Upper Cretaceous To Miocene Tectonostratigraphy of The Azuero Area (Panama) and The Discontinuous Accretion and Subduction Erosion Along The Middle American Margin

Tectonophysics 512 (2011) 3146
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Tectonophysics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto
Upper Cretaceous to Miocene tectonostratigraphy of the Azuero area (Panama) and

the discontinuous accretion and subduction erosion along the Middle
American margin
David M. Buchs , Peter O. Baumgartner, Claudia Baumgartner-Mora, Kennet Flores, Alexandre N. Bandini
Institut de Gologie et Palontologie, Universit de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 12 March 2010
Received in revised form 12 September 2011
Accepted 15 September 2011
Available online 22 September 2011
Keywords:
Middle America
Subduction zone
Tectonostratigraphy
Accretion
Subduction erosion
Seamounts
a b s t r a c t
The Central American forearc allows insight into the long-term evolution of the Middle American margin and
possible shifts between accretionary and erosive periods of subduction. We present a revised tectonostratigraphic subdivision of the Azuero area based on new eld observations and biochronologic data, and a synthesis of previous age, geochemical and stratigraphic data. The basement of the area is composed of an
autochtonous oceanic plateau, the early Central American arc and accreted seamounts, which are unconformably overlain by forearc sediments. The nature and spatial arrangement of basement units combined with
patterns of uplift and subsidence recorded in overlapping sediments allow reconstruction of the local evolution of subduction tectonics between the Upper Cretaceous and Miocene. Comparison of this evolution with
that formerly proposed for the south Costa Rican margin based on a similar approach (Buchs et al., 2009,
2010) provides an insight into temporal and along-strike changes of subduction tectonics along a
~ 500 km-long segment of the Middle American margin. We nd that subduction erosion (or non-accretion),
punctuated by seamount accretion, was the dominant process along the margin between the late Campanian
and Middle Eocene. In the Middle Eocene, uplift of the Central American forearc, initiation of a volcanic front
retreat in Panama and a pulse of seamount accretion between south Costa Rica and west Panama are likely to
relate to a reorganization of plate tectonics in the Pacic. A contrasted evolution occurred in south Costa Rica
and Panama afterwards, with continued subduction erosion in the Azuero area and net accretion of olistostromal and hemipelagic sediments in south Costa Rica at least until the Middle Miocene. Our results show
that tectononstratigraphic observations in the forearc may represent a valuable complement to offshore drilling and geophysical studies to understand modern subduction tectonics along the Middle American margin.
2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The Middle American margin is one of the most studied around
the world and regarded as an archetypical example of a margin
undergoing subduction erosion (e.g. Ranero et al., 2007). Subduction
erosion is a process by which material is removed from the upper
plate in a subduction zone due to: (1) subduction of topographic
highs such as seamounts and ridges, which trigger temporary
dismemberment of the outer forearc wedge by mass-wasting and
cause tunneling of the overriding plate; or (2), dehydration of the
subducting slab that can enhance hydraulic fracturation and disaggregation of the hanging wall above the subduction channel (von Huene
et al., 2004). Subduction erosion is recognized as a widespread
mechanism along convergent margins (von Huene and Scholl,
1991). ~ 57% of modern convergent margins are considered as erosive,
with a long-term (N10 Ma) history of erosion (Clift and Vannucchi,
Corresponding author at: IFM-GEOMAR, Wischhofstrasse 1-3, 24148 Kiel,
Germany.
E-mail address: dbuchs@ifm-geomar.de (D.M. Buchs).
0040-1951/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2011.09.010
2004). Erosive plate margins are commonly distinguished from accretionary ones by the occurrence of geophysically-identiable features
such as a steep trench slope, normal faulting associated to subsidence
in the forearc area and an absence of large volumes of accreted sediments close to the trench (Ranero and von Huene, 2000; von Huene
et al., 2004). These are common features along the Middle American
margin and support its present-days erosive nature (Ranero and
von Huene, 2000; Ranero et al., 2007; Vannucchi et al., 2001; von
Huene et al., 1995).
In contrast, oceanic complexes exposed in the south Central American
forearc suggest the existence of several events or periods of accretion
between the Upper Cretaceous and Miocene (see Denyer et al., 2006,
and Denyer and Gazel, 2009 for a general review). Complexes that clearly
point toward accretion include: (1) the Osa Mlange that is composed of
Late Eocene to Miocene accreted olistostromal deposits and hemipelagic
sediments (Buchs and Baumgartner, 2007; Buchs et al., 2009; Di
Marco, 1994; Vannucchi et al., 2006, 2007); (2) the Quepos Block that
includes Upper CretaceousPaleocene accreted ocean island basalts
(OIB) (Baumgartner et al., 1984; Hauff et al., 2000); (3) the Osa Igneous
Complex that consists of several fragments of Upper Cretaceous to Eocene
32
D.M. Buchs et al. / Tectonophysics 512 (2011) 3146
geochemical data, radiometric data, seismic data and eld observations. The studied sequences document the development of the
west Panamanian margin between the Upper Cretaceous and
Miocene. Comparison of this development with that proposed for
the south Costa Rican forearc (Buchs et al., 2009) allows us to show
that events of accretion and periods of subduction erosion or nonaccretion occurred at different times and places along the Middle
American margin between the Upper Cretaceous and Miocene.
seamounts (Buchs et al., 2009; Hauff et al., 2000); (4) undifferentiated

complexes in west Panama that include Upper Cretaceous to Cenozoic
accreted OIB (Hoernle and Hauff, 2007; Hoernle et al., 2002); and (5),
the Azuero Accretionary Complex that includes two Paleogene oceanic
islands (Buchs et al., 2011) (Fig. 1). Other igneous complexes exposed in
the forearc have been interpreted as uplifted portions of an Upper
Cretaceous oceanic plateau part of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province
(CLIP) on the basis of similar radiometric ages and geochemical data
(Hauff et al., 2000; Hoernle and Hauff, 2007; Hoernle et al., 2004; Sinton
et al., 1997, 1998) (Fig. 1). These igneous complexes are considered to
form the basement of the arc in south Central America (e.g. Christeson
et al., 1999; Sallars et al., 2001), but recent tectonostratigraphic contributions suggest that some most likely represent fragments of exotic oceanic
plateaus or seamounts, possibly unrelated to the CLIP, which accreted between the Campanian and Paleocene (Bandini et al., 2008; Baumgartner
et al. 2008; Buchs et al., 2009). Field and geochemical constraints that
clearly support occurrence of a CLIP sequence at the base of the Middle
American margin are currently restricted to the Azuero Marginal Complex
in west Panama and Golto Complex in south Costa Rica (Buchs et al.,
2010).
Understanding the origins and tectonostratigraphic relationships
of autochtnous and accreted sequences exposed along the forearc in
Costa Rica and Panama is fundamental to characterize the long-term
development of the Middle American margin. We present here a
revised tectonostratigraphic subdivision of the Azuero Peninsula,
Son Peninsula and Coiba Island, which include autochthonous and
accreted complexes exposed in the west Panamanian forearc. The
revised subdivision is supported by new biochronological data and
eld observations, as well as a synthesis of previously published
8400'
8300'
NICARAGUA
8200'
Santa
Helena
sensu lato
2
1000'
50
0m
900'
-3000
-20
MA
T
-50
-10 0 m
00
m
00
m
10
00
Osa
Peninsula
Burica
Paridas Is.
ge
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Las Perlas
Archipelago
Fig.2
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Azuero
Peninsula
-1000 m
?
?
?
?
?
?
11
Coiba
Island
Coiba
fractur
e zone
8200'
cture zone
Panama
fracture zone
8300'
800'
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
COLOMBIA
Balboa fra
8400'
900'
?
?
Son
Secas
Is.
00
m
Ri
d
s
-15
co
DB
1000'
Ladrones Is.
250 km
8600'
1100'
NP
-1000 m
Co
700'
7700'
Colombian
Basin
-2000 m
PANAMA
Chiriqu Gulf
COCOS
PLATE
7800'
PANAMA
MICROPLATE
Fig.9
0m
-2
800'
7900'
-1000 m
Seamounts
Domain
8000'
8. Inner Osa Igneous Complex

