Dynamic Systems Mechanical Systems 031906 DYNSYS PDF

Mechanical Systems
FRF
TIME
FRF FRF
TIME
TIME
ζ = 0.1 ζ =0
FRF ζ = 0.3 jω
TIME
ζ = 0.7
ζ = 1.0
TIME σ
ζ > 1.0
Peter Avitabile
TIME
STABLE UNSTABLE
Mechanical Engineering Department

University of Massachusetts Lowell
22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 1 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Modal Analysis & Controls Laboratory
Mechanical Systems-Translational Mass Element
Translation of a particle moving in space due to an
applied force is given by:
dp
f=
dt
Where: f = force
p = momentum = mv
Considering the mass to be constant:
d (mv) dv
f= ⇒ fdt = mdv ⇒ f = m = ma
dt dt

Mechanical Systems – Translational Mass Element
Displacement, velocity, and acceleration are all
related by time derivatives as:
dν d 2 x
a= = 2
dt dt
a = v& = &x&

Mechanical Systems – Rotational Mass Element
Centroidal mass moment of inertia – Ic (not to be

confused with I – area moment of inertia used in
strength of materials)
dω
Angular acceleration α= =ω
&
dt
where: ω = angular velocity
θ = angular displacement
Then:
dω d 2 θ
α= =
dt dt
Mechanical Systems - Translational Spring Element
A linear spring is considered to have no mass

described by:
k
fk fk
x1 x2
f k = kx rel = k (x1 − x 2 )
(Torsional spring follows the same relationship)

Translational Spring Element
Hardening Spring
Linear k = lb/in
k = N/m
Softening Spring
Bi-Linear Gap Cubic

f f f
x x x

Damper Element
Viscous (fluid), Coulomb (dry friction), and structural
damping (hysteretic)
Viscous Dashpot vrel
f c = cν rel m fa
fc
Coulomb Damper
In order to have motion, the applied force must
overcome the static friction. As soon as sliding occurs,
the dynamic friction becomes appropriate.
fc
Linear f c = c(ν1 − ν 2 )
c c
fc fc
v1 v2
x&
Equivalence - Springs in Parallel
f f
x x
k1 k2 keq
Both springs see the same displacement

f f=f1 + f2
f1 f2
keqx=k1x + k2x
f1=k1x f2=k2x =(k1 + k2)x
∴ k eq = k1 + k 2
Equivalence - Springs in Series
f=k1(x1-x2)=k1 δ1
f f=keq δ
x k1
x1
k1 f
x2
keq f2=k2x2=k2 δ 2
k2 k2
Both springs see the same force but different displacements

δ = δ1 + δ 2 1 1 1
f f1 f 2 ∴ = +
= + k eq k1 k 2
k eq k1 k 2
k1k 2
But f = f1 = f 2 k eq =
k1 + k 2
Translational Systems
Newton’s Second Law- THE RIGHT WAY
∑ Fx = ma x +
∑ F = ma OR
+
∑ Fy = ma y
Note that this applies to the center of mass which is not
necessarily the center of gravity.
Free-Body Diagram & Sign Convention
kx f (t)
m
cx&
x + → x& → &x&
Translational Systems – Newton’s 2nd Law
Assume spring and dashpot are stretched
f ( t ) − Fc − Fk = m&x&
∑ Fx = ma x OR
f ( t ) − cx& − kx = m&x&
or in standard input-output differential form

c k f (t)
m&x& + cx& + kx = f ( t ) &x& + x& + x =
m m m
c
ζ= - damping ratio
cc
2
&x& + 2ζωn x& + ωn x = f ( t ) cc = 2mωn – critical damping
k
ωn2 =
m ωn– natural frequency
D’Alembert’s Principle – The Fictitious Force
The mass times acceleration is sometimes described
as a ‘fictitious force’, ‘reverse effective force’ or ‘
‘apparent force’
∑ F + (− ma ) = 0
Initially developed since it looks like a classical
force balance – but often confuses many students.
DO NOT USE D’ALEMBERT!!!!!

