SOLID MECHANICS

DYNAMICS
TUTORIAL FORCED VIBRATIONS
This work covers elements of the syllabus for the Engineering Council Exam D225
Dynamics of Mechanical Systems and C105 Mechanical and Structural Engineering.
On completion of this tutorial you should be able to do the following.

Define a forced vibration in general terms.

Explain the whirling of shafts and solve problems.

Solve problems involving mass spring damper systems.

Analyse the case of a harmonic disturbing force.

Analyse the case of a harmonic disturbance of the support.

Analyse the frequency response for the same.

Define and use phasors.

This tutorial covers the theory of forced vibrations. You should study the tutorial on
free vibrations before commencing.

D.J.DUNN

CONTENTS
1.

INTRODUCTION

2.

WHIRLING OF SHAFTS
Self Assessment Exercise No.1

3.

OTHER FORCED VIBRATIONS

3.1.

Harmonic disturbing force

3.1.1
3.1.2

3.2.

D.J.DUNN

Phasor representation
Frequency response diagrams
Self Assessment Exercise No.2

Harmonic movement of the support

3.2.1

Magnification factor
Self Assessment Exercise No.3

3.3.2

Transmissibility

1.

INTRODUCTION

In the tutorial on damped oscillations, it was shown that a free vibration dies away with time
because the energy trapped in the vibrating system is dissipated by the damping. The equation for
the displacement in a damped oscillation was derived and given as
t
n cos(t )
x = Ce
is the damping ratio and n the natural angular frequency. The following cases were described.
When >1 we have an over damped system.
When =1 we have a critically damped oscillation.
When < 1we have a damped oscillation that dies away with time.
When = 0 we have a system with no damping and a steady oscillation occurred
It might be inferred from this pattern that if <0 we get an oscillation that grows with time. The
diagram illustrates this pattern.

Figure 1
In order for the damping ratio to be less than zero, that is, to be negative, we would have to have
the opposite of damping, something that puts energy into the system instead of taking it out. As the
energy is added to the system the amplitude grows and grows. The energy is added by an outside
source and such oscillations are called forced, (the object of this tutorial). A good example of such
an oscillation is a child on a swing. If nothing is done, friction will make the swing come to a halt.
If someone gives the swing a small push at he start of each swing, energy is added to the system and
the swing goes higher and higher. This phenomenon is also known as excitation.
In engineering, many structures are prone to vibrate when excited at or near the natural frequency.
A good example is what happens to a car when the wheels are out of balance or when you drive
along a corrugated surface. If the disturbance is close to the natural frequency of the suspension
system the vehicle might bounce out of control. Vehicles are fitted with dampers to prevent this.
The wind blowing around chimney stacks, cooling towers and suspended cables can excite them
into catastrophic oscillations.
The first case to be examined here is that of whirling shafts.

D.J.DUNN

2.

WHIRLING OF SHAFTS

This is an example of a forced vibration where energy is added to the vibration causing it to grow in
amplitude.
When a shaft rotates, it may well go into transverse oscillations. If the shaft is out of balance, the
resulting centrifugal force will induce the shaft to vibrate. When the shaft rotates at a speed equal to
the natural frequency of transverse oscillations, this vibration becomes large and shows up as a
whirling of the shaft. It also occurs at multiples of the resonant speed. This can be very damaging to
heavy rotary machines such as turbine generator sets and the system must be carefully balanced to
reduce this effect and designed to have a natural frequency different to the speed of rotation. When
starting or stopping such machinery, the critical speeds must be avoided to prevent damage to the
bearings and turbine blades.
Consider a weightless shaft as shown with a cylindrical mass M at the middle. Suppose the centre of
the mass (G) is not on the centre line. is not the natural frequency of oscillation but the angular
velocity of the actual rotation. We will now denote the natural frequency with the subscript n.
When the shaft rotates, centrifugal force will cause it to bend out. Let
the deflection of the shaft be r. The distance to the centre of gravity is
then r + e. The shaft rotates at rad/s.
The transverse stiffness is kt N/m The deflection force is hence F = kt r
The centrifugal force is M2(r + e) Equating forces we have
k t r = M 2 ( r + e ) from which

