Cells

The basic unit of structure and function in living organisms is the cell. Because cells are very minute,
they can only be seen under high magnification with the microscope.
While some organisms are very simple, containing a single cell (unicellular), there are some
organisms that are more complex (multi-cellular). In eukaryotes, cells often combine to make
tissue and tissues combine to form organs. These organs may then combine (work together) to form
systems.
There are 2 types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells are much simpler, and hence smaller than eukaryotic cells. They do not have an
organized nucleus or the organelles found in eukaryotic cells. Examples of prokaryotes are bacteria.
Since eukaryotic cells are more complex, it means that they have an organized nucleus as well as
several organelles that are not found in prokaryotic cells. Examples of eukaryotes are plants,
animals, fungi and protists.
The diagram below shows the differences between a prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.

Cell Structures And Organelles

Cell Surface Membrane (plasma membrane)
All cells possess a cell membrane (both prokaryotic and eukaryotic). This is the outermost structure
of the cell which separates the cell from its environment. The cell membrane is a thin partially
permeable bilayer structure (2 layers) which has protein embedded within the layers. The layers
are made of lipids, especially phospholipids and function not only to separate the cell from its
outer environment but also filters the entrance and exit of molecules.
Cytoplasm
This is a semi-liquid material enclosed within the cell membrane. The cell cytoplasm, often
described as jelly-like, essentially acts as a form of support for the cell structures located within the
semi-liquid medium. About 70% of the cytoplasm is water. The entire content of the cell is
called protoplasm.
Nucleus
This is the largest cell organelle that is present in both the plant and animal cell however it is absent
in prokaryotic cells. The nucleus is composed mostly of protein and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
This DNA is the genetic material of the cell and controls its structure and function. DNA is organized
into linear units called chromosomes. The functional parts of each chromosome are called genes. It is
through these genes that genetic material is passed during reproduction.
The nucleus is enclosed by an envelope of two membranes called nuclear membrane(similar to
the cell membrane). Though prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus, they do have DNA. This DNA is
found freely in the cytoplasm of the cell, most times wrapped in a tight coil.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is a very important organelle in the cell and is found in both animal and
plants cells. It is responsible for protein and lipid synthesis. There are 2 types of endoplasmic
reticulum: rough and smooth. The rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes present and is
responsible for the synthesis of proteins. Thesmooth endoplasmic reticulum does not have
ribosomes present and is responsible for the synthesis of lipids. In addition to protein synthesis the
endoplasmic reticulum is also used to modify proteins.
The Mitochondrion (plural mitochondria)
The mitochondrion appears as dark spots when viewed under the microscope. The mitochondrion is
elongated and shaped like a sausage. It is referred to as the power house of the cell because it
provides energy in the form of ATP through the process of respiration. Cells release energy from
foods during respiration by way of the mitochondrion. This organelle is present in all eukaryotic
cells.

Chloroplast
These are large plastid structures containing chlorophyll. They have large internal surface areas and
conduct photosynthesis on their thylakoid membranes. The large surface area increases the amount
of photosynthesis taking place within a given area thus increasing efficiency. Starch grains may be
found within the chloroplast, which have been made as a result of photosynthesis.
Vacuoles
These are small sacs bounded by a single membrane called the vacuolar membrane. Vacuoles
contain cell sap, which is made up of variable amounts of water, mineral salts, sugars, pigments and
enzymes depending on the cell. Vacuoles are present in both the plant and animal cell, but they are
much smaller in the animal cell and are not permanent. The presence of a large vacuole increases
the osmotic pressure of the cell. It is the presence of a large vacuole in a plant cell that causes it to
become turgid (swollen). Plants need turgid cells to aid in support as it does not have a
bone structure.
Cell wall
This structure is only found in plant cells. This rigid cell structure gives the cell a regular
shape and prevents it from bursting when the plant cells become swollen. The cell wall is
made of cellulose, which is a polysaccharide. The cell wall encloses/ covers the cell membrane and its
contents (protoplasm). Due to its structural make up its primary function is to provide protection
and support to the cell.
There are many other organelles present in both the animal and plant cells which we have not
discussed. However, at this stage in your studies only these will really be asked for. It would not hurt
however to familiarize yourself with other organelles.
These include:
-Golgi body/apparatus
-Ribosomes
-Lysosome

