Chapter 6-Skeletal System

Functions
1. Support
2. Protect
3. Movement
4. Storage
5. Blood cell production
(hematopoiesis)
2

Components of Skeletal System

Bone
made up of nerves and blood vessels

Cartilage:
reduce friction and model for bone formation

Tendons:
attach bone to muscle

Ligaments:

Background Information
Bones, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments are
connective tissues.
Proteoglycans:
- large polysaccharides attached to proteins
- part of ground substance
- store water
- good shock absorbers
4

 Bones extracellular matrix is collagen and

minerals (flexible and able to bear weight)
Hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate crystal)
provides weight-bearing strength

Cartilages extracellular matrix is collagen and

proteoglycans (good shock absorber)
Tendons and ligaments extracellular matrix is
collagen (very tough)
5

Bone Histology
Bone Cells
Osteoblasts produce bone matrix and become
osteocytes
Osteoblasts connect to one another through
cell processes and surround themselves with
bone matrix to become osteocytes
Osteocytes are located in lacunae and are
connected to one another through canaliculi
Osteoclasts break down (resorption) bone
Osteoclasts originate from stem cells in red
bone marrow

Histology of Bones

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Bone Histology
Bone tissue is classified as either woven or
lamellar bone, according to the organization of
collagen fibers
Woven bone
Has collagen fibers oriented in many different directions
It is remodeled to form lamellar bone

Lamellar bone
Mature bone
Arranged in thin layers called lamellae
Has collagen fibers oriented parallel to one another

Bone Histology
Bone can be classified according to the amount of
bone matrix relative to the amount of space present
within the bone
Cancellous bone has many spaces
Internal layer which is a honeycomb of trabeculae filled with red or
yellow bone marrow

Compact bone is dense with few spaces

External layer

Fig. 6.4

Bone Histology
Cancellous
Lamellae combine to
form trabeculae
Beams of bone that
interconnect to form a
lattice-like structure with
spaces filled with bone
marrow and blood vessels

Trabeculae are oriented

along lines of stress and
provide structural
strength
Fig. 6.4

Bone Histology
Compact Bone
Consists of organized
lamellae
Circumferential lamellae
form the outer surface of
compact bones
Concentric lamellae surround
central canals, forming
osteons
Interstitial lamellae are
remnants of lamellae left
after bone remodeling

 Canals within compact

bone provide a means
for the exchange of
gases, nutrients, and
waste products
from the periosteumendosteum
perforating canals
carry blood vessels to
central canals
Canaliculi connect
central canals to
osteocytes

12

Classification of Bones
Based on shape:
long, short, flat, irregular
Type of bone tissue:
compact and spongy (cancellous)

13

Bone Anatomy
Individual bones are classified according to their shape
Long bones
Longer than they are wide
Most bones of the upper and lower limbs
Short bones
About as wide as they are long
Bones of the wrist (carpals) and ankle (tarsals)
Flat bones
Relatively thin, flattened shape and are usually curved
Certain bones of the skull, all the ribs, the breastbone
(sternum), and the shoulder blades (scapulae)
Irregular bones
Do not fit into the other three categories
Vertebrae, pelvic girdle and facial bones

Bone Shapes
Long:
- Ex. Femur, tibia, fibula
Short:
Ex. Carpals, tarsals,
phalanges

Flat:
Ex. Ribs, sternum, skull

Irregular:
Ex. Vertebrae and facial
bones
15

Long Bone Structures

Diaphysis:
shaft
compact bone
tissue (on outside)
Epiphysis:
expanded ends
spongy bone tissue
Articular cartilage:
- covers epiphyses
- reduces friction

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Articular cartilage
Epiphysis
Epiphyseal plates
in juveniles

Spongy bone
Compact bone
Medullary cavity (contains
red marrow in juveniles and
yellow marrow in adults)

Diaphysis

Periosteum
Endosteum

Young bone
(a)

16

Bone Anatomy

Structure of Long Bone

Epiphyses
Expanded ends of long bones
Exterior is compact bone, and the
interior is spongy bone
Joint surface is covered with
articular (hyaline) cartilage
Epiphyseal plate is the site of
bone growth
Epiphyseal plate becomes the
epiphyseal line when all of its
cartilage is replaced with
bone
Epiphyseal line separates the
diaphysis from the epiphyses