9. Outer Osa Igneous Complex
10. Golfito Complex
11. Azuero Marginal Complex
-3000 m
12. Azuero Accretionary Complex
13. San Blas Complex
CARIBBEAN
PLATE
Cao Is.
-25
8100'
COSTA
RICA
5
-3
The Azuero area is dened as the area including the Azuero Peninsula,
Son Peninsula and Coiba Island. It is located in the Panamanian forearc
along the SW edge of the Caribbean Plate, above the subducting Nazca
Plate (Fig. 1). Similarly to the Costa Rican forearc, the Azuero area may
have experienced recent uplift in response to on-going subduction of
topographic highs under the Caribbean Plate (e.g. Sak et al., 2009).
In the most simple terms, the Azuero area can be described as an
igneous basement overlain by forearc sediments. Five distinct rock
associations have been recognized in the basement on the basis of
eld observations, geochemical data, 40Ar/ 39Ar radiometric ages,
and biochronologic data: (1) Upper Cretaceous basaltic sequences
with CLIP geochemical afnities, which are locally covered by
CampanianMaastrichtian hemipelagic limestones (Buchs et al.,
2010; Corral et al., 2011; del Giudice and Recchi, 1969; Kolarsky et al.,
1995a; Lissinna, 2005); (2) proto-arc-related igneous rocks
locally interbedded with late CampanianMaastrichtian hemipelagic
limestones (Buchs et al., 2010); (3) ~71 to 40 Ma arc-related igneous
rocks (Buchs et al., 2010; Lissinna, 2005; Lissinna et al., 2002; Wegner
1. Santa Elena Complex

2. Nicoya Complex
3. Matamb Terrane
4. Manzanillo Terrane
5. Herradura Complex
6. Tuln Formation
7. Quepos
CHORTIS
1100'
2. Geological background of the Azuero area
12
Coiba
Ridge8000'
?
?
-2000
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
NAZCA PLATE
7900'
7800'
?
?
?
7700'
Subduction zone
Thrust fault
Strike-slip faults
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Active volcanoes
700'
13
?
?
?
?
Undifferentiated accreted plateau and/or seamount fragments
Normal faults
Neogene volcanic arc

Late Campanian to Paleogene volcanic arc
Aptian to lower Santonian autochtonous oceanic
plateau (CLIP, arc basement)
Accreted fragments of oceanic plateaus (Cretaceous)

Accreted fragments of seamounts and oceanic islands
(latest Cretaceous to Middle Eocene)
Middle Cretaceous accretionary complex and overthrusted
middle Cretaceous serpentinized peridotite and related (?) lavas
Fig. 1. General setting of the Azuero Marginal Complex and Azuero Accretionary Complex (after Buchs et al., 2010).
et al., 2011; Wrner et al., 2009); (4) Paleogene accreted Ocean Islands
(Buchs et al., 2011; Hoernle and Hauff, 2007; Hoernle et al., 2002); and
(5), Upper Cretaceous (?) metamorphic rocks of unclear origins
preserved in greenschist to amphibolite facies conditions (del Giudice
and Recchi, 1969; Tournon et al., 1989). These rock associations have
been interpreted to record the early history of the south Central
American arc and later accretion events along the margin (Buchs et
al., 2011; Corral et al., 2011; Hoernle and Hauff, 2007; Hoernle et al.,
2002; Lissinna, 2005; Wegner et al., 2011; Wrner et al., 2009). However, a detailed tectonostratigraphic synthesis of the Azuero area has not
been provided to date.
Forearc sediments on top of the igneous basement are mostly
composed of turbidites and shallow marine limestones. These sediments (also described below as overlap sequences) occur in offshore
basins and on land, low-altitude areas (Fig. 2). They deposited during
a regional transgression event between the Eocene and Miocene and
have previously been subdivided into the Tonos and Santiago formations based on eld mapping, biochronologic data and a sediment
provenance analysis (del Giudice and Recchi, 1969; Kolarsky et al.,
1995a; Krawinkel et al., 1999; Recchi and Miranda, 1977).
An integration of offshore marine seismic data, on-shore geological observations and biochronologic data was carried out between
south Costa Rica and west Panama by Kolarsky and Mann (1995)
and Kolarsky et al. (1995a). These works support the existence of
six stages of tectonic development in the forearc: (1) pre-Cenozoic
formation of the igneous basement; (2) a major Paleocene erosional
event supported by the occurrence of hiatus in the overlap sequences;
(3) a transgressive event of regional signicance in the Middle
15'
45'
30'
15'
33
Eocene, which is indicated by shallow marine deposits on top of the

igneous basement; (4) continued erosion of the land area in South
Central America that led to deposition of turbidite sequences between
the Late Eocene and Miocene; (5) a second erosional event between
the Middle Miocene to Late Miocene, supported by another stratigraphic hiatus; and (6), a transpressive event during the PlioPleistocene, which is constrained by left-lateral strike-slip faults and
development of a pull-apart basin in the Gulf of Chiriqu. We show
below that most of these stages can be explained by subduction
tectonics.
The most prominent tectonic features in the Azuero area include
the AzueroSon, Central Coiba, and South Coiba fault zones which
are characterized by a general NWSE strike and high-angle dips
(Fig. 2). These fault zones experienced left-lateral strike-slip motion
during the Plio-Pleistocene (stage 6 above) (Kolarsky and Mann,
1995; Kolarsky et al., 1995a; Mann and Corrigan, 1990). Another
prominent tectonic feature consists of the WE striking Oc-Parita
Fault Zone in northern Azuero Peninsula, which has a steep dip
towards the north (del Giudice and Recchi, 1969), and a possible
inverse component (Kolarsky et al., 1995a). We furthermore introduce here the Joaqun Fault Zone, which represents a subvertical
fault zone with a broad NWSE strike, and occurs between the
AzueroSon and OcParita fault zones in the Azuero Peninsula
(Fig. 2). Regional seismic studies and the spatial distribution of basement units and overlap sequences suggest that tectonics have not
resulted in signicant along-strike displacement of blocks in the
outer forearc (Kolarsky and Mann, 1995; Kolarsky et al., 1995a; this
study).
8100'
45'
30'
15'
8000'
50 km
Santiago
800'
800'
Oc
Ri
oS
an
Ra
Oc-Parita Fault Zone
fa
Macaracas
45'
Azu
e
Fau ro-So
n
lt Z
one
Son
Torio
30'
Ce
n
Fa tral C
ult
Zo oiba
ne
So
Fa uth
ult Co
Zo iba
ne
15'
45'
Major fault zone
Gerrita
30'
Joaqu
n Fau
Punta
Duartes
Cbaco
Island
30'
lt Zone
Tonos
Playa Venado
Punta
Restingue
Coiba
Occurrence of analyzed
proto-arc dyke or lava flow
Rio Gerra
45'
15'
8100'
Quaternary deposits
Younger arc-related volcanics (basalts, andesites),
sediments and tuffites (Middle Eocene to Miocene ?)
Santiago Formation (Late Oligocene to Miocene)
Forearc sediments (overlap sequence)
Tonos Formation (Late Eocene or? Early Eocene to Miocene)
Covachn Formation (Middle Eocene)
Azuero Accretionary Complex (Paleocene-Middle Eocene)
Lower Middle Eocene accreted oceanic islands
Azuero Mlange (Middle Eocene)
Subduction-related tectonic mlange that contains
Maastrichtian accreted seamounts
Punta
Mala
Azuero
Punta
Covachn Blanca
45'
30'
15'
15'
8000'
Azuero Arc Group (late Campanian to Middle Eocene)