USE NEWTON’S SECOND LAW

Example – Pendulum Problem
Mass at end of massless string J = ml 2
T
l x+
θ
FBD mg sin θ
mg cos θ
mg mg
J&θ& = − mglsinθ OR ml &θ& + mglsinθ = 0

2
Then && g
for smallθ. → θ + θ = 0
&θ& + g sinθ = 0 l
l Nat’l freq. ωn = lg

Example – Differential Equation about Equilibrium
+ Source: Dynamic Systems – Vu & Esfandiari
y ∑ Fy = ma y Therefore, the equations

− ky + mg = m&y& can be written about the
equilibrium point and the
− k (x st + x ) + mg = m&x& effect of gravity makes
x but mg = kx st no difference.
∴ m&x& + kx = 0
Systems with Displacement Input
x
+ ∑ Fx = ma x k
m
c
x y
m x
FBD m
k c k(y − x)
y c( y& − x& )
k (y − x ) + c(y& − x& ) = m&x& OR m&x& + cx& + kx = cy& + ky

In terms of natural
2 2
frequency and damping &x& + 2ζωn x& + ωn x = 2ζω n y& + ωn y
ratio
The force exerted can
be found to be f ( t ) = k (y − x ) + c(y& − x& )

Transfer Function and State Space
k
m f(t) m&x& + cx& + kx = f ( t )
c
x
L(m&x&) = s 2 mX(s) − msX 0 − mX& 0 L (kx) = kX ( s )

L (cx& ) = scX ( s ) − cX 0 L ( f (t )) = f ( s )
s 2 mX(s) − msX 0 − mX
& + scX(s) − cX + kX(s) = f (s)
0 0

Transfer Function and State Space
Grouping and rearranging:
(ms 2
)
+ cs + k X(s) = f (s) + (ms + c )X 0 + mX
&
0
Assume initial conditions are zero and rearranging

terms to obtain OUT/IN form
Then:
X(s) 1
H(s) = =
F(s) ms 2 + cs + k
Sometimes written with
b(s) = ms 2 + cs + k

Frequency Response Function - SDOF
The frequency response function is the system
transfer function evaluated along s = jω
Recall:
1
h (s) =
ms 2 + cs + k
The complex valued

function defines the
surface shown
Source: Vibrant Technology

SDOF – Transfer Function
Polynomial Form 1
h (s) =
ms 2 + cs + k
1/ m
Pole-Zero Form h (s) =
(s − p1 )(s − p1* )
a1 a1*
Partial Fraction Form h (s) = +
(s − p1 ) (s − p1* )
1 −ζωt
Exponential Form h(t) = e sin ωd t
mωd

SDOF – Frequency Response Function
1
Polynomial Form h(jω) =
− mω 2 + cjω + k
1/ m
Pole-Zero Form h ( jω) =
( jω − p1 )( jω − p1* )
a1 a1*
Partial Fraction Form h ( jω) = +
( jω − p1 ) ( jω − p1* )

SDOF – Transfer Function
Transfer Function approach is used extensively in
design but is limited to linear, time-invariant systems.
1. T.F. – method to express output relative to input

2. T.F. – system property – independent of the nature
of excitation
3. T.F. contains necessary units but does not provide
physical structure of system
4. If T.F. is known, then response can be evaluated
due to various inputs
5. If T.F. is unknown, it can be established
experimentally by measuring output response due to
known measured inputs

S-plane Plots
FRF
TIME
FRF FRF
TIME
TIME
ζ = 0.1 ζ =0
FRF ζ = 0.3 jω
TIME
ζ = 0.7
ζ = 1.0
TIME σ
ζ > 1.0
TIME
STABLE UNSTABLE

Experimental Determination of Damping Ratio
x1 x2
Determine decay of amplitude xn
x1 at t1 and again at n cycles t1 t2 tn
later xn at t1 + (n-1)T T - period
Then x e −ζω t 1 n
1
= −ζω (t +T ) = −ζω T = e ζω T n
x2 e e n n
OR
x1 1
= −ζω (n −1)T = e (n −1)ζω T n
xn e n