Bone Anatomy

Structure of Long Bone

Epiphyses
Expanded ends of long bones
Exterior is compact bone, and the
interior is spongy bone
Joint surface is covered with
articular (hyaline) cartilage
Epiphyseal plate is the site of
bone growth in length
Epiphyseal plate becomes the
epiphyseal line when all of its
cartilage is replaced with
bone
Epiphyseal line separates the
diaphysis from the epiphyses

 Structure of Long Bone

Diaphysis
Yellow bone
marrow (fat) is
contained in the
medullary cavity
Not to the same
extent, but certain
bones also contain
red marrow

Bone Anatomy
Bone Membranes
Periosteum: double layer of
protective membrane covering
the outer surface of bone
Outer fibrous layer is dense regular
connective tissue, which contains
blood vessels and nerves
Inner osteogenic layer contains
osteoblasts, osteoclasts

Endosteum: delicate membrane

covering internal surfaces of bone
Contains osteoblasts, osteoclasts

Bone Anatomy
Structure of Flat, Short, and Irregular Bones
Flat bones contain an interior framework of
cancellous bone sandwiched between two
layers of compact bone
Short and Irregular bones have a composition
similar to the ends of long bones

Compact Bone Tissue

Location:
outer part of diaphysis (long
bones) and thinner surfaces
of other bones

Osteon:
- structural unit of compact
bone
- includes lamella, lacunae,
canaliculus, central canal,
osteocytes

Lamellae:
rings of bone matrix

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Osteons
(haversian systems)
Endosteum

Inner
layer
Periosteum
Outer
layer

Compact bone

Central canals

Spongy bone
with trabeculae

Connecting vessels

Medullary
cavity
(c)

Adult bone

22

 Lacunae:
spaces between lamella
Canaliculi:
- tiny canals
- transport nutrients and
remove waste

Inner
layer

Endosteum

Outer
layer

Central canals

Central canal:
- center of osteon
- contains blood vessels

Spongy Bone Tissue

Cancellous bone
Location: epiphyses of long bones and center of other bones
Trabeculae: interconnecting rods, spaces contain marrow

No osteons

24

Bone Formation
Ossification:
process of bone formation (occurs in utero)
Osteoblasts role:
- build bone
- after an osteoblast becomes surrounded by bone
matrix it becomes an osteocyte

25

 Ossification center:
where bone formation begins
Primary ossification center:
- where bone 1st begins to appear
- forms diaphyses
Secondary ossification center:
forms epiphyses
26

Bone Formation
Begins at week 8 of embryo development
Intramembranous ossification: bone
develops from a fibrous membrane
Some skull bones, part of the mandible, and the
clavicles

Endochondral ossification: bone forms by

replacing hyaline cartilage
Bones of the base of the skull, part of the
mandible, the epiphyses of the clavicles, and
most of the remaining skeletal system

Intramembranous Ossification
Bone formation within
fibrous connective
tissue membranes
Osteoblasts build bone
Ex. Flat bones
some bones of the
skull,clavicle,
pelvic, scapula, part
of mandible
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Intramembranous Ossification

Four steps

1.Development of ossification center

Mesenchyme cells osteogenic osteoblasts
Osteoblasts secrete organic matrix

2. Calcification: cells become osteocytes

In lacunae they extend cytoplasmic processes to each other
Deposit calcium & other mineral salts

3.Formation of trabeculae (spongy bone)

Blood vessels grow in and red marrow is formed

4. Periosteum covering the bone forms from

mesenchyme
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Intramembranous ossification
initiated by
mesenchymal stem
cells (undifferentiated
cells)
mesenchymal cells
differentiate into bone
forming cells
(osteoblasts)
Formation of
ossification center
30

 Osteoblasts secrete
osteoid
- Osteoid is the organic
part of the bone
consisting of
collagen fibers

Osteoid becomes
calcified (hardens)
Spicules are formed
Osteoblasts are
trapped in the matrix
and become osteocytes
Calcification

31

 Spicules aggregate in the

form of small supporting
beams or rods of bones
called trabeculae
Vascular tissue becomes
the red bone marrow
Formation of trabeculae