Arc-related volcanics (basalts, andesites, trachybasalts, trachyandesites,
dacites) and associated sediments and tuffites
Azuero Arc Group (late Campanian to Middle Eocene)
arc-related intrusives (gabbros, diorites, quartz monzonites, granodiorites)
Azuero Proto-Arc Group (late Campanian)
Proto-arc-related lavas and intrusives, also indicated by star symbols
Oc Formation (Campanian-Maastrichtian to (?) Paleogene)
Hemipelagic limestones, Locally interbedded with arc and
proto-arc lava flows (v)
Azuero Plateau (Aptian to Santonian)
Oceanic plateau, Locally older ages andOIB-like chemistry (darker green)
Undifferentiated metamoprhic rocks
Fig. 2. Geological Map of the Azuero area modied from the Geologic Map of Panama, scale 1:250,000 (Mapa Geolgico Repblica de Panam, Direccin General de Recursos Minerales,
1991). This map also synthesizes the early work by Terry (1956) and several informal reports produced in the frame of the United Nations Development Program (del Giudice and Recchi,
1969; Metti and Recchi, 1976; Metti et al., 1972; Recchi and Miranda, 1977). Offshore faults are from Kolarsky et al. (1995a).
34
3. New tectonostratigraphic subdivision of the Azuero area
Accretionary Complex; and (4), younger overlap sequences that

partly cover 1, 2 and 3.
Our tectonostratigraphic subdivision and interpretations are

based on an integration of four months of eld work, observation of
~ 400 samples under the microscope, biochronologic dating and
geochemical analyses of 118 igneous samples (Figs. 2 and 3). Full
geochemical results that support our interpretations are given in
Buchs (2008) and Buchs et al. (2010, 2011), and we provide here
only a summary of these data (Fig. 4). New detailed biochronologic
data are given in section four below (Biostratigraphy). We subdivide the studied area into 4 main tectonostratigraphic units
(Figs. 2 and 3): (1) The Azuero Marginal Complex; (2) the Azuero
Mlange that intervenes between 1 and 3; (3) the Azuero
N
Ma
North-central Azuero and

Son peninsulas
3.1. Azuero Marginal Complex

The Azuero Marginal Complex is further divided into 5 tectonostratigraphic units (Figs. 2 and 3): (1) the Azuero Plateau; (2) the
Oc Formation; (3) the Azuero Proto-arc Group; (4) the Azuero Arc
Group; and (5) undifferentiated metamorphic rocks.
3.1.1. Azuero Plateau
The Azuero Plateau occurs in the south part of the Azuero Marginal
Complex and is locally separated from the Azuero Arc Group and Azuero
South Azuero Peninsula
S NE
SW
Coiba area
Pleistocene
Pliocene
10
Miocene
Oligocene
Tonos
Fm
Tonos
Fm
30
Tonos Fm
?
AM
40
Covachn Fm
20
Tonos Fm
Santiago
Fm
Eocene
50
60
Azuero Arc
Group
AAC
Paleocene
?
Maastrichtian
70
90
Upper Cretaceous
80
Campanian
Oc
Fm
Oc
Fm
?
?
PAG
Azuero
Arc Group
Oc
PAG
Fm
PAG
Santonian
Coniacian
Azuero Plateau
Azuero Plateau
Azuero Plateau
Turonian
Cenomanian
?
JFZ
Lithologies
SAFZ
Ages and stratigraphic relationships
Submarine lava flows (mainly basalt)
39Ar/40Ar ages (black line is for range)
Submarine and subaerial lava flows (basalt)
(data from Hoernle et al., 2002; Lissinna, 2005;

Wegner et al., 2011)
Submarine-subaerial lava flows and related

intrusives (basalt-dacite)
Paleontologic ages (black line is for range)

(data from del Giudice and Recchi, 1969;
Kolarsky et al., 1995; Buchs et al., 2009; this study)
Hemipelagic limestones
Hemipelagic tuffaceous limestones
Shallow-water detrital sediments and
reefal limestone (basal overlap sequence)
Hemipelagic detrital sediments (overlap sequence)
Existence indirectly constrained or undefined unit
Undefined age limit
Undefined stratigraphic relationships
Fig. 3. Chronostratigraphic chart of Cretaceous to Miocene units and formations of the Azuero area. PAG = Proto-arc Group, AM = Azuero Mlange and AAC = Azuero Accretionary
Complex.
n=105
Azuero Plateau
Nb (ppm) *2
Azuero Plateau
(Playa Venado OIB-like)
AI WPA
AII WPA and WPT
B P-type MORB
Azuero Accretionary
Complex
C VAB and WPT

D N-type MORB
Azuero Arc Group
and VAB
AI
Azuero Proto-arc
Group
AII
Azuero
Mlange
Oceanic
Plateau
(Nicoya)
Zr (ppm) /4
Y (ppm)
Ti/V=10
600
Ti/V=20
IA T
500
Oceanic
Plateau
(Nicoya)
Ti/V=50
V (ppm)
400
300
RB
OIB I
OIB II
Ti/V=100
200
tion
la
u
um
acc IB
e
vin in O
Oli
CAS
100
0
0
10
15
20
25
Ti (ppm) /1000
Fig. 4. Discrimination diagrams showing compositional differences of igneous rocks
(SiO2 b 57 wt.%) from the Azuero Marginal Complex and Azuero Accretionary Complex
(data from Buchs, 2008, Buchs et al., 2010, 2011). Oceanic plateau basalts from the
Nicoya Peninsula (North Costa Rica) are displayed for comparison (compositional
eld based on 41 basaltic samples from Hauff et al., 2000). A) NbZrY diagram after
Meschede (1986). WPA = Within-Plate Alkali basalts, WPT = Within-Plate Tholeiites,
and VAB = Volcanic Arc Basalts. B) VTi diagram with trends for some typical environments after Shervais (1982). IAT = Island Arc Tholeiite (high Fe supra-subduction
suites), CAS = Calc-Alkalic Suites (low-Fe supra-subduction suites), and OIB =
Ocean Island Basalts (OIB I = Hawaiian alkalic basalts and OIB II = Hawaiian subalkalic
basalts).
Mlange by the AzueroSon and Joaqun fault zones (Fig. 2). Deformation in the Azuero Plateau is moderate and most sequences remained
well-preserved, although dismemberment is common in the vicinity
of fault zones. The unit is composed of massive, columnar or pillow
basalts that locally contain small volumes (b1% of the unit) of red
siliceous pelagic sediment (Fig. 5A). The sediment yielded radiolarians
of Coniacianearly Santonian age (8985 Ma) (Buchs et al., 2009;
Kolarsky et al., 1995a). 40Ar/39Ar ages from the bulk of the basalts
(Lissinna, 2005) indicate a pre-Campanian, presumably late Turonian
to Santonian age of formation for the unit that is in broad agreement
with sedimentary ages (Fig. 3). Geochemistry of the igneous rocks supports an oceanic plateau origin for the unit (Buchs et al., 2010; Lissinna,
2005) (Fig. 4).
The Azuero Plateau represents an autochthonous basement of the
area. The lowermost tectonostratigraphic position of the Azuero Plateau
is supported by: (1) proto-arc and arc dykes from the Azuero Proto-arc
Group and Azuero Arc Group that locally crosscut sequences of the
Azuero Plateau (Buchs et al., 2010); and (2), stratigraphic relationships
35
with the Oc Formation (see below). The Azuero Plateau is believed to

