand
steamdistillationiswidelyusedinruralareas.Moreover,itdoesnotrequireagreatdealmore
capitalexpenditurethanwaterdistillation.Also,theequipmentusedisgenerallysimilartothat
usedinwaterdistillation,buttheplantmaterialissupportedabovetheboilingwaterona
perforatedgrid.Infact,itiscommonthatpersonsperformingwaterdistillationeventually
progresstowaterandsteamdistillation.
Itfollowsthatonceruraldistillershaveproducedafewbatchesofoilbywater
distillation,theyrealizethatthequalityofoilisnotverygoodbecauseofitsstillnotes(subdued
aroma).Asaresult,somemodificationsaremade.Usingthesamestill,aperforatedgridorplate
isfashionedsothattheplantmaterialisraisedabovethewater.Thisreducesthecapacityofthe
stillbutaffordsabetterqualityofoil.Iftheamountofwaterisnotsufficienttoallowthe
completionofdistillation,acohobationtubeisattachedandcondensatewaterisaddedbackto
thestillmanually,therebyensuringthatthewater,whichisbeingusedasthesteamsource,will

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neverrunout.Itisalsobelievedthatthiswill,tosomeextent,controlthelossofdissolved
oxygenatedconstituentsinthecondensatewaterbecausethereusedcondensatewaterwillallow
ittobecomesaturatedwithdissolvedconstituents,afterwhichmoreoilwilldissolveinit.
Cohobation
Cohobationisaprocedurethatcanonlybeusedduringwaterdistillationorwaterand
steamdistillation.Itusesthepracticeofreturningthedistillatewatertothestillaftertheoilhas
beenseparatedfromitsothatitcanbereboiled.Theprincipalbehinditistominimizethe
lossesofoxygenatedcomponents,particularlyphenolswhichdissolvetosomeextentinthe
distillatewater.Formostoils,thislevelofoillossthroughsolutioninwaterislessthan0.2%,
whereasforphenolrichoilstheamountofoildissolvedinthedistillatewateris0.2%0.7%.As
thismaterialisbeingconstantlyrevaporized,condensedandrevaporizedagain,anydissolved
oxygenatedconstituentswillpromotehydrolysisanddegradationofthemselvesorotheroil
constituents.Similarly,ifanoxygenatedcomponentisconstantlybroughtincontactwithadirect
heatsourceorsideofastill,whichisconsiderablyhotterthan100C,thenthechancesof
degradationareenhanced.
Asaresult,thepracticeofcohobationisnotrecommendedunlessthetemperatureto
whichoxygenatedconstituentsinthedistillateareexposedisnohigherthan100C.
Insteamandwaterdistillation,theplantmaterialcannotbeindirectcontactwiththefiresource
beneaththestill;however,thewallsofthestillaregoodconductorsofheatsothatstillnotescan
alsobeobtainedfromthethermaldegradationreactionsofplantmaterialthatistouchingthe
sidesofthestill.Asthesteaminthesteamandwaterdistillationprocessiswet,amajor
drawbackofthistypeofdistillationisthatitwillmaketheplantmaterialquitewet.Thisslows

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downdistillationasthesteamhastovaporizethewatertoallowittocondensefurtherupthe
still.Onewaytopreventthelowerplantmaterialrestingonthegridfrombecomingwaterlogged
istouseabaffletopreventthewaterfromboilingtoovigorouslyandcomingindirectcontact
withtheplantmaterial.
AdvantagesofWaterandSteamDistillationoverWaterDistillation
Higheroilyield.
Componentsofthevolatileoilarelesssusceptibletohydrolysisandpolymerization(the
controlofwetnessonthebottomofthestillaffectshydrolysis,whereasthethermalconductivity
ofthestillwallsaffectspolymerization).
Ifrefluxingiscontrolled,thenthelossofpolarcompoundsisminimized.