r =
r =

M 2 ( r + e )
M 2 r
M 2 e
=
+
kt
kt
kt
M 2 e

M 2
k t 1

k t

It has already been shown that

r =

2n 1

2
n

kt
M

= 2n

n 1

Figure 2
If the shaft is rotated at a speed such that = n then r = e/0 which is infinity. This of course is not
possible but it means that the shaft would bow out until something breaks or comes apart. This
would happen no matter how small the distance e. This condition is called resonance in general and
for this particular case is called whirling.

D.J.DUNN

In reality, this phenomenon may occur at speeds other than those corresponding to the natural
frequency, these are called harmonics. The fundamental frequency and the frequencies that produce
harmonics depend upon the way the shaft is fixed at the ends. The diagram shows the way the shaft
might behave if it had a bearing at each end that allowed it to take up a natural angle as with a
simply supported beam.

Figure 3
The natural frequency of a simply supported shaft and a cantilever are respectively
gEI
gEI
and f n = 0.56
(See tutorial on free vibrations)
f n = 1.572
4
wL
wL4
If the shaft resonates at a higher mode n then the length of each section would be L/n. If L/n is
substituted for L in the formulae the frequencies at higher modes become
gEI
gEI
and f n = 0.56n 2
f n = 1.572n 2
4
wL
wL4
Rotating shafts can be held in rigid bearings at one or both ends so that they can not be regarded as
simply supported. This affects the natural frequency and the solution for these cases is not covered
here.
Large machines such as steam turbines, electric generators, gas turbines and so on, all have a
transverse stiffness and will vibrate when driven at critical speeds. This can be very damaging so
the design speed must not correspond to a critical frequency and when starting or stopping the
machine, the critical speeds must be passed through as quickly as possible. Fine balancing of the
rotors is important to reduce the likelihood of damage.
WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

A shaft is 30 mm diameter and 4 m long and may be regarded as simply supported. The density
is 7 830 kg/m3. E = 205 GPa. Calculate the first three critical frequencies.
SOLUTION

The essential information is d = 0.03 m L = 4 m = 7830 kg/m3 E = 205 GPa

First calculate the distributed weight w by calculating the weight of 1 m length.
d 2 x 0.03 2
A=
=
= 706.9 x 10 -6 m 2 Volume = A x 1 = 706.9 x 10 -6 m 3
4
4
Weight = x A x g = 7830 x 706.9 x 10 -6 x 9.81 = 54.3 N/m
I=

d 4 x 0.03 4
=
= 39.76 x 10 -9 m 4 Now calculate the funamental frequency.
64
64

gEI
9.81 x 205 x 10 9 x 39.76 x 10 -9
1.572
=
= 3.77 rev/s
wL4
54.3 x 3 4
If the shaft took up the second mode the frequncy would be 3.77 x 2 2 = 15.1 rev/s

f n = 1.572

If the shaft took up the third mode the frequncy would be 3.77 x 3 2 = 33.9 rev/s
D.J.DUNN

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.1

1. A shaft is 50 mm diameter and 8 m long and may be regarded as simply supported. The density
is 7 830 kg/m3. E = 205 GPa. Calculate the first three critical frequencies. (1.571 , 6.284 and
14.14 rev/s)
2. An aluminium rod is held in a chuck with the other end unsupported. It is 12 mm diameter and
400 mm long. The density of aluminium is 2710 kg/m3 and the modulus of elasticity E is 71
GPa. Calculate the speed at which it is likely to whirl. (53.7 rev/s)

D.J.DUNN

3.