Log Decrement
 x1  1  x1 
ln  = ln  = ζω n T
 x 2  n −1  x n 
2π 2πζ Note: This damping
= ζω n = ratio formulation is
ωd 1− ζ2 applicable to any 2nd
order system of this
1  x1  2πζ form
∴ ln  =
n −1  x n  1− ζ2
x1
For damping < 10% ln ≅ 2πζ
x2

Estimate of Response Time
The response of a mechanical system due to an
initial displacement is given as:
X0
x(t) = e −ζω t cos(ωd t − φ)
n
1− ζ2
The exponential response envelope is
X0
e −ζω t
n
1− ζ2
whose time constant T of the exponential is
1 1
=
ζωn σ

Estimate of Response Time
The response of the second-order system in terms
of the settling time is
4 4
t s = 4T = =
ζω n σ
which will cause 2%
of the initial value
Source: Dynamic Systems – Vu & Esfandiari

State Space Representation
The ‘state’ of the system can be described in
terms of the displacement and velocity as
 x1   x   x1   x (displ) 
 =  X= = 
 x 2   x&   x 2   x ( velocity) 
&
u = f (force) and y = x (measured by sensor)
k c 1
Then &x& = − x − x& + f ( t )
m m m
OR
k c 1
x& 2 = − x1 − x 2 + u
m m m

State Space Representation
So that the state space representation is
State  x& 1   0 1   x1   0 
Equation  = k c    +  1 u
 x& 2  − m − m  x 2   
m
Output  x1 
y = [1 0]  + 0 ⋅ u
Equation
x2 

Lagrange’s Equations
d  ∂T  ∂T ∂V
  − + = Q nci
dt  ∂q i  ∂q i ∂q i
T – Kinetic energy
V – Potential energy
Qnci – non-conservative generalized forces
qi – independent generalized coordinates
n – total # independent generalized coordinates
Kinetic Energy is a function of T ( qi , t ) dq / dt

Potential energy is the sum of elastic potential Ve
and gravitational potential Vg
Potential Energy is a function of V ( qi , t )

One standard form of Lagrange’s Equation
d  ∂L  ∂L
  − = Qnci where L = T-V
dt  ∂q&i  ∂qi
We can then write

d  ∂ (T − V )  ∂ (T − V )
  − = Qnci
dt  ∂q&i  ∂qi
(Note V is not a function of q&i )

Kinetic energy for a particle
1
1D ⇒ T = mv 2 If the mass is not located at a
2 point (such as a particle), then
a more complicated form of
1 2 1
2D ⇒ T = mv + I c ω2 these equations is necessary
2 2
Potential Energy of an 1 2
elastic element is Ve = kδ
2
Potential Energy of
a mass is Vg = mgh

Non-conservative Forces are those that cannot be
derived from a potential function (i.e., external forces,
frictional forces)
Generalized Forces are given by Virtual Work.
δW = ∑ Qi δq i = Q1δq1 + Q 2δq 2 + L
To determine Qj, obtain δW, then let all δq i = 0 except δq j
Thus
δW δq j = 0
Qj =
δq j j≠i

Non-conservative Forces are then:
δWnc = ∑ Q nci δq i = Q nc1δq1 + Q nc 2δq 2 + L
Then
δWnc δq i = 0
Q nci =
δq i j≠i

Example using Lagrange Equation
Use Lagrange EQ to obtain k
differential equation for m f(t)
SDOF system
c
x
Only one independent generalized coordinate exists: q=x
1 2 1
Kinetic Energy T = mvc = mx& 2
2 2
Potential Energy V = Ve =
1 2
2
kx Vg = 0 ( )
Non-conservative f ( t ) − applied
Forces
cx& − dissipative

Non-Conservative Forces
δWnc = [f ( t ) − cx& ]δx
δWnc = Q nc δx
δWnc
Q nc = = f ( t ) − cx&
δx
Lagrange Equation
d  ∂T  ∂T ∂V
 − + = Q nc
dt  ∂x&  ∂x ∂x