extend laterally at least between south Costa Rica and central Panama. It
has been interpreted to represent the southwest edge of the CLIP on top
of which the south Central American arc initiated in the late Campanian
(~7573 Ma) (Buchs et al., 2010).
3.1.2. Oc Formation
The Oc Formation is composed of pelagic and hemipelagic limestones that predominantly occur along the Oc-Parita Fault Zone
north of the Azuero Peninsula, in Torio and Gerra rivers west of the
Azuero Peninsula, and north of Coiba Island (Figs. 2 and 3). The formation overlays the Azuero Plateau and is locally interbedded with lava
ows of the Azuero Proto-arc Group (Buchs et al., 2010; Kolarsky et
al., 1995a) (Fig. 5B). The composition of the sediment ranges from a
gray micritic limestone empty of signicant detrital and tuffaceous
components to a bioturbated, tuffaceous limestone with greenishdark gray colors and a detrital component (Fig. 5C). The detrital component includes quartz, amphibole, pumice, and zoned feldspar fragments
that point toward an intermediate or differentiated volcanic source. The
existence of nearby subaerial conditions during the deposition of the
formation is supported by the occurrences of widespread tuffaceous
layers, fragments of larger benthic Foraminifera in the Gerra River
and along the road from Tonos to La Miel (central Azuero Peninsula),
and well-rounded pebbles of altered basalts close to the Oc type locality (north Azuero Peninsula) (Buchs et al., 2010; del Giudice and Recchi,
1969). CampanianMaastrichtian planktic foraminifera are abundant in
the limestone (del Giudice and Recchi, 1969). Recent biostratigraphic
data from the Oc type locality (north Azuero) and Coiba Island provide
a late Campanian age (Buchs et al., 2010) (Fig. 3). The Oc Formation
formed prior to and during the early development of the south Central
American arc, on top of the Azuero Plateau. The Oc Formation represents a generally more detrital lateral equivalent of late Campanian
Maastrichtian limestones of the Golto Formation in the Golto Complex (Baumgartner et al., 1984; Buchs et al., 2010), the Changuinola
Formation (south Costa Rican backarc, Fisher and Pessagno, 1965)
and pelagic carbonates of the Caribbean Basin that rest upon the CLIP
(Bowland, 1993; Bowland and Rosencrantz, 1988).
Some detrital calcareous sequences part of the Oc Formation are
locally interlayered with mature arc products in the central part of
the Azuero Peninsula and along the Rio San Rafael in the Son Peninsula (del Giudice and Recchi 1969; this study) (Fig. 2). These
sequences may represent a distinct formation at the regional scale,
initially termed Torio lithostratigraphic unit by Buchs (2008).
Also, similar sediments have been observed close to the Cerro
Quema in the Azuero Peninsula and described as the Cerro Quema
Formation by Corral et al. (2011). These sediments are included
here in the Oc Formation as their exact extent at the regional scale
is unknown and their tectonostratigraphic constraints are very
similar to those of the Oc Formation.
3.1.3. Azuero Proto-arc Group
The Azuero Proto-arc Group occurs on the north side of the Coiba
Island and on Son Peninsula (Fig. 2). It is composed of massive and pillow basalts interbedded with the late CampanianMaastrichtian Oc
Formation on top of the Azuero Plateau, and basaltic dykes that crosscut
the Azuero Plateau and Oc Formation (Fig. 3) (Fig. 5B). Igneous rocks
from the Azuero Proto-arc Group differ from those of the Azuero Plateau
by the occurrence of abundant plagioclase phenocrysts and geochemical signatures intermediate between those of the Azuero Plateau and
Azuero Arc Group (Fig. 4). The Azuero Proto-arc Group represents a
late CampanianMaastrichtian primitive island arc sequence that
intrudes and overlies the Azuero Plateau (Buchs et al., 2010).
3.1.4. Azuero Arc Group
The Azuero Arc Group includes arc-related sequences composed
of volcanic rocks, tuftes and fossil-barren volcaniclastic sediments.
36
Fig. 5. Illustration of some lithologies from the igneous basement in the Azuero area. A) Shoreline exposure of pillow lavas in the Azuero Plateau (Torio, west Azuero Peninsula).
B) Basalt from the Proto-arc Group in stratigraphic contact with a hemipelagic limestone from the Oc Formation (Ro Torio, west Azuero Peninsula). The picture also displays a
basalt dyke within the limestone. C) Tuffaceous hemipelagic limestone of the Oc Formation (Ro Gerra, central Azuero Peninsula). D) Deformed pelagic sediments from the
Azuero Mlange (Ro Higueronoso, west Azuero Peninsula).
As dened by stratigraphic relationships with the Oc Formation (del

Giudice and Recchi, 1969; Kolarsky et al., 1995a; this study; Corral et
al., 2011) and 40Ar/ 39Ar ages of the igneous rocks (Lissinna, 2005;
Wegner et al., 2011), the age of the sequences ranges from the
Upper Cretaceous to the Eocene (~ 71 to 40 Ma) (Fig. 3). Igneous
rocks range in composition from basalt to dacite and occur as massive
lava ows, aa ows, lava domes and large intrusive complexes that
emplaced mostly after the emplacement of the Azuero Proto-arc
Group. Granodioritic intrusives extend along a northwestsoutheast
area that may represent an ancient volcanic front of the arc (Fig. 2).
The chemistry of the igneous rocks of the Azuero Arc Group is characteristic of an intra-oceanic volcanic arc origin (Fig. 4). Large geochemical variations and age ranges of igneous rocks indicate that the group
is likely composed of several sequences emplaced between the Upper
Cretaceous and Middle Eocene. Detailed mapping and characterization of these sequences has not been carried out to date.
3.1.5. Undifferentiated metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks of undened origin include variously
deformed metabasalt, metasediment and ultramac rocks in the
greenschist to amphibolite facies (Tournon et al., 1989). They occur
in contact with the Azuero Plateau, Azuero Arc Group and Azuero
Mlange, predominantly along major fault zones (Fig. 2). Metatuffs,
metabasalts and metabasites that belong to the Igneous Basement
were observed along the Ro Torio (western Azuero Peninsula)
and Ro San Rafal (Son Peninsula) (del Giudice and Recchi, 1969;
Tournon et al., 1989; this study). The metamorphic rocks reached
amphibolite facies conditions and were partly retromorphosed to
greenschist facies conditions in Azuero. They followed an
anticlockwise PT path prograde from low T/low P to medium