Difference Between Plant And Animal Cells

Plant and animal cells are both eukaryotic cells. However, there are distinct differences between the
cells found in plants and those found in animals.
The differences between the two types of cells can be seen with a light microscope. Below is a list of
the major differences:

ANIMAL CELLS
PLANT CELLS
Does not have a cell Has a cell wall, regular in
wall, irregular in
shape
shape
No chloroplast present Chloroplast present
Small temporary
Large vacuoles located in
vacuoles or no vacuole the centre of the cell
Starch grains not
Starch grains present
present
The nucleus is usually Due to the central location
located centrally
of the vacuole, the nucleus

of the cell may be located

at the edge of the cell

TYPICAL ANIMAL CELL

Similarities between plant and animal cells:

-Both have a cell surface membrane that surrounds the cell.
-Both contain endoplasmic reticulum
-Both have cytoplasm

-Both contain ribosomes

-Both contain a nucleus
-Both contain mitochondria

Specialization Of Cells
In living organisms there are millions of cells present. If all the cells in a body were the same and
performed the same functions, there would be some functions that an organism would be unable to
perform. As a result, some of these cells are specialized and grouped together to form tissues which
may form organs. Since each of these tissues and organs perform a specific function, there is a
division of labour and increased efficiency.
Cells are able to perform different functions because of their structure, the proteins they produce and
the organelles present. Since different cells perform different functions a nerve cell, for example,
cannot have the same structure as a white blood cell. This specialization is the same for the
organelles within the cells. In the cell, each organelle has its own role involving its own specialized
structure and chemistry. All the cells and organelles within a cell do their own thing but they all come
together for one purpose and thats to allow proper body function.
Specialized cells differ in size, shape and function. These modifications of the cell enable it to
perform its task properly. Both plant and animal cells may be specialized for different tasks.
Examples of Specialized cells are:
-Nerve cell
-White blood cell
-Red blood cell
-Fat cells
-Root hair cell
-Palisade cell

NERVE CELL
Cells that perform the same specific functions are grouped together in the body to form tissues. Some
of the main tissues in Man are:
-Muscle
-Nerve
-Connective
-Epithelium
The main tissues in plants are:
-Xylem
-Phloem
Tissues are grouped together to form organs.
Examples of organs in animals are: kidney, liver and stomach.
Examples of organs in plants are: stem, root, leaf.
Organs are then grouped together to form systems.
An example of a system is the excretory system which we will be examining shortly.

From the flow chart above, it can be seen that cells group together to form tissues and tissues form
organs. Organs are grouped together to form systems which collectively form an organism.

Diffusion

Diffusion occurs in everyday life. For example, whenever someone sprays perfume you will
eventually smell it across the room. This is an instance of diffusion.
Diffusion is correctly defined as the movement of particles from a region of high concentration
(many particles in a small area) to a region of low concentration (few particles in a small
area). When the particles are released in the surroundings, they randomly move until there is
an even distribution of the particles throughout.

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE DIFFUSION OF PARTICLES

Diffusion is mostly seen in liquids and with gases. This is because solid particles are held together
very closely and cannot move very far. When molecules can move freely, they tend to spread
themselves out as evenly as possible.
Diffusion not only occurs in everyday life within the environment, it also occurs within the bodies of
living organisms.
Examples:
-The oxygen and nutrients from a mother is transported across the placenta via diffusion to the
foetus during pregnancy.
-Carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis is diffused from the atmosphere into plants through
pores called the stomata.
Many other instances of diffusion occur in both plants and animals. The rate at which diffusion
occurs depends on the concentration gradient. The concentration gradient is the gradual difference
in concentration between two regions. The greater the difference in the concentration, the steeper
the concentration gradient and the faster diffusion will occur faster.
Space 1

Space 2

000

00000000

Space 3

Space 4

00

0000

Diffusion will occur faster from space 2 to space 1 than from space 4 to space 3.