32

 Trabeculae deep to the

periosteum will
thicken and become
the lamellar bone
tissue (compact bone)
Inner trabeculae will
become the spongy
bone (diploe)
Formation of
Periosteum

33

Endochondral Ossification
Bone formation inside cartilage
Cartilage models are replaced by bone

Ex. Long bones of the upper and lower

extremities

34

Bone Formation
Endochondral Ossification
Uses hyaline cartilage as models for bone
construction
Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior
to ossification
The perichondrium covering the hyaline
cartilage bone is infiltrated with blood
vessels, converting it to a vascularized
periosteum
Formation of bone collar around the diaphysis
of the hyaline cartilage model

Steps in Endochondral Ossification

1. Chondroblasts build a cartilage model, the
chrondroblasts become chondrocytes.
2. Cartilage model calcifies (hardens).
3. Osteoblasts invade calcified cartilage and a
primary ossification center forms at the
diaphysis.
4. Secondary ossification center forms at the
epiphysis.
5. Original cartilage model is almost completely
ossified and remaining cartilage is articular
36
cartilage and the epiphyseal plate.

Steps in Endochondral Ossification

Chondroblasts secrete
the cartilaginous
matrix forming the
hyaline cartilage
model
Perichondrium
surrounds the
cartilage model
37

 Perichondrium covering
the hyaline cartilage is
infiltrated with blood
vessels
Perichondrium is
converted into
vascularized periosteum
Bone collar is formed at
the diaphysis of the
hyaline cartilage model
Chondrocytes hypertrophy
forming a calcified
cartilage
Chondrocytes die

38

 Capillaries and
osteoblasts invade
calcified cartilage
Primary ossification
center forms at the
diaphysis
osteoblasts form the
trabeculae
Osteoclasts break
down the bone within
the diaphysis forming
the medullary cavity
39

 Secondary ossification
centers form at the
epiphysis

40

 after Secondary
ossification cartilage
is replaced by bone
Articular cartilage
Epiphyseal plate

41

Bone Growth
Bones increase in size
only by appositional
growth
Adding of new bone on
the surface of older bone
or cartilage

Trabeculae grow by
appositional growth

Bone Growth
Growth in Bone Length
Bone length increases because of growth at the
epiphyseal plate
Epiphyseal plate growth involves
Interstitial growth of cartilage
Followed by appositional bone growth on the cartilage

Growth in epiphyseal plate results in an increase in the

length of the diaphysis and bony processes
Growth in bone length ceases when the epiphyseal plate
becomes ossified and forms the epiphyseal line

Bone Remodeling
Removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and
deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
- occurs in all bones
Remodeling converts woven bone to lamellar bone and
allows bone to
Change shape
Adjust to stress
Repair itself
Regulate body calcium levels
45

Bone Fractures (Breaks)

Bone fractures are classified by:

The position of the bone ends after fracture

The completeness of the break
The orientation of the bone to the long axis
Whether or not the bone ends penetrate the skin

Complete fracture totally

separates the two bone fragments
Incomplete fracture incomplete
separation of two bone fragments
Transverse fracture broken piece
of bone is at a right angle to the
bone's axis
Comminuted fracture fracture
breaks into more than two
fragments
Impacted fracture one part of the
bone is driven into the spongy
bone of another fragment
Oblique fracture break is at an
angle to the bones axis
Spiral fracture fracture at an
angle other than a right angle to
the axis of the bone

Bone Repair

Bone Repair
1. Clot/Hematoma
formation
A mass of clotted blood
(hematoma) forms at the
fracture site

Fig. 6.14

Bone Repair
2. Callus formation
Granulation tissue
(soft callus) forms a
few days after the
fracture
Capillaries grow into
the tissue and cells
(osteoblasts)

Fig. 6.14

Bone Repair
3. Callus ossification
The fibers and cartilage of
the internal and external
calluses are ossified to
produce woven, cancellous
bone
Cancellous bone formation
in the callus is usually
complete 4-6 weeks after
the injury
Fig. 6.14

Bone Repair
4. Bone remodeling
Excess material on the
bone shaft exterior and in
the medullary canal is
removed
Compact bone is laid
down to reconstruct shaft
walls
The remodeling process
may take more than a year
to complete