Lagrange Equation d  ∂T  ∂T ∂V
 − + = Q nc
dt  ∂x&  ∂x ∂x
Where 1
∂ ( mx& 2 ) Then substituting
∂T
= 2 = mx&
∂x& ∂x&
m&x& + kx = f ( t ) − cx&
∂T
d( )
∂x& = m&x& OR
dt
1
m&x& + cx& + kx = f ( t )
∂ ( mx& 2 )
∂T
= 2 =0
∂x ∂x
1 2
∂ ( kx )
∂V
= 2 = kx
∂x ∂x
Now let’s repeat this with the Lagrange function
1 2 1
L = T − V = mx − kx 2
&
2 2
∂L
∂( )
∂x& − ∂L = Q
nc
∂t ∂x
1
∂ ( mx& 2 − kx 2 )
∂L
= 2 = mx&
∂x& ∂x&
∂L
( ) = mx&
∂x&
∂L
∂( )
∂x& = m&x& ∴ m&x& + cx& + kx = f ( t )
∂t
Example – Translational Mechanical System
g
k
Undeformed position
xst
m Static equilibrium
x Dynamic position
y
Solution




Example - Two DOF Systems
Consider f1(t) f2(t)

k
m1 m2
c
x1 x2
STATE
FBD (assume x1 > x2) ASSUMPTIONS!!!
← k ( x1 − x 2 ) →
f1→ m1 m2 → f2
← c( x& 1 − x& 2 ) →
∑ F = ma (1) f1 ( t ) − c( x& 1 − x& 2 ) − k ( x1 − x 2 ) = m1&x&1
∑ F = ma (2) f 2 ( t ) + c( x& 1 − x& 2 ) + k ( x1 − x 2 ) = m 2 &x& 2

Rearranging Terms
m1&x&1 + cx& 1 − cx& 2 + kx1 − kx 2 = f1 ( t )
m 2 &x& 2 − cx& 1 + cx& 2 − kx1 + kx 2 = f 2 ( t )
m1 0   &x&1   c − c  x& 1   k − k   x1   f1 

 0 m  &x&  + − c c  x&  + − k k  x  = f 
 2  2    2    2   2 

Consider f1(t) f2(t)

k2
m1 m2
k1 c
x1 x2
FBD (assume x2 > x1)

∑ F = ma (1) f1 ( t ) − k1x1 + c( x& 2 − x& 1 ) + k 2 ( x 2 − x1 ) = m1&x&1
∑ F = ma (2) f 2 ( t ) − c( x& 2 − x& 1 ) − k 2 ( x 2 − x1 ) = m 2 &x& 2
f1 ( t ) → → c( x& 2 − x& 1 ) ←
m1 m2 → f 2 ( t )
k1 x 1 ← → k 2 ( x 2 − x1 ) ←

Rearranging terms
m1&x&1 + cx& 1 − cx& 2 + (k1 + k 2 ) x1 − k 2 x 2 = f1 ( t )

m 2 &x& 2 − cx& 1 + cx& 2 − k 2 x1 + k 2 x 2 = f 2 ( t )
m1 0   &x&1   c − c  x& 1  (k1 + k 2 ) − k 2   x1   f1 

 0 m  &x&  + − c c  x&  +  − k   = 
k 2  x 2  f 2 
 2  2    2   2

Rotational Systems
A rotational system follows the same equations

developed for translation
Newton’s Second Law
∑ M 0 = I0α M 0 − moments applied
I 0 − mass moment of int
α−w & angular accel.
Mass moment of inertia of rigid body about axis
J or I 0 = ∫ r 2dm

Rotational Systems
Torsion spring stiffness similar to translation

Tk = K T (θ 2 − θ1 )
Tk = K T (θ REL ) FT − LB / RAD
Dashpot similar to translation