OTHER FORCED VIBRATIONS

We must examine two common types of forced vibrations, first when a mass has a disturbing force
acting on it and second when the spring support is disturbed harmonically.
3.1. HARMONIC DISTURBING FORCE

Consider an ideal system as shown. A mass M is suspended on a spring and a damper is placed
between the spring and the support. The support does not move. Located on the mass is a small
rotating machine that is out of balance. It has the equivalent of a small mass m rotating at radius r
that produces an out of balance force due to the centripetal/centrifugal affect. The magnitude of this
force is Fo = mr2. The main mass is constrained in guides so that it will only move up and down
(one degree of freedom). At the position shown with rotation through angle , the component of Fo
acting vertically is F' = Fo Sin.

Figure 4
Any force applied to the mass to make it move must overcome the inertia, damping and spring
force. The applied force is hence
F = Fi + Fd + Fs
d2x
dx
+c
+ kx
2
dt
dt
In this case the mass can only move vertically so the only force applied to it in this direction is the
vertical component of the centrifugal force.
d2x
dx
Fo sin( t) = M 2 + c
+ kx
dt
dt
F=M

D.J.DUNN

3.1.1 PHASOR REPRESENTATION

We may assume (and it is known from observations) that the mass is going to oscillate up and down
with a sinusoidal oscillation of amplitude A. Let's assume that time starts when the oscillation
passes through the rest position. The displacement is given by
x = A sin t
where A is the amplitude.
The velocity is then v = dx/dt = Acost where A is the amplitude.
The acceleration is a = dv/dt = -A2sint where A2 is the amplitude.
The displacement x, velocity v and acceleration are plotted against time in the diagram below. Each
graph may be generated by a vector rotating at rad/s and with a length equal to the amplitude.
Such vectors are called phasors. At a given moment in time, the tip of each vector is projected
across to the appropriate point as shown.

Figure 5
We can see that in order to produce the result, the velocity vector is 90o in front of the displacement
and the acceleration is 90o in front of the velocity.
The spring force is directly proportional to displacement x so it must be in phase with x. The
damping force is directly proportional to the velocity v so it must be in phase with v. The inertia
force is directly proportional to the acceleration a so it must be in phase with a. It follows that the
three forces can also be represented by phasors all rotating at angular velocity rad/s. We can
choose a moment in time when the displacement is horizontal as shown.
The spring force is in phase with the movement so we draw the vector horizontally. The other
vectors are 90o and 180o ahead respectively.

Figure 6

D.J.DUNN

The sum of these three vectors is Fo so adding them we get a typical vector diagram as shown.

Figure 7
The diagram shows that the applied force Fo is at an angle to the horizontal so it must be
displaced by a phase angle relative to x. Applying trigonometry we have
2
2
Fo 2 = kA MA 2 + (cA ) ........Pythagoras

Fo 2 = A 2
Fo 2 = A 2

)
(k M ) + A (c)
{(k M ) + (c) }
2 2

2 2

Divide every term by M 2

2
2

Fo 2
c
2 k
2
= A +
M2
M
M

It has been shown in the tutorial on damped vibrations that 2n =

k
c
and
= 2 n
M
M

2
2
n 2 + (2 n )2
From the triangle we also get the phase angle.
Fo
A2 =
M

2 n
2n 2
Plotting x and Fo for a given applied frequency against time produces a graph similar to below.
Tan =

Figure 8

D.J.DUNN

3.1.2

FREQUENCY RESPONSE DIAGRAMS

Suppose we start the out of balance machine and gradually increase the speed from zero. Taking
a typical value of n = 10 and plotting against for various values of produces the graph
below.

Figure 9
The plot shows that the phase angle starts at zero and reaches 90o when = n. As the speed
increases to large values, the phase angle approaches 180o.
Now consider what happens to the amplitude A. Plotting A against for various values of gives
the graph below.

Figure 10
The following analyses the equation for A at the three obvious points
2

1
Fo
A2 =
when = 0 this reduces to
2
M 2n 2 + (2 n )2

Fo 1
A = 2
M n
This has a finite value (2 on the diagram) and this is the same for all values of .