Activity
Fill a container with water and leave it to stand. Place some dye in the container of water, as shown
above and leave for about 10 minutes. What do you think will be seen after the time has passed?

Osmosis
Osmosis is defined as the movement of solvent particles (usually water) from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration through a partially permeable membrane. It is often
regarded as a form of diffusion in which only water molecules move. So, water moves from an area
where it is in high concentration (abundant), to an area where it is in low concentration (less
abundant) until both areas have the same concentration of water.
Consider the diagram below where large solute particles are unable to pass through the membrane, it
only allows water to pass through. Osmosis occurs until there is an equal concentration on either side
(until equilibrium is met).

The Figure above shows Osmosis.

The arrows represent the direction in which water molecules will move across the semi-permeable
membrane.
Water has a natural tendency to move from a place where it is in higher concentration to a region
where it is of a lower concentration. This tendency is measured as the water potential. Osmosis can
be loosely defined as the movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential to a

region of lower water potential. Pure water has the highest water potential. The presence of solute
particles (dissolved particles) will reduce the water potential. Because of this, the more solute
particles that are present, the lower the water potential of the solution.

How Osmosis Applies To Organisms

Cell membranes are often compared with a Visking tube as they only allow certain substances to pass
through them. This is termed as selective permeability or partially permeable.
The body is made up of approximately 70% water. The cytoplasm of cells contains a lot of this water.
This means that a lot of osmosis occurs within the body as the concentration of the cytoplasm may
vary from time to time. Different solutions will have different effects on red blood cells as it regards
to osmosis. A hypotonic solution has higher water concentration than the contents of the cell. A
hypertonic solution has a lower water concentration than the cell contents.
Osmosis and animal cells
Because animal cells have no cell wall, they are not strong enough to withstand the pressure caused
from swelling. Water therefore moves by osmosis into the cell and the cell becomes swollen and
bursts, dispersing the cell contents when the cell is exposed to a hypotonic solution. The bursting
of a cell is called lysis of the cell. In ahypertonic solution, water will leave the cell and enter the
surrounding solution. In this case, the cell will most likely shrink and become shrivel (flaccid). An
isotonic solution has equal concentration of water outside and inside the cell so there is no net
movement of water. The cell remains normal.
Osmosis and plant cells
In the case of plants, many prefer the water concentration being greater outside the plant. Unlike an
animal cell, plant cells have a cell wall. This means that the plants cell will become turgid in
hypotonic solution, but will not burst as water moves in the plant. As water moves in the plant and
the concentration of water in the plant gets greater, eventually equilibrium is reached (equal
concentration of water inside and outside the cell). After this point, any water coming in the plant
cell is released at an equal rate thereby achieving an osmotic balance. This water movement inside
plants is essential for building pressure, called turgid pressure. Turgidity is important in plants as
it helps them to stay upright and keeps the leaves firm. In a highly concentrated solution, plant cells
will become shrivelled. If the surrounding solution is highly concentrated, plasmolysis will
occur. Plasmolysis occurs when the cell membrane surrounding the cytoplasm shrinks further and

further away from the cell wall. This often results in the death of the cell as the cell membrane
usually gets damaged while it gets torn away from the cell wall.

Many times the movement of ions requires movement against a concentration gradient, this is
called active transport. Energy is used because substances must be moved against their natural
tendency to diffuse in the opposite direction. Many times plants (roots) require more minerals from
their surroundings although they have a greater concentration of minerals inside their cells already.
This movement of ions is called active transport.