T/high P in the Son and low to medium T/low P in Azuero (Tournon
et al., 1989). In both sites of occurrence metamorphic rocks are cut by
younger unmetamorphosed dolerites (presumably proto-arc and
early arc dykes). They are unconformably overlain by limestones of
the Oc Formation in the Ro Torio (del Giudice and Recchi, 1969;
Tournon et al., 1989). According to del Giudice and Recchi (1969),
the age of the limestones represents a late CampanianMaastrichtian
minimal age of formation for the metamorphic rocks. This interpretation has to be taken with care because faulted contacts are ubiquitous
in this area; in our opinion further work is needed to constrain the
exact stratigraphic position of the metamorphic rocks.
3.2. Azuero Mlange
The Azuero Mlange is a tectonic mlange that forms a ~ 1 km
thick layer at the interface between the Azuero Plateau and Azuero
Accretionary Complex and locally occurs along the AzueroSon
Fracture Zone (Fig. 2). It is composed of: (1) deformed rocks initially
pertaining to adjacent units; and (2), other volcano-sedimentary
assemblages, which include abundant vesicular pillow basalt, reddish
siliceous pelagic limestone, and minor red chert, black shale and
carbonate sediment with basaltic fragments (Fig. 5D). Lenses several
tens of meters thick and several hundred of meters long form complicated imbricates that locally suffered from hydrothermal alteration
and mylonitization but remained below greenschist facies conditions.
Along the shoreline between Torio and Punta Duartes the mlange is
composed of a highly deformed sequence of the Azuero Plateau (see
also Kolarsky et al., 1995a). A basalt found in the vicinity of pelagic
sediment in the Ro Higueronoso along the AzueroSon Fault Zone

has an Oceanic Island Basalt (OIB) signature dened based on immobile element contents (Fig. 4). Some of the pelagic sediments contain
radiolarians and early Maastrichtian planktic foraminifers (see
Biostratigraphy).
The Azuero Mlange is interpreted as a former dcollement zone
at the contact with the Azuero Plateau, which locally contains accreted pieces of seamounts. Accretion ages of the seamounts are dened
by the age of pelagic sediments in the unit (latest Cretaceous) and
the age of accretion of the Azuero Accretionary Complex (Middle
Eocene, see below). Deformation and lithologic heterogeneity
encountered in the mlange likely result from a combination of
subduction-related tectonics and more recent tectonics associated to
the AzueroSon Fault Zone.
3.3. Azuero Accretionary Complex
The Azuero Accretionary Complex occurs in the southwest corner
of the Azuero Peninsula and is separated from the Azuero Marginal
Complex by the Azuero Mlange (Fig. 2). The complex includes ve
mappable lithologic assemblages: (1) submarine massive and pillowed lava ows with minor occurrences of pelagic and hemipelagic
calcareous sediment and hyaloclastite; (2) submarine sheeted lava
ows and scarce pillow lava locally interbedded with shallow marine
limestone; (3) clastic deposits composed of basaltic breccias crosscut
by rare basaltic dykes; (4) subaerial massive lava ows locally
deposited on top of shallow marine limestone and clastic deposits;
and (5), large gabbroic intrusions and dense networks of dykes that
crosscut both submarine and subaerial sequences. These lithologic
assemblages are spatially well-organized and outline the stratigraphy
of large accreted pieces of oceanic islands (Buchs et al., 2011, Fig. 7).
The igneous rocks of the Azuero Accretionary Complex have typical
OIB geochemical afnities (Buchs et al., 2011; Hoernle and Hauff,
2007; Hoernle et al., 2002; Lissinna, 2005) (Fig. 4). Due to local discrepancies between existing stratigraphic and 40Ar 39Ar radiometric
data, the age of the accreted oceanic islands is best constrained
based on biochronologic data from shallow marine limestones (see
Buchs et al., 2011). New biochronologic data are consistent with our
previous dating and provide PaleoceneEarly Eocene to Early Eocene
ages of formation for the oceanic islands. These ages and those of
overlapping forearc sediments provide a Middle Eocene age of accretion (see below).
3.4. Overlap sequences
Overlap sequences include sediments of the Tonos and Santiago
formations that were studied in detail in previous works (Kolarsky
et al., 1995a; Krawinkel et al., 1999; Recchi and Miranda, 1977)
(Figs. 2 and 3). A new overlap sequence originally considered to
pertain to the lower Tonos Formation is dened here as the Covachn
Formation.
3.4.1. Tonos and Santiago formations
The Tonos Formation occurs over most of the Azuero area and
includes a basal trangressive sequence with ~40 to 400 m-thick
coarse clastic rocks and interbedded shallow marine limestone,
which is followed by a ~500 to 800 m-thick deepening upward
section of mainly turbiditic sediments (Kolarsky et al., 1995a)
(Fig. 2). On Coiba Island, the basal sequence of the Tonos Formation
range in age between the Early and Middle Eocene (Kolarsky et al.,
1995a). In the Azuero Peninsula the Tonos Formation includes a
lower and upper lithologic unit (Kolarsky et al., 1995a).
1. The lower unit of the Tonos Formation rests upon the Azuero Marginal Complex and Azuero Accretionary Complex and is composed
of conglomerate, coarse sandstone with minor coal seams, and
37
shallow marine limestone (Fig. 6A). The conglomerate and shallow

marine limestone form the base of the Tonos Formation and
records a regional transgressive event on top of the igneous basement. The Tonos Formation has previously been dated between
the Middle Eocene and Late Oligocene (Kolarsky et al., 1995a).
However, we consider in our revised tectonostratigraphic subdivision that the base of the Tonos Formation in the Azuero Peninsula
rests on the newly dened Covachn Formation, and is instead of
Late Eocene or younger age (see discussion below).
2. The upper unit of the Tonos Formation is composed of deepermarine interbedded graded sandstone, siltstone, shale and calcarenite often representing turbidites. It ranges in age between the
Late Oligocene and Miocene (Kolarsky et al., 1995a). Sediment of
the Macaracas Basin (north-central Azuero Peninsula, also
reported as Macaracas Formation by Krawinkel et al. 1999) was
considered by Recchi and Miranda (1977) to be part of the Santiago
Formation described in the northern part of the Azuero Peninsula.
The Macaracas Basin is composed of sandstone, siltstone, shale and
coal that deposited in a neritic to terrestrial environment, possibly
concomitantly with the upper Tonos Formation during the Late
Oligocene and Miocene (Kolarsky et al., 1995a).
The detrital component of the Tonos Formation includes abundant basaltic fragments, plagioclase, larger benthic foraminifera and
organic debris, and minor chert fragments, alkali feldspar, clinopyroxene, hornblende and opaque oxide minerals (Krawinkel et al., 1999).
In addition to these components, we encountered monocrystalline
quartz and plagioclases with oscillatory zoning at several sites in
the lower Tonos Formation. The nature of the detrital component
and the composition of the clinopyroxenes support erosion of an
evolved island arc system, uplifted accreted seamounts and metamorphic rocks between the Middle Eocene and Oligocene (Krawinkel
et al., 1999). Our observations are in good agreement with this interpretation and suggest an uplifted Azuero Arc Group and Azuero
Accretionary Complex provided most of the detrital component of
the Tonos Formation.
Three samples of shallow marine limestone from the base of the
Tonos Formation in the Azuero Peninsula provide Late Eocene to
Early Oligocene ages based on larger benthic foraminiferan associations (see Biostratigraphy). These ages are consistent with former
biostratigraphic results in the Azuero Peninsula (Kolarsky et al.,
1995a; Recchi and Miranda, 1977). They dene a minimal age of formation for the Azuero Accretionary Complex and Covachn Formation that locally underlies the Tonos Formation (Fig. 3). Kolarsky et
al. (1995a) report Middle Eocene ages from the base of the Tonos
Formation in Coiba Island. In absence of additional biostratigraphic
data and eld observations from Coiba Island, and uncertainties related to comparison of ages dened on the basis of distinct fossil zonations, the meaning of older ages at the base of the Tonos Formation
on Coiba Island remains unclear. If accurate, these ages may support
diachronous deposition of the Tonos Formation over the studied
area (i.e., earlier deposition on Coiba Island relative to Azuero Peninsula), or point toward occurrence of a new, yet unrecognized older
overlap sequence on Coiba Island. In any case, abundant turbidite deposits in the south of the Azuero Peninsula and an Coiba Island support an increased subsidence of the outer forearc between the Late
Eocene (possibly Middle Eocene) and Oligocene, whereas abundant
shallow marine limestone in the central Azuero Peninsula supports
shallow depth environments in the inner forearc until the Oligocene
(~28 Ma) (Recchi and Miranda, 1977; this study).
3.4.2. Covachn Formation
The Covachn Formation represents a package of detrital sediments that, in general, unconformably encroaches on the Azuero
Accretionary Complex and is in turn separated by an unconformity
from the overlying Tonos Formation. The formation is exposed
38
Fig. 6. Illustration of some lithologies from overlap sequences in the Azuero area. A) Typical turbiditic sequence of the Tonos Formation (close to Bcaro, south Azuero Peninsula).
B) Turbiditic facies of the Covachn Formation (mouth of the Ro Lajas, south Azuero Peninsula). C) Mass-ow deposit from the Covachn Formation (Covachn, south Azuero
Peninsula). D) Pebbly sediments of the Covachn Formation (coastal exposure west of Ro Lajas, south Azuero Peninsula).
mostly in the southwest corner of the Azuero Peninsula but may also
occur as deformed slices in contact with the Azuero Mlange in the
northwest edge of the Azuero Accretionary Complex (Figs. 2 and 3).
matrix-supported and uncommonly grain-supported, with thin interbeds devoid of pebble. The composition of the bulk of the clasts indicates they likely sourced in the Azuero Accretionary Complex.
3.4.2.1. Description of the facies. The Covachn Formation is composed

