Problems associated with software maintenance

Software maintenance work typically is much more expensive than what it should
be and takes more time than required. In software organizations, maintenance work
is mostly carried out using ad hoc techniques. The primary reason being that
software maintenance is one of the most neglected areas of software engineering.
Even though software maintenance is fast becoming an important area of work for
many companies as the software products of yester years age, still software
maintenance is mostly being carried out as fire-fighting operations, rather than
through systematic and planned activities.
Factors on which software maintenance activities depend
The activities involved in a software maintenance project are not unique and
depend on several factors such as:
The extent of modification to the product required
The resources available to the maintenance team
The conditions of the existing product (e.g., how structured it is, how well
documented it is, etc.)
The expected project risks, etc.
Sequential Access
1) All records are stored in a sequential order.
2) That is, the records are arranged in the ascending or descending order of a
key field.
a) In a student information system, the file would contain roll number, name,
division, marks obtained in the examination.
In a payroll application, the records are stored with employee number as a key
field.
3) To locate a particular record in such file organization, we have to start
searching from the beginning of the file until it is found in the file.
4) It is time consuming process.
5) Normally created and maintained on magnetic tapes. E.g. Audio Cassettes.
6) There is no need for any storage space identification
7) All records are stored in a sequential order.
That is, the records are arranged in the ascending or descending order of a key
field.

Advantages
Simple to understand
Easier to organize, maintain
Economical
Error in files remain localized
Disadvantages:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Entire file has to be processed

Transactions must be sorted in a particular sequence before processing
Time consuming searching
High data redundancy
Random enquiries are not possible to handle

Random Access Organization

Records are stored in Direct Access Storage Device( DASD). Such as magnetic
disk (Hard disks). For direct access, the file is viewed as numbered sequence of
blocks or records. These blocks or records are taken as key for accessing the
desired information randomly. It allows arbitrary (random) blocks to be read or
written. It is useful for immediate access to large amount of information. They are
often used in accessing large databases. This technique is called as hashing
Advantages:
1)
2)
3)
4)

Immediate Access of the desired records.

No sorting of the records is required.
Faster updating of several files.
Helps in online transaction processing system like online reservation
systems.

Disadvantages:
1) Data may be accidentally erased or over-written unless special precautions
are taken
2) Backup facility is needed
3) Expensive- hard disks are needed to store the records, it is expensive.

4) Less efficient as compared to sequential file organization in the use of

storage space
5) Only one key is used
6) Cannot be accessed sequentially
Index Sequential Access file organization (ISAM)
This file organization is a synthesis of the above two file organizations. It
combines the positive features of both the sequential and direct access file
organizations. Here records are stored randomly on a direct access device such as
magnetic disk by a primary key. Hence, we can access data either sequentially or
randomly using the index. The index is stored in a file and read into memory when
the file is opened. It may have multiple keys. These keys can be alphanumeric
The key upon which the data records are ordered is called the primary key. Other
keys are called alternate keys.
Advantages
1. Both sequential and random access is possible.
2. Accessing of records is fast, if the index table is properly organized
Disadvantages
1. More storage space is needed because of the presence of Index.
2. Less efficient in the use of storage space as compared to other file
organizations.
3. It requires special software, i.e. expensive.
4.