( )

D.J.DUNN

10

When = n the amplitude becomes

Fo 1
A =
and the value depends upon the value of .
2
M 2
The smaller the value of the damping ratio, the greater the peak value of A becomes. If = 0 then in
theory A =

When the frequency becomes very large, the amplitude tends to die away to zero for all values of .
We may conclude from this, that when the out of balance machine rotates very fast, there is very
little disturbance to the system but when it approaches the natural frequency of the system the
amplitude might become very large depending on the damping. It should also be noted that the
frequency at which the amplitude peaks is called the resonant frequency and this is not quite the
same as the natural frequency.
WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

The diagram shows a mass-spring-dashpot system. The mass has a harmonic disturbing force
applied to it given by the equation F = 400 sin(30 t) Newton.
Determine the amplitude of the mass and the phase angle.

D.J.DUNN

11

SOLUTION
From the question we know that k = 10000, M = 5 and c = 150
n =

k
=
M

10000
= 44.72 rad/s
5

cc =

4Mk =

4 x 5 x 10000 = 447.21

c
150
=
= 0.335
cc
447.21
From the equation of motion Fo = 400 N and = 30 rad/s

Fo 2
1
A 2 =

M 2 2 2 + (2 )2
n
n

400 2
1

2
A =

5 44.72 2 30 2 2 + (2 x 0.335 x 30 x 44.72 )2

= 0.00317 A = 0.056 m or 56 mm

Tan =
= 39.3

2 n

2n
o

2 x 0.335 x 30 x 44.72
= 0.818
44.72 2 30 2

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.2

1. A mass of 12 kg rests on a springy base of stiffness 8 kN/m. There is a damper between the
mass and the support with a damping coefficient of 400 N s/m. The support is subjected to a
harmonic disturbing force given by
F = 200sin(30 t).
Calculate the amplitude of the mass and the phase angle.
(16 mm and 103.1 degrees).
2. A mass of 150 kg rests on a springy base of stiffness 60 kN/m. There is a damper between the
mass and the support with a damping coefficient of 5000 N s/m. The support is subjected to a
harmonic disturbing force given by
F = 800sin(25 t).
Calculate the amplitude of the mass and the phase angle.
(6.2 mm and 105.1 degrees).

D.J.DUNN

12

3.2. HARMONIC MOVEMENT OF THE SUPPORT

The diagram shows a mass spring damper system. The mass can only move vertically. The support
is made to move up and down by a cam that rotates at rad/s with amplitude a. If time starts when
the support passes through the mean
position, the motion of the support is
described by the equation
y = a sin(t).
We may assume that the mass is going to
move up and down harmonically with an
amplitude A but we cannot assume that
the motion is in phase with the support so
the equation of motion will be given by
the equation x = A sin(t + ) where is
the phase angle.

Figure 11
At any given moment in time the spring is stretched or shortened by an amount x- y at any time.
The spring force is hence F = k(x-y). The three forces acting on the mass are:
Spring force
k(x-y)
Damping force
c dx/dt
Inertia force
M d2x/dt2
In this case there is no applied so the force balance gives
d2x
dx
0=M 2 +c
+ k(x - y)
dt
dt
d2x
dx
0=M 2 +c
+ kx - ky
dt
dt
d2x
dx
+ kx
ky = M 2 + c
dt
dt
d2x
dx
k (a sint ) = M 2 + c
+ kx
dt
dt
d2x
dx
Compare this with the previous case. Fo sin( t) = M 2 + c
+ kx
dt
dt
This is the same except the term ka replaces the term Fo. It follows that the solutions are the
same with this substitution.