Oilqualityproducedbysteamandwaterdistillationismorereproducible.
Steamandwaterdistillationisfasterthanwaterdistillation,soitismoreenergyefficient.Many
oilsarecurrentlyproducedbysteamandwaterdistillation,forexamplelemongrassisproduced
inBhutanwitharuralsteamandwaterdistillationsystem.
DisadvantagesofWaterandSteamDistillation
Duetothelowpressureofrisingsteam,oilsofhighboilingrangerequireagreaterquantityof
steamforvaporizationhencelongerhoursofdistillation.
Theplantmaterialbecomeswet,whichslowsdowndistillationasthesteamhastovaporizethe
watertoallowittocondensefurtherupthestill.
Toavoidthatthelowerplantmaterialrestingonthegridbecomeswaterlogged,abaffleisused
topreventthewaterfromboilingtoovigorouslyandcomingindirectcontactwiththeplant
material.
DirectSteamDistillation
Asthenamesuggests,directsteamdistillationistheprocessofdistillingplantmaterial
withsteamgeneratedoutsidethestillinasatellitesteamgeneratorgenerallyreferredtoasa
boiler.Asinwaterandsteamdistillation,theplantmaterialissupportedonaperforatedgrid
abovethesteaminlet.Arealadvantageofsatellitesteamgenerationisthattheamountofsteam
canbereadilycontrolled.Becausesteamisgeneratedinasatelliteboiler,theplantmaterialis

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heatednohigherthan100Cand,consequently,itshouldnotundergothermaldegradation.
Steamdistillationisthemostwidelyacceptedprocessfortheproductionofessentialoilson
largescale.Throughouttheflavorandfragrancesupplybusiness,itisastandardpractice.
Anobviousdrawbacktosteamdistillationisthemuchhighercapitalexpenditureneeded
tobuildsuchafacility.Insomesituations,suchasthelargescaleproductionoflowcostoils
(e.g.rosemary,Chinesecedarwood,lemongrass,litseacubeba,spikelavender,eucalyptus,
citronella,cornmint),theworldmarketpricesoftheoilsarebarelyhighenoughtojustifytheir
productionbysteamdistillationwithoutamortizingthecapitalexpenditurerequiredtobuildthe
facilityoveraperiodof10yearsormore.
AdvantagesofDirectSteamDistillation
Amountofsteamcanbereadilycontrolled.
Nothermaldecompositionofoilconstituents.
Mostwidelyacceptedprocessforlargescaleoilproduction,superiortotheothertwo
processes.
DisadvantageofDirectSteamDistillation
Muchhighercapitalexpenditureneededtoestablishthisactivitythanfortheothertwo
processes.
EssentialOilExtractionbyHydrolyticMacerationDistillation
Certainplantmaterialsrequiremacerationinwarmwaterbeforetheyreleasetheir
essentialoils,astheirvolatilecomponentsareglycosidicallybound.Forexample,leavesof
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wintergreen(Gaultheriaprocumbens)containtheprecursorgaultherinandtheenzyme
primeverosidase;whentheleavesaremaceratedinwarmwater,theenzymeactsonthe
gaultherinandliberatesfreemethylsalicylateandprimeverose.Othersimilarexamplesinclude
brownmustard(sinigrin),bitteralmonds(amygdalin)andgarlic(alliin).
EssentialOilExtractionbyExpression
Expressionorcoldpressing,asitisalsoknown,isonlyusedintheproductionofcitrus
oils.Thetermexpressionreferstoanyphysicalprocessinwhichtheessentialoilglandsinthe

peelarecrushedorbrokentoreleasetheoil.Onemethodthatwaspracticedmanyyearsago,
particularlyinSicily(spugnamethod),commencedwithhalvingthecitrusfruitfollowedbypulp
removalwiththeaidofsharpenedspoonknife(knownasarastrello).Theoilwasremovedfrom
thepeeleitherbypressingthepeelagainstahardobjectofbakedclay(concolina)whichwas
placedunderalargenaturalspongeorbybendingthepeelintothesponge.Theoilemulsion
absorbedbythespongewasremovedbysqueezingitintotheconcolinaorsomeothercontainer.
Itisreportedthatoilproducedthiswaycontainsmoreofthefruitodorcharacterthanoil
producedbyanyothermethod.
Asecondmethodknownasequaling(orthescodellamethod),usesashallowbowlof
copper(orsometimesbrass)withahollowcentraltube;theequalingtoolissimilarinshapetoa
shallowfunnel.Thebowlisequippedwithbrasspointswithbluntendsacrosswhichthewhole
citrusfruitisrolledbyhandwithsomepressureuntilalloftheoilglandshaveburst.Theoiland
aqueouscellcontentsareallowedtodribbledownthehollowtubeintoacontainerfromwhich
theoilisseparatedbydecantation.
Obviously,handpressingisimpracticalbecauseitisanextremelyslowprocess,e.g.on
averageonly24lbsoilperdaycanbeproducedbyasinglepersonusingoneofthesehand
methods.Asaresult,overtheyearsanumberofmachineshavebeendesignedtoeithercrushthe
peelofacitrusfruitorcrushthewholefruitandthenseparatetheoilfromthejuice.
PelatriceProcess
Inthepelatriceprocess,citrusfruitsarefedfromahopperintotheabrasiveshellofthe
machine.ThefruitsarerotatedagainsttheabrasiveshellbyaslowmovingArchimedianscrew
whosesurfaceraspsthefruitsurfacescausingsomeoftheessentialoilcavitiesonthepeelto