of a N300 m thick, folded and faulted sedimentary sequence. The
sequence comprises three types of facies. Facies 1 includes interbeds
of volcaniclastic calcareous lutite, siltstone and sandstone. The beds
are typically 3 to 50 cm thick and dene parallel layers that extend
over several hundreds of meters (Fig. 6B). Some siltstones and sandstones are graded or display parallel and cross-bedded laminations.
The detrital component is predominantly composed of feldspar (mostly
plagioclase), basaltic fragments, sediment fragments, and biogenic debris
that include reworked shallow marine fauna and poorly preserved plant
fragments. Pyroxene, quartz, plagioclase with oscillatory zoning, iron
oxides, and iron suldes are a minor fraction of the detritus. Lutite beds
contain undifferentiated PaleogeneNeogene planktic Foraminifera.
Facies 2 is composed of 50 cm to ~ 50 m (?)-thick chaotic deposits,
which are interbedded with Facies 1 and 3. The deposits are matrix
supported and contain abundant fragments of basalt, shallow marine
limestone and soft-deformed sediments similar to Facies 1 (Fig. 6C).
Commonly, the clasts are a few millimeters to few meters in size,
poorly sorted, and subangular to well-rounded. They include more
rarely larger boulders up to ~ 30 m in size that are composed of shallow marine limestone and basalt. Petrographic composition and
faunal assemblage of the large boulders indicate they likely sourced
in the Azuero Accretionary Complex. Facies 3 is composed of sandstones with abundant rounded and well-rounded pebbles of basalt
and shallow marine limestone (Fig. 6D). The sediments are mostly
3.4.2.2. Age. An Early to Middle Eocene age can be determined from

reworked larger benthic Foraminifera near the base of the section,
whereas a Middle Eocene age, results from the analysis of large benthic
Foraminifera in the matrix of chaotic deposits (see Biostratigraphy).
3.4.2.3. Interpretation of the facies. The Covachn Formation is interpreted to have deposited in near-littoral environments along an
uplifted Azuero Accretionary Complex. We interpret the Facies 1 as
turbiditic deposits, the Facies 2 as mass-ow deposits and the Facies 3
as slope, near-littoral deposits. Facies 1 and 2 have been observed
directly on top of the Azuero Accretionary Complex at the river mouth
of Ro Pedregal (548400/800576, UTM WGS84), Punta Restingue
(510505/800120, UTM WGS84) and close to the mouth of the Ro
Cacao (511700/810125, UTM WGS84). The Facies 3 has been solely
observed along the shoreline close to the mouth of the Ro Lajas
(531490/796780, UTM WGS84), on top of the Facies 2. On the basis of
these observations we propose the Covachn Formation represents a
shallowing-upward sequence deposited on top of the Azuero Accretionary Complex. At Punta Blanca (same coordinates as above) the Tonos
Formation rests unconformably upon the Covachn Formation. This
observation supports existence of two distinct overlap sequences in
the area and indicates that the Covachn Formation likely deposited
synchronously to emplacement of the Azuero Accretionary Complex.
Sediments resting upon ocean island basalts of the Azuero Accretionary
Complex consist both of shallow and deep water sediments, which
suggests an irregular topography of the outer forearc during deposition

of the Covachn Formation.
3.4.2.4. Type localities. Facies 1, Covachn (539765/799275, UTM
WGS84); Facies 2, Covachn (540545/799335, UTM WGS84); and Facies
3, close to the mouth of the Ro Lajas (531490/796780, UTM WGS84).
Covachn is accessible by an unpaved road from Cambutal. The mouth
of the Ro Lajas is accessible by boat from Cambutal or Bcaro. Exposures
are accessible at low tide exclusively.
3.4.2.5. Diagnostic differences between the Covachn and Tonos Formation.
The Facies 3 of the Covachn Formation lacks in the Tonos Formation.
Basal sediments of the Covachn Formation are locally composed of
turbidites, whereas the Tonos Formation is ubiquitously composed of
basal conglomerate and shallow marine limestone that grade upward
to turbiditic sequences.
4. Biostratigraphy
The biostratigraphic data presented here is based on the examination of numerous thin sections of pelagic, offshore and shallow
marine limestones that occur in scattered outcrops either within
basaltic units as blocks or interbeds, or as mappable lenses within
detrital series that represent ephemeral carbonate banks. The biochronology of Upper Cretaceous planktonic foraminifera is now well
established (e.g. Robaszynski et al., 1984) and determination in thin
sections gives quite precise results. This is not the case for lower
Tertiary planktic Foraminifera, where the much smaller forms are
more difcult to interpret in thin sections. Lower Cenozoic larger
benthic Foraminifera in America are reasonably well known and can
be identied in thin section, but their biochronologic ranges are, at
present, considered to be relatively long and in need of revision.
Here, the age assignments are based on the work of Caudri
(1974, 1975), Butterlin (1981) and our own biochronologic work
(Baumgartner-Mora, 2006; Baumgartner-Mora et al., 2008).
4.1. Azuero mlange
One sample of pelagic limestone (DB06-090, 516600/829400 UTM
WGS84) interstratied (with a primary depositional contact) with
pillow lavas, Ro Higueronoso, yielded abundant globigerinids and
rare Globotruncanidae such as Globotruncana arca, G. lineiana, G.
AS
FZ
730'
Punta
Duartes
39
ventricosa and G. falsostuarti. The concurrent range of these species