2
n 2
2 n
Tan = 2
n 2
ka
A2 =
M

D.J.DUNN

.
2
+ (2 n )
1

13

3.2.1

MAGNIFICATION FACTOR

The magnification factor is the ratio A/a when the support is excited. The last equation may be
arranged into the following form.
MF =

A
k
=
a
M

Since k/M = n2 then

MF =

2
n 2

)2

( )
)

n2
2
=
2
n 2 + (2 n )2

+ (2 n )2

1
2 2

1 + 2

n2
n

This formula also applies to the case when a harmonic disturbing force is applied since ka = Fo and
it follows that MF = Maximum force in spring/Fo

The response graph is shown below and could apply to either case. At low speeds the support and
mass move up and down together. As approaches n the amplitude of the mass grows and the
phase angle approaches 90o. As the speed passes resonance, the amplitude of the mass reduces and
eventually becomes almost static. The phase angle tends to 180o at high speeds. The magnification
is greatest at resonance and as before, the resonant frequency is not quite the same as the natural
frequency.

Figure 12
The PEAK MF occurs when

2 2

1
2
is a maximum. This can be found by max
+
2

and min theory. Simplify this to 1 r 2

Differentiate w.r.t. r

{(

)2

+ ( 2 r )2

d 1 r2

)2

+ (2 r )2

dr

} = 2(1 r )( 2r ) + 8 r

Equate to zero and

2(1 r 2 )( 2r ) + 8 2 r = 0
r =

Peak MF occurs when

D.J.DUNN

1 2 2

= n(1 - 22)

14

WORKED EXAMPLE No.3

The diagram shows a mass-spring-dashpot system. The support is moved with a motion of y =
6 sin(40t) mm. Determine the amplitude of the mass and the phase angle.

Figure 13
SOLUTION
From the question we know that k = 10000, M = 5 and c = 150
n =

k
10000
=
= 44.72 rad/s
M
5

c c = 4Mk = 4 x 5 x 10000 = 447.21

=

150
c
=
= 0.335
c c 447.21

From the equation of motion a = 6 mm and = 40 rad/s

A k
=
a M 2n 2

A 10000
=

6 5

2
+ (2 n )
1

44.72 2 40 2

2
+ (2 x 0.335 x 40 x 44.72 )
1

A
= 1.581 A = 1.581 x 6 = 9.487 mm
a
2 n 2 x 0.335 x 40 x 44.72
=
=3
Tan = 2
n 2
44.72 2 40 2
= 71.56 o

D.J.DUNN

15

3.2.2

TRANSMISSIBILITY

When a mass vibrates on an elastic support, a force is transmitted through the spring and damper to
the frame or ground. This is the sum of the spring and damping force. This may be illustrated with
the vector diagram.

Figure 14
From the vector diagram we deduce that the transmitted force is FT = (Fs2 + Fd2)
Fs = kA and Fd = cA

FT = {(kA)2 + (cA)}

The ratio FT/Fo is called the transmissibility ratio.

The phase angle between the transmitted fore and the applied force is T = - tan-1(Fd/Fs)
The above work applies to both harmonic disturbing forces and harmonic motion of the support if
the substitution Fo = ka

WORKED EXAMPLE No.4

Calculate the transmitted force and the phase angle of the transmitted force for example No.2.
SOLUTION

In example 2 we calculated A = 56 mm k = 10 kN/m and = 30 rad/s = 39.3o

Fs = kA = 10 000 x 0.056 = 560 N
Fd = cA = 150 x 0.056 x 30 = 252 N
FT = (5602 + 2522) = 614.1 N
T = 39.3 tan-1(252/560) = 15.1o

D.J.DUNN

16

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.3

1. A mass of 500 kg rests on a springy base of stiffness 40 kN/m. The damping ratio is 0.25. The
support is moved harmonically with an amplitude of 0.2 mm at 6 Hz. Calculate the amplitude of
the mass and the phase angle.
(0.0118 mm and -7.165 degrees).
Calculate the transmitted force and the phase angle to the motion of the support.
(1.104 N and -71.8o)
2. A mass of 60 kg hangs from a spring of stiffness 100 kN/m. The damping ratio is 0.2. The
support is moved harmonically with an amplitude of 3 mm at 6 Hz. Calculate the amplitude of
the mass and the phase angle.
(7.544 mm and 68.3 degrees).
Calculate the transmitted force and the phase angle to the motion of the support.
(80.4 N and 48o)

D.J.DUNN

17