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burstandreleasetheiroilwateremulsion.Thisscrewfurthertransportsthefruitintoahopperin
whichrollerscoveredwithabrasivespikesbursttheremainingoilcavities.Theoilandwater
emulsioniswashedawayfromthefruitbyafinesprayofwater.Theemulsionnextpasses
throughaseparatorwhereanysolidsareremoved,afterwhichitpassesthroughtwocentrifugal
separatorsworkinginseriestoyieldthepureoil.Mostbergamotoilandsomelemonoilare
producedthiswayinItaly.
Pelatricefortheextractionofcitrusessentialoil
SfumatriceProcess
Thesfumatriceequipmentconsistsofametallicchainthatisdrawnbytwohorizontal
ribbedrollers.Thepeelsareconveyedthroughtheserollersduringwhichtimetheyarepressed
andbenttoreleasetheiroil.Asinpelatrice,theoiliswashedawayfromthesfumatricerollers
byfinespraysofwater.Again,theoilisinitiallypassedthroughaseparatorpriortobeingsent
totwocentrifugesinseries,sothatpurifiedoilcanbeproduced.Atonetime,sfumatricewasthe
mostpopularprocessforcitrusoilisolationinItaly;however,todaythepelatricemethod
appearsmorepopular.
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EssentialOilExtractionwithColdFat(Enfleurage)
Despitetheintroductionofthemodernprocessofextractionwithvolatilesolvents,the
oldfashionedmethodofenfleurage,aspassedonfromfathertosonandperfectedinthecourse
ofgenerations,stillplaysanimportantrole.Enfleurageonalargescaleistodaycarriedoutonly
intheGrasseregionofFrance,withthepossibleexceptionofisolatedinstancesinIndiawhere
theprocesshasremainedprimitive.
Theprinciplesofenfleuragearesimple.Certainflowers(e.g.tuberoseandjasmine)
continuethephysiologicalactivitiesofdevelopingandgivingoffperfumeevenafterpicking.

Everyjasmineandtuberoseflowerresembles,sotospeak,atinyfactorycontinuallyemitting
minutequantitiesofperfume.Fatpossessesahighpowerofabsorptionand,whenbroughtin
contactwithfragrantflowers,readilyabsorbstheperfumeemitted.Thisprinciple,methodically
appliedonalargescale,constitutesenfleurage.Duringtheentireperiodofharvest,whichlasts
foreighttotenweeks,batchesoffreshlypickedflowersarestrewnoverthesurfaceofa
speciallypreparedfatbase(corps),letthere(for24hinthecaseofjasmineandlongerinthe
caseoftuberose),andthenreplacedbyfreshflowers.Attheendoftheharvest,thefat,whichis
notrenewedduringtheprocess,issaturatedwithfloweroil.Thereafter,theoilisextractedfrom
thefatwithalcoholandthenisolated.
Thesuccessofenfleuragedependstoagreatextentuponthequalityofthefatbase
employed.Utmostcaremustbeexercisedwhenpreparingthecorps.Itmustbepractically
odorlessandofproperconsistency.Ifthecorpsistoohard,theblossomswillnothavesufficient
contactwiththefat,curtailingitspowerofabsorptionandresultinginasubnormalyieldof
floweroil.Ontheother,ifitistoosoft,itwilltendtoengulftheflowersandtheexhaustedones
willadhere;whenremoved,theflowerswillretainadheringfat,resultinginconsiderable
shrinkageandlossofcorps.Theconsistencyofthecorpsmust,therefore,besuchthatitoffersa
semihardsurfacefromwhichtheexhaustedflowerscaneasilyberemoved.Theprocessof
enfleurageiscarriedoutincoolcellars,andeverymanufacturermustpreparethecorps
accordingtotheprevailingtemperatureinthecellarsduringthemonthsoftheflowerharvest.
Manyyearsofexperiencehaveprovedthatamixtureofonepartofhighlypurifiedtallow
andtwopartsoflardiseminentlysuitableforenfleurage.Thismixtureassuresasuitable
consistencyofthecorpsinconjunctionwithhighpowerofabsorption.Thefatcorpsthus