constrains the age of this sample to the G. falsostuarti Zone and the
lower G. gansseri Zone which corresponds to an early Maastrichtian
age (magnetic zone C31, about 70.5 to 68 Ma).
4.2. Azuero Accretionary Complex
Microfossils are rare and often poorly preserved in pelagic to offshore limestones found interbedded with lava ows. Paleocene
Early Eocene ages are indicated by Morozovella-type planktic Foraminifera and small Amphistegina sp.
In a block from the upper reaches of the Ro Pavo (sample DB07010b 555270/801329 UTM WGS84), an Early Eocene age is indicated by
the association of Discocyclina barkeri, Pseudophragmina sp., Euconoloides
sp. cf. E. wellsi and Amphistegina undecima (Fig. 8, 14).
In the Ro Horcones a calcarenite (Sample DB07-037b
551116/804002 UTM WGS84) is apparently interbedded with the
lava ows of the Punta Blanca Unit (or possibly the Azuero Mlange).
It contains larger benthic Foraminifera that reveal an Early to Middle
Eocene age (according to Cole, 1969 and Caudri, 1972), by the presence
of Pseudophragmina anconensis and Orthophragmina sp. (Fig. 8, 78).
4.3. Tonos Formation
At the mouth of Ro Pedregal (samples from seastack,
548410/800564 UTM WGS84) paralic facies including well-rounded
basaltic conglomerates encroach unconformably on accreted seamount rocks and on deformed packages of the Covachn Formation.
These conglomerates contain large oysters (Spondylus sp. currently
studied for 87Sr/86Sr ratios) and a detrital matrix with abundant larger
benthic Foraminifera. Most specimens are large Lepidocyclina sp.
Pseudophragminides ssp., Asterocyclina sp. that indicate a Late Eocene age.
In the slightly younger, pure carbonate facies at the base of the
Tonos Formation (POB06-022, 548406/800562 UTM WGS84), west
of Punta Blanca, we found Lepidocyclina (Neolepidina) sp., and rare
Nummulitidae of Operculinoides type (Fig. 9), suggesting a Late
Eocene to Early Oligocene age.
In a shallow marine limestone at the base of the Tonos Formation
(sample Al026-P, 543177/837065 UTM WGS84), in the Rio Gerita,
abundant at, small Nummulites spp., amongst them Nummulites
panamensis and Nummulites dia, Discocyclina sp. (Fig. 9, 1011)
suggest an Early Oligocene age. N. panamensis is very similar to N.
Overlap sequences
Tonos Fm
Covachn Fm
Azuero Accretionary Complex

Intrusive rocks within
lavas and sediments
Subaerial lavas
Clastic apron
Submarine lavas
Boca de
Quebro
Submarine lavas and

hemipelagic sediments
Azuero
Mlange
10km
715'
Cacao
Punta
Restingue
8100'
Puerto Escondido
Covachn
45'
Punta
Blanca
Cambutal
30'
Fig. 7. Map of lithologic assemblages found in the Azuero Accretionary Complex (modied after Buchs et al., 2011).
40
Fig. 8. 14) Early Eocene larger benthic Foraminifera, inland outcrop (DB07-010b, Ro Pavo, 555270/801329 UTM WGS84), Azuero Accretionary Complex. Scale bar = 1 mm:
(1) Discocyclina barkeri; (2) Pseudophragmina sp.; (3) Euconoloides sp. cf. E. wellsi and Amphistegina undecima; and (4) Amphistegina undecima. 56) Middle Eocene, debris
ow matrix (POB06-020, Covachn Beach, 540585/799360 UTM WGS84), Covachn Formation. 5) Discocyclina sp., scale as for 14, 6) Lepidocyclina polylepidina. 78) early
Middle Eocene forms from calcarenite interlava (DB07-037b, Ro Horcones, 551116/804002 UTM WGS84), Azuero Accretionary Complex. 6) Pseudophragmina ancoensis.
8) Orthophragmina sp. 9) Lepidocyclina sp. and Operculinoides sp. (POB06-022, east of mouth of Rio Pedregal, 548406/800562 UTM WGS84). Late EoceneEarly Oligocene
shallow marine limestone at the base of the Tonos Formation. 1013) Early Oligocene, shallow marine limestones associated with the base of Tonos Formation, central
Azuero Peninsula. 10) Nummulites panamensis and Discocyclina sp. (AL026-P, Ro Gerita, 543177/837065 UTM WGS84). 11) Nummulites dia (AL026-P, Ro Gerita,
543177/837065 UTM WGS84). 12,13) Lepidocyclina undosa (AL031-P, Ro Gerra, 547806/830010 UTM WGS84).
kugleri and to N.trinitatensis the latter being thicker and having more
closed spiral laminae than N. panamensis. The similarity is such that
Cole (1958) considered this two species as synonymous. Our Panamanian material includes the N. antiguensis, dia, bulbrooki and kowei
types. Similar assemblages were found in other localities of the
Caribbean realm as in Central Chiapas (Frost and Langenheim,
1974) where they are associated with the Early Oligocene Cassigerinella
chipolensisPseudohastigerina micra Zone of Bolli (1966).
In a shallow marine limestone at the base of the Tonos Formation in
the Ro Gerra (sample Al031-P, 547806/830010 UTM WGS84), dominant large Lepidocyclina spp., among them Lepidocyclina tournoueri
and Lepidocyclina undosa (Fig. 9, 1213) indicate an Oligocene age.
8345'
Younger
formations
(arc and
forearc)
Inner Osa Igneous

Complex (IOIC)
N
845'
Ig
Cao
Island
ne Ou
ou ter
s O
Co sa
(Sa Osa
m
n P M
pl
ed lan
ex
rill ge
oU
nit
)
Osa Peninsula
25 km
41
Golfito
Complex
?
?
Osa
Ml
ang
e (C
abo
Mat
apa
lo U
nit)
Osa Mlange
(Salsipuedes Unit)
Golfo
Dulce
?
?
IOIC
Fig. 9. Basement units of the south Costa Rican forearc (after Buchs et al., 2009). Golto Complex: ConiacianSantonian (?) to Eocene volcano-sedimentary sequences that include
an arc basement (Azuero Plateau), proto-arc volcano-sedimentary deposits and younger forearc sediments. Inner Osa Igneous Complex: ConiacianSantonian seamounts or oceanic
plateau (distinct from the Azuero Plateau) that accreted in the Paleocene. Outer Osa Igneous Complex: imbricate of ConiacianSantonian to Middle Eocene seamounts that accreted
in the PaleoceneLate Eocene. Osa Mlange: Late Eocene to Miocene accretionary complex. See text for additional descriptions on the nature and origins of the units.
4.4. Covachn Formation