Fig. 6.14

Hematopoietic Tissue
tissue that makes blood cells

Red marrow:
location of blood forming cells
Yellow marrow:
mostly fat

53

 Location of hematopoietic tissue in newborns:

most bones (red marrow)

Location of hematopoietic tissue in adults:

- red is replaced with yellow marrow
- red marrow is mainly in epiphyses of femur
and humerus

54

Bone Anatomy
Foramen:
- hole
- Ex. Foramen
magnum
Fossa:
- depression
- Ex. Glenoid fossa
Process:
- projection
- Ex. Mastoid process
55

 Condyle:
- smooth, rounded end
- Ex. Occipital condyle
Meatus:
- canal-like passageway
- Ex. External auditory meatus
Tubercle:
- lump of bone
- Ex. Greater tubercle
56

57

 Mastoid process:
attached to neck
muscles

External auditory
meatus:
ear canal
Nasolacrimal canal:
- canal between nasal
cavity and eye
- conducts tears
58

 Styloid process:
attachment site for
tongue

Mandibular fossa:
depression where
lower jaw and skull
meet
Glenoid fossa:
where humerus meets
scapula
59

 Hard palate:
roof of mouth

Foramen magnum:
hole where spinal cord
joins brainstem

60

 Zygomatic:
cheek bone
Mandible:
lower jaw

Maxilla:
upper jaw

61

Vertebral Column

7 cervical vertebra
12 thoracic vertebra
5 lumbar vertebra
1 sacrum
1 coccyx
Atlas:
- 1st vertebra
- holds head
Axis:
- 2nd vertebra
- rotates head
64

Functions of Vertebral Column

Support
Protect spinal cord

Movement

68

Thoracic Cage
Protects vital organs
12 pair of ribs
Sternum:
breastbone
True ribs:
attach directly to sternum
by cartilage
False ribs:
attach indirectly to sternum
by cartilage
Floating ribs:
not attached to sternum

69

Pectoral Girdle
Scapula:
shoulder blade
Clavicle:
collar bone

70

Upper Limb Bones

Humerus:
upper limb
Ulna:
forearm
Radius:
forearm
Carpals:
wrist
Metacarpals:
hand
72

Pelvic Girdle

Where lower limbs

attach to body
Pelvis:
includes pelvic girdle
and coccyx
Ischium:
inferior and posterior
region
Ilium:
most superior region
Acetabulum:

hip socket (joint)

76

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Iliac crest
Articular surface
(area of
articulation
with sacrum)

Ilium

Iliac fossa

Pelvic brim

Greater
sciatic notch

Acetabulum

Ischium

Greater
sciatic notch

Pubis

Ischial spine

Ischial spine
Ischium

Pubic symphysis
Obturator foramen

Ischial tuberosity

(a)

Lateral view

(b)

Medial view

79

Lower Limb Bones

Femur:
thigh
Patella:
knee cap
Tibia:
large lower leg
Fibula:
small lower leg
80

 Tarsals:
ankle
Metatarsals:
foot
Phalanges:
toes and fingers

81

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Head

Head

Greater trochanter

Greater trochanter

Neck

Neck

Lesser trochanter

Linea aspera

Body (shaft) of femur

Medial
epicondyle
Lateral epicondyle
Intercondylar fossa

Lateral epicondyle

Patellar groove
(a)

(b)

Lateral condyle

Medial
condyle
Anterior view

Posterior view

Anterior
surface

82
Anterior view

86

Articulations
where 2 bones come
together (joint)
Synarthrosis:
- nonmovable joint
- Ex. skull
Amphiarthrosis:
- slightly movable
joint
- Ex. Between
vertebrae
Diarthrosis:

87

Types of Movement

Flexion: bending
Extension: straightening
Abduction: movement away from midline
Adduction: movement toward the midline
Pronation: rotation of the forearm with palms
down
Supination: rotation of the forearm with palms up
Rotation: movement of a structure about the long
axis
88

Effects of Aging on the Skeletal

System and Joints
1. Decrease Collagen Production
2. Loss of Bone Density
3. Degenerative Changes

90