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preparediswhite,smooth,absolutelyofuniformconsistency,freeofwaterandpractically
odorless.Somemanufacturersalsoaddsmallquantitiesoforangeflowerorrosewaterwhen
preparingthecorps.Thisseemstobedoneforthesakeofconvention.Suchadditionssomewhat
shadetheodorofthefinishedproductbyimpartingaslightorangeblossomorrosenote.
EnfleurageandDefleurage
Everyenfleuragebuildingisequippedwiththousandsofsocalledchassis,whichserveas
vehiclesforholdingthefatcorpsduringtheprocess.Achassisconsistsofarectangularwooden
frame.Theframeholdsaglassplateuponbothsidesofwhichthefatcorpsisappliedwitha
spatulaatthebeginningoftheenfleurageprocess.Whenpiledoneabovetheother,thechassis
formairtightcompartments,withalayeroffatontheupperandlowersideofeachglassplate.
Everymorningduringtheharvestthefreshlypickedflowersarrive,andafterbeingcleanedof
impurities,suchasleavesandstalks,arestrewnbyhandontopofthefatlayerofeachglass
plate.Blossomswetfromdeworrainmustneverbeemployed,asanytraceofmoisturewillturn
thecorpsrancid.Thechassisarethenpiledupandleftinthecellarsfor24horlonger,
dependinguponthetypeofflowers.Thelatterrestindirectcontactwithonefatlayer(thelower
one),whichactsasadirectsolventwhereastheotherfatlayer(beneaththeglassplateofthe
chassisabove)absorbsonlythevolatileperfumegivenoffbytheflowers.
Enfleurage
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After24h,theflowershaveemittedmostoftheiroilandstarttowither,developingan
objectionableodor.Theymustthenberemovedfromthecorps,whichprocess,despiteallefforts
tointroducelaborsavingdevices,isstilldonebyhand.Carefulremovaloftheflower
(defleurage)isalmostmoreimportantthanchargingthecorpsonthechassiswithfreshflowers
(enfleurage)and,therefore,thepersonsdoingthisworkmustbeexperiencedandskilled.Mostof

theexhaustedflowerswillfallfromthefatlayeronthechassisglassplatewhenthechassisis
strucklightlyagainsttheworkingtable,butsinceitisnecessarytoremoveeverysingleflower
andeveryparticleoftheflower,tweezersareusedforthisdelicateoperation.
Immediatelyfollowingdefleurage,thatis,every24h,thechassisarerechargedwith
freshflowers.Forthispurposethechassisareturnedoverandthefatlayer,whichintheprevious
operationformedthetop(ceiling)ofthesmallchamber,isnowdirectlychargedwithflowers.In
thecaseofjasmine,theentireenfleurageprocesslastsabout70days:dailytheexhaustedflowers
areremovedandthechassisarerechargedwithfreshones.Atthebeginningof,andseveraltimes
during,theharvest,thefatonthechassisisscratchedoverwithmetalcombsandtinyfurrowsare
drawninorderchangeandincreasethesurfaceofabsorption.
Attheendoftheharvest,thefatisrelativelysaturatedwithfloweroilandpossessesthe
typicalfragrance.Theperfumedfatmustthenberemovedfromtheglassplatesbetweenthe
chassis.Forthispurpose,itisscrapedoffwithaspatulaandthencarefullymeltedandbulkedin
closedcontainers.Thefinalproductiscalledpomade(pomadedejasmine,pomadedetuberous,
pomadedeviolet,etc.).Themosthighlysaturatedpomadeispomadeno.36,becausethecorps
onthechassishavebeentreatedwithfreshflowers36timesduringthewholeprocessof
enfleurage.
Atthebeginningoftheharvest,everychassisischargedwithabout360gfatcorpson
eachsideoftheglassplate,inotherwords,with720gperchassis.Everykilogramoffatcorps
shouldbeincontactwithabout2.5kg(preferablywith3.0kg)ofjasmineflowersfortheentire
periodofenfleurage,whichlastsfrom8to10weeks.Thequantitiesdiffersomewhatfor
differentflowers.Attheendofenfleurage,thefatcorpshaslostabout10%ofitsweightbecause
ofthevariousmanipulations.
HotMacerationProcess