In a chaotic deposit (Facies 2) of the Covachn Formation outcropping west of Covachn Beach (Sample POB06-020, 540585/799360
UTM WGS84), we found Asterocyclina sp., Discocyclina marginata
and Lepidocyclina polylepidina (Fig. 8, 56) that suggest a Middle
Eocene maximum age (Butterlin, 1984) for the debris ow matrix of
this facies.
At Puerto Escondido we measured a section that unconformably
overlies seamount basalts and can be considered as the local stratigraphic base of the Covachn Formation. Cross-bedded detrital limestones contain winnowed and redeposited small larger benthic
Foraminifera: Euconoloides sp., Amphistegina grimsdalei, A. praegrimsdalei,
Pseudophragmina sp. This association suggests a Middle Eocene age
(Caudri, 1974).
5. Comparative evolution of the Azuero area and south Costa Rican
forearc
Understanding the long-term evolution of the Middle American
margin between west Panama and south Costa Rica can be achieved
through a characterization of constructional and destructive processes that affected the forearc through time. Constructive processes are
documented by: (1) the age, nature and spatial distribution of tectonostratigraphic units, which provide a direct insight into the material
that constituted the margin through time; and (2), patterns of subsidence, uplift, and erosion recorded in overlap sediments, which provide an insight into the timing of accretion events or other dynamic
processes that affected the development of the margin through
time. In contrast, destructive processes that intrinsically remove
material from the margin are obviously harder to recognize. Subduction erosion leads to consumption of the plate above the subduction
zone and retreat of the trench through time. This process can, therefore, be identied indirectly by the recognition of an increased subsidence in the outer forearc and migration of the volcanic front away
from the trench (e.g. von Huene et al., 2004).
Units that reect the construction of the margin in west Panama
are dened in our tectonostratigraphic subdivision. They can be subdivided broadly into autochthonous and accreted sequences. Autochthonous sequences consist of: (1) the Coniacianearly Santonian
Azuero Plateau, which may be part of the CLIP (Buchs et al., 2010),
and represents the older and lowermost autochthonous unit in the
studied area; and (2), the Azuero Proto-arc and Azuero Arc groups,
which record the subduction initiation along the Azuero Plateau in
the late Campanian and further arc development until the Middle
Eocene (Figs. 2 and 3). These units correlate to the Upper Cretaceous
Golto Complex in south Costa Rica, which is composed of a similar
assemblage of proto-arc-related volcano-sedimentary sequences
and, possibly, CLIP-related igneous rocks (Buchs et al., 2010 and references therein; location and tectonostratigraphic summary of the
Golto Complex are shown on Figs. 9 and 10). The Azuero Marginal
Complex in west Panama and the Golto Complex in south Costa
Rica dene together a nucleus upon which exotic units accreted
since subduction initiation in the late Campanian.
Accreted units in the Azuero area are composed of: (1) the Azuero
Mlange, which includes early Maastrichtian seamounts accreted
between the Maastrichtian and Middle Eocene; and (2), the Azuero
Accretionary Complex that includes PaleoceneEarly Eocene to Early
Eocene oceanic islands that accreted along the margin in the Middle
Eocene (Figs. 2 and 3). These accreted units do not correlate with
those in south Costa Rica that consist of: (1) the Inner Osa Igneous
Complex, which is mostly composed of Coniacianearly Santonian
oceanic basalts with a predominant CLIP-like geochemistry, and
represents seamounts accreted in the Paleocene; (2) The Outer Osa
Igneous Complex, which is composed of 4 units that include a large
population of ConiacianSantonian to Middle Eocene seamounts
accreted between the Paleocene and Late Eocene; and (3), the Late
Eocene to Middle Miocene Osa Mlange, which includes one unit
composed of accreted olistostromal deposits, and two units composed of Paleocene to Middle Miocene accreted hemipelagic sediments (Buchs et al., 2009 and references therein; see also discussion
below and Figs. 9 and 10). Clearly, tectonostratigraphic data from
west Panama and south Costa Rica reect a complicated pattern of
accretion along the Middle American margin between the Paleocene
and Middle Miocene.
Acretionary events and periods of possible subduction erosion or
non-accretion are synthetized in a model of evolution of the margin
(Figs. 10 and 11). This model recognizes seven stages of development
since the Upper Cretaceous:
5.1. Formation of the Azuero Plateau
The rst stage of development recorded in west Panama and south
Costa Rica corresponds to the formation of the Azuero Plateau in the
42
Age
Ma
W Panama
S Costa Rica
Pleistocene
Pliocene
10
Miocene
30
40
?
Eocene
Santonian
Outer Osa Igneous

O
o
Complex
Inner
Osa
n
Igneous
ou Complex
80
o
Golfito
ex
Complex
Campanian
Azuero
z
Accretionary
a
Complex
70
a
Azuero Marginal
ple
Complex
Upper Cretaceous
Maastrichtian
60
Osa Mlange
(San Pedrillo
dr Unit)
?
50
Paleocene
3
Osa Mlange
M
(Salsipuedes
Unit)
pu
Oligocene
Osa Mlange
O
(Cabo
o Matapalo Unit)
20
Coniacian
Turonian
90
Cenomanian
Exotic
Exotic
Recycled
Exotic
Margin development
Undifferentiated overlap sequences
Accreted sediments
Accreted seamounts and oceanic islands,
possible oceanic plateau
Proto-arc and arc sequences
Azuero Plateau (autochtonous

oceanic plateau, arc basement)
Subduction erosion
or non-accretion
Accretion
Erosional unconformity
Fig. 10. Correlation of the tectonostratigraphic subdivision in the Azuero area (this paper) and south Costa Rica (Buchs et al., 2009). Numbered gray lines outline major, well-dened
events along the margin: (1) formation of the Azuero Plateau; (2) subduction initiation; (3) accretion of an oceanic plateau or seamounts in south Costa Rica (Inner Osa Igneous
Complex); (4) accretion of seamounts in west Panama and south Costa Rica (Azuero Accretionary Complex and Outer Osa Igneous Complex); (5) accretion of olistostromal unit of
the Osa Mlange (San Pedrillo Unit); and (6) accretion of the outermost Osa Mlange (Cabo Matapalo and Salsipuedes units); and (7), collision of the Cocos Ridge in south Costa
Rica. The gure also displays interpreted periods of possible subduction erosion or non-accretion (see also Section 5).
late Coniacianearly Santonian (~8985 Ma). The Azuero Plateau will

serve as the arc basement ~10 Ma later.
Marco et al., 1995). Old arc-related volcanic sequences are probably

buried under younger deposits.
5.3. Paleocene to Early Eocene accretion and erosion
5.2. Subduction initiation

Subduction initiation in the the Campanian (shortly before ~75-73
Ma) along the Azuero Plateau is supported by the occurrence of the
Azuero Proto-arc Group in west Panama and the Golto Complex in
south Costa Rica. In west Panama, proto-arc igneous rocks were followed by a more mature arc volcanism between the late Campanian
and Middle Eocene. In the south Costa Rican forearc, development
of a mature arc from the Paleocene to Middle Eocene is constrained
by the sediment content of the Achiote and Monita formations that
overlie the Golto Complex (Buchs, 2008; Buchs et al., 2010; Di
In the Azuero area, the Paleocene to Early Eocene interval corresponds to a hiatus in overlap sequences (Kolarsky et al., 1995a). As
no constructional event has been observed in the basement apart
from the arc development, it is deduced that the evolution of the margin was associated to a period of possible subduction erosion or nonaccretion.
The margin in south Costa Rica records a different history during
the same time interval. The Inner Osa Igneous Complex has been
interpreted as an autochthonous complex part of the CLIP based on
geochemical data (Hauff et al., 2000) or accreted seamounts (possibly
west Panama
1
intraplate volcanism
south Costa Rica

Coniacian-Santonian
(CLIP formation)
oceanic
plateau
oceanic crust
oceanic crust
Late Campanian
arc initiation
sea level
N
arc initiation
oceanic plateau
or seamounts
oceanic
plateau
oceanic
plateau
intraplate volcanism
(CLIP formation)
sea level
oceanic
plateau
43
Paleocene to Middle Eocene
subduction erosion
or non-accretion
subduction erosion
and accretion
(Inner Osa Igneous Complex)
oceanic plateau
or seamounts
retreat of the
volcanic front
Middle Eocene
accretion
(Azuero Mlange,
Azuero Accretionary Complex)
drown
nds
seamounts
ic isla
ocean
retreat of the
volcanic front
retreat of the
Late Eocene to Miocene
volcanic front forearc subsidence
subduction erosion (?)
Late Eocene
forearc subsidence
subduction erosion (?)
Azuero Plateau
Proto-arc
Early Arc
accretion
(Outer Osa Igneous Complex)
mass wasting and accretion

(Osa Mlange, San Pedrillo Unit)
accretion (Osa Mlange, Matapalo and

Punta Salsipuedes units)
Exotic igneous rocks (seamounts and oceanic islands,

possibly an oceanic