Written Final Output 3

Learning to Reason from Samples

Dani Ben-Zvi, Arthur Bakker and Katie Makar

Submitted by:
Unice M. Booc
BSA-2

Submitted to:
Mrs. Roma Anoos
Math D Professor
TTh 10:00-11:30

I.

Summary

Sampling is the key factor in making reliable statistical inferences. Every day we
are bombarded with large amount of data, might it be in the workplaces, schools, or
even just in the sidewalk. Since we are surrounded by statistics, we must become
savvy consumers of all these data. However, we could not take all these data at
once, so we take samples from these data and use these samples to make
inferences about unknown populations. This is actually the core of statistics.
Statisticians help students develop the seeds of probabilistic language to articulate
not nothing, not everything, but something (Rubin et al., 1990, p.413) while making
informal statistical inferences.
Ideas of sample and sampling distribution must be well understood by students
for based on Wild and Pfannkuchs framework for statistical thinking, students
statistical reasoning about sampling involves many underlying statistical concepts.
Students can make statistical inferences if they understand samples and sampling,
and their interrelationships with other key concepts (Bakker 2004).
However, even if it is apparent that sampling and sampling distribution are so
important in statistics, there has been somewhat less research attention on this topic
compared to other statistical concepts (Garfield & Ben-Zvi, 2007).
There are problems on students misconception about samples and samplings.
In some studies of students conception of sampling, students understood the idea of
sample but have difficulty of making transition to the formal, statistical meaning and
related connotations and conceptualizations. Students often prefer biased sampling
methods because they do not trust random sampling as a process producing fair
sample (Watson, 2004).
In a teaching experiment with eight grade students, Bakker (2004) was able to
help students understand that larger samples are more stable and better represent
the population, using a sequence of growing samples activities.

In growing

samples task design, according to this experiment, combined with what-if

questions enabled students to gain a sense of the middle ground of knowing
something about the population with some level of uncertainty and helped them

develop a language to talk about the grey areas of this middle ground (Ben-Zvi et al,
2012).
In the study by Schwartz, Goldman, Vye, and Barron (1998), biased sampling
techniques used by sixth-grade students were observed. There were also confusion
about samples and sampling in tertiary students and even professionals. Some
people think that larger samples are better representation of the population while
others think that both large and small samples equally represent a population.
There are many misconceptions regarding samples and sampling. So, statistics
educators and researchers have turned to visual and interactive technological tools
(Chance, Ben-Zvi, Garfield & Medina, 2007).

It is said that technology allows

students to be directly involved with the building up of the sampling distribution,

focusing on the process involved, instead of being presented only the end result.
However, there is also research that suggests that just showing students
demonstrations of simulations using the technology will not necessarily lead to
improved understanding or reasoning (Chance et al., 2007).
To boil something down from the research, it takes time to help students
develop the ideas related to sampling. It is much longer than the few class sessions
which is typically allotted in various grade levels (cf. Wild, Pfannkuch, Regan &
Horton, 2011). Students need to experience authentic, situated, and rich
experiences in taking samples and learning how samples do and do not represent
the population prior to formal higher studies of statistics to develop a deeper
understanding of sampling and (informal) inference, as they repeatedly deal with
taking samples, repeated samples, and simulations.
It is also suggested in the study that it is effective to first provide students with
concrete materials (e.g., counting candies or pennies) before moving to an abstract
simulation of that activity (Bakker & Frederickson, 2005).
Despite of the innovations and advancement nowadays, there is still not enough
research on the ways they can be used to support the emergence of students
statistical reasoning effectively and efficiently and how to assess them. Neither do
we know much about teachers understanding of these issues nor how they can

assist their students in developing these ideas. So, these issues have a lot of rooms
for research and investigation.
I.

Points of Agreement
I agree that it instructors need time to help students understand samples and

sampling. In order for students to have a deeper understanding of sampling and

(informal) inference, they must experience collecting data and create models using
simulation tools. So, the time allotted in various grade levels (cf. Wild, Plannkuch,
Regan & Horton, 2011) is not enough to fully understand the ideas related to
sampling. I also agree to Chance and Rossman (2001) recommendations that much
instruction time should be spent on sampling distributions.
I also agree that it is effective to first provide students with concrete materials
before moving to an abstract simulation of data; this is according to Bakker and
Frederickson (2005). I also experienced that when it comes to reasoning, it is hard to
just listen to what the instructor is saying. I have to experience it to have deeper
understanding due to involvement of such materials.
Lastly, I agree that the ideas of samples and sampling are essential because we
are living in a world of information. So, misconceptions about these ideas should be
clarified. Statisticians should be much more concern in sampling and sampling
distributions.
II.

Points of Disagreement

In the researchers literature review, it was said that people sometimes reason
correctly about sample size and sometimes do not. And their bases are that some
people say that larger samples better represent population and others think that
both large and small samples equally represent a population. I disagree if their
implication is that there is misconception. Probably there is, but it could be that
those who said that larger samples are better have a study that the larger the
sample size the accurate the results will be. For those who said that both large and
small sample equally represents a population, probably because their study is
different.
Also, not all the time random sampling is that useful. There are also times that
biased sampling is much more applicable. It all depends in the purpose.
4

III.

Realization
I realize how important the ideas of samples and sampling are. Before I thought

that this is only important for those who are in the fields of research studies; if I
become a Certified Public Accountant someday or a licensed engineer, I wont need
these ideas. Now, I know that because we are surrounded by information everyday
and we need to make inferences from these data, samples and sampling are really
essential.
If I am already in the industry, someday, changes will be very vast. What I
learned today may not be applicable tomorrow. So, I have to do some research
about the data I could gather and have (informal) inferences out of it.
I also learned from my Philosophy subject that because of globalization, skills I
could learn in college might be zapped out in the future. But one thing which will
never be zapped out by globalization is the skill in research.
References
Rubin, A., Bruce, B., & Tenney,. Y. (1990). Learning about sampling: Trouble at the core
statistics. In D Vere-Jones (ED.), Proceedings of the Third International Conference on
Teaching Statistics (Vol. 1, pp. 314-319). Voorburg, The Netherlands: International
Statistical Institute.
Bakker, A. (2004). Design research in statistics education: On symbolizing and computer tools.
Utrecht, the Netherlands: CD Beta Press.
Garfield, J., & Ben-Zvi, D. (2007). How students learn statistics revisited: A current review of
research on teaching and learning statistics. International Statistical Review, 75 (3). 372396.
Watson, J.M. (2004). Developing reasoning about samples. In D. Ben-Zvi & J. Garfield (Eds.),
The challenge of developing statistical literacy, reasoning and thinking (pp. 227-294).
Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Ben-Zvi, D., Aridor, K., Makar, K., & Bakker, A. (2012). Students emergent articulations of
uncertainty while making informal statistical inferences. ZDM The International Journal
on Mathematics Education, 44(7), 913-925.