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Inthisprocess,thelongenfleuragetimeisreducedbytheimmersionofpetalsinmolten
fatheatedat4560Cfor1to2h,dependingupontheplantspecies.Aftereachimmersion,the
fatisfilteredandseparatedfromthepetals.After10to20immersions,thefatisseparatedfrom
wasteflowersandwater.Absoluteofmacerationisthenproducedfromfatcontainingoil
throughtheprocessofextractionandconcentrationunderreducedpressure.Itismainlyusedfor
highlydelicateflowerswhosephysiologicalactivitiesarelostrapidlyaftertheirharvest,suchas
lilyofvalley.
Modern(Nontraditional)MethodsofExtractionofEssentialOils
Traditionalmethodsofextractionofessentialoilshavebeendiscussedandthesearethe
methodsmostwidelyusedoncommercialscale.However,withtechnologicaladvancement,new
techniqueshavebeendevelopedwhichmaynotnecessarilybewidelyusedforcommercial
productionofessentialoilsbutareconsideredvaluableincertainsituations,suchasthe
productionofcostlyessentialoilsinanaturalstatewithoutanyalterationoftheir
thermosensitivecomponentsortheextractionofessentialoilsformicroanalysis.These
techniquesareasfollows:
Headspacetrappingtechniques
Staticheadspacetechnique
Vacuumheadspacetechnique
Dynamicheadspacetechnique
Solidphasemicroextraction(SPME)
Supercriticalfluidextraction(SFE)
Phytosol(phytol)extraction
Protoplasttechnique

Simultaneousdistillationextraction(SDE)
Microwavedistillation
Controlledinstantaneousdecomposition(CID)
Thermomicrodistillation
Microdistillation
Molecularspinningbanddistillation
Membraneextraction

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Someofthesetechniquesarediscussedinotherchapters.Here,afewimportant,relevant
referencesareprovided.
Conclusions
Someofthemajorconstraintsinsustainableindustrialexploitationofmedicinaland
aromaticplants(MAPs)areduetothefactthatthecountriesofSouthEastAsiahavepoor
agriculturalpracticesforMAPs,unscientificandindiscriminategatheringpracticesfromthe
wild,poorpostharvestandpostgatheringpracticesleadingtopoorqualityrawmaterial,lackof
researchforthedevelopmentofhighyieldingvarietiesofMAPs,poorpropagationmethods,
inefficientprocessingtechniques,poorqualitycontrolprocedures,lackofresearchonprocess
andproductdevelopment,difficultyinmarketing,nonavailabilityoftrainedpersonnel,lackof
facilitiesandtoolstofabricateequipmentlocally,andfinallylackofaccesstothelatest
technologiesandmarketinformation.Thiscallsforcooperationandcoordinationamongvarious
institutesandorganizationsoftheregion,inordertodevelopMAPsforsustainablecommercial
exploitation.
TheprocessofextractingMAPsdetermineshowefficientlyweaddvaluetoMAP
bioresources.Inthecaseofessentialoils,theextractionprocessaffectsthephysicalaswellas
internalcomposition.Externalappearance,attimes,canresultinrejectionofthebatchevenif
theanalyticalresultsarewithinacceptablelimits.Furthermore,essentialoilsareevaluated
internationallyfortheirolfactorypropertiesbyexperiencedperfumersandtheseolfactory
qualitiessupersedeanalyticalresults.Variationsinthechemicalconstituentsoftheextractsof
medicinalplantsmayresultbyusingnonstandardizedproceduresofextraction.Effortsshould
bemadetoproducebatcheswithqualityasconsistentaspossible(withinthenarrowestpossible
range).