TD = C D (θ& 2 − θ& 1 ) C D or B often used
TD = C D (θ REL )
Right hand rule convention determines +/-

Rotational Systems
θIN θOUT
J
FBD
TS J TD

Rotational Systems - Equations
d 2 θ0
∑ M = Jα ⇒ TS + TD = J 2
= Iα
dt
TS = K T (θ IN − θOUT )
TD = −Bθ& OUT
K T (θ IN − θOUT ) − Bθ& OUT = J&θ&OUT
J&θ&OUT + Bθ& OUT + K T θOUT = K T θ IN
Most systems we will treat will be 2D or planar

systems. Modeling of general 3D bodies is more
complex and beyond the scope of this course.

Example - SDOF Torsional System
T( t ) J B J
T( t )
Bθ&
K Kθ
θ θ
(a ) ( b)
A torsional system: (a) physical system, (b) FBD

Example - SDOF Torsional System
Consider a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) torsional
system. The system consists of a shaft of torsional
stiffness K, a disk of mass-moment of inertia J, and a
torsional damper B. Derive the differential equation.
Solution. Applying the moment equation about the mass center

along the longitudinal axis.
+ → ∑ M c = Icα → +
This sign convention is simpler and useful for the given angle θ.
Thus,
T ( t ) − Kθ − Bθ& = J&θ&
The differential equation in the input-output form is
J&θ& + Bθ& + Kθ = T( t )

Example - Two DOF Torsional System

Example - Two DOF Torsional System

Example - Rigid Body in Planar Motion
Point mass on string – Moment method

0
∑ M 0 = I 0α
L − L sin θ mg = (0 + ml2 )&θ&
θ
mL2θ&& + mgL sin θ = 0
mg
L sin θ g
As before θ&& + sin θ = 0
L

Thin uniform rod of mass m and length l is a pendulum

0
FBD
g
L θ θ
mg
∑ M 0 = I 0α
L
− sin θ mg = I 0θ&&
2
l
Then I 0&θ& + mg sin θ = 0
2

Linearization: For small θ → sin θ ⇒ θ
&& mgL
I 0θ + θ =0
2
mgL
or θ +&& θ =0
2I 0
1
where I 0 = I c + md 2 Ic = mL2
12
L 2
= I c + m( )
1 2
2
I 0 = mL
3

Mixed Translation and Rotation
θ
r Pulley system
Ic
Ic of pulley, mass m of radius r,
k Tension in string
m x
Newton’s second law for mass m m&x& = −T

(everything measured from equilibrium so no mg term)
Rotation of pulley J&θ& = Tr − kxr
For small angle x = rθ then J&θ& = −m&x&r − kxr
and (J + mr 2 )&θ& + kr 2θ = 0
2
&θ& + kr
or 2
θ=0
J + mr
kr 2
The natural frequency is ωn =
J + mr 2
Example – Cart-Pendulum Problem
Consider the pendulum system
k M shown attached to a horizontal
cart
L Cart moves horizontally on
c
θ m frictionless surface. Mass on
inextensible string
This is a mixed problem. First solve the pendulum and

then the cart translation.
The general moment about point P (where the string is
attached to the cart mass) is needed to sum the forces
for Newton’s Second Law.

∑ Mp = Ipα + mrc / p x a p
Py
P Px a p = &x&
φ
L θ
rc / p = L
θ 1
L sinθ C1
mg

The cross product term is
rc/p × ap = rc/p ap sinφ
= L&x& sin(90 − θ) = L&x& cosθ
Using the parallel axis theorem, the mass of the
pendulum at a distance L gives
Ip = mL2 ⇒ Ipα = mL2&θ&
The moment about P due to the mass on the pendulum is
M = −mgL sinθ
The general moment equation becomes
− mgL sinθ = m L2&θ& + m L&x& cosθ

Now the translational equation is evaluated. Only horizontal
is considered.
kx
cx& M f (t ) a px = &x&
L tangential
θ centripetal Lθ& 2 L&θ&
m Lθ& 2 sinθ L&θcos

& θ
L sinθ

For the cart, Newton’s Second Law
The acceleration of the pendulum mass
&x& + L&θ&cosθ − Lθ& 2sinθ
(cart) (tangential) (centripetal)
∑ F = ma ⇒ f (t) − kx − cx&
= m(&x& + L&θ& cosθ − Lθ& 2 sin θ) + M&x&
θ → mL2&θ& + mL&x& cosθ + mgLsin θ = 0
( )
x → (M + m)&x& + m L&θ& cosθ − Lθ& 2 sinθ + cx& + kx = f (t)

For small motion, the
equations can be linearized (cosθ ≈1; sinθ ≈ θ; θ& ≈ 0) 2
mL2&θ& + mL&x& + mgLθ = 0

(M + m)&x& + mL&θ& + cx& + kx = f (t)
or in matrix forms as
mL2 mL &θ& 0 0θ&  mgL 0θ  0 

   +    +    = 
 mL (M + m)&x& 0 cx&   0 kx f (t)

Chapter 4 - Review Slide
x1 x2 xn x1
t1 t2 tn
ln ≅ 2πζ
x2
T
f
f x1
k1
x
x2
k1 k2 k2
k1k 2
k eq = k1 + k 2 k eq =
k1 + k 2


Dynamic Systems Mechanical Systems 031906 DYNSYS PDF

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Dynamic Systems Mechanical Systems 031906 DYNSYS PDF

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Mechanical Systems

Mechanical Engineering Department

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 1 Dr. Peter Avitabile

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 2 Dr. Peter Avitabile

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 3 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Centroidal mass moment of inertia – Ic (not to be

A linear spring is considered to have no mass

(Torsional spring follows the same relationship)

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 5 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Bi-Linear Gap Cubic

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 6 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Both springs see the same displacement

Both springs see the same force but different displacements

Free-Body Diagram & Sign Convention

or in standard input-output differential form

DO NOT USE D’ALEMBERT!!!!!

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 12 Dr. Peter Avitabile

J&θ& = − mglsinθ OR ml &θ& + mglsinθ = 0

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 13 Dr. Peter Avitabile

+ Source: Dynamic Systems – Vu & Esfandiari

y ∑ Fy = ma y Therefore, the equations

k (y − x ) + c(y& − x& ) = m&x& OR m&x& + cx& + kx = cy& + ky

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 15 Dr. Peter Avitabile

L(m&x&) = s 2 mX(s) − msX 0 − mX& 0 L (kx) = kX ( s )

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 16 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Assume initial conditions are zero and rearranging

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 17 Dr. Peter Avitabile

The complex valued

Source: Vibrant Technology

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 18 Dr. Peter Avitabile

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 19 Dr. Peter Avitabile

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 20 Dr. Peter Avitabile

1. T.F. – method to express output relative to input

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 21 Dr. Peter Avitabile

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 22 Dr. Peter Avitabile

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 23 Dr. Peter Avitabile

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 24 Dr. Peter Avitabile

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 25 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Source: Dynamic Systems – Vu & Esfandiari

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 26 Dr. Peter Avitabile

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 27 Dr. Peter Avitabile

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 28 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Kinetic Energy is a function of T ( qi , t ) dq / dt

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 29 Dr. Peter Avitabile

We can then write

(Note V is not a function of q&i )

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 30 Dr. Peter Avitabile

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 31 Dr. Peter Avitabile

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 32 Dr. Peter Avitabile

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 33 Dr. Peter Avitabile

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 34 Dr. Peter Avitabile

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 35 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Source: Dynamic Systems – Vu & Esfandiari

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 38 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Source: Dynamic Systems – Vu & Esfandiari

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 39 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Source: Dynamic Systems – Vu & Esfandiari

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 40 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Source: Dynamic Systems – Vu & Esfandiari

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 41 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Consider f1(t) f2(t)

22.451 Dynamic Systems – Chapter 4 42 Dr. Peter Avitabile

m1 0   &x&1   c − c  x& 1   k − k   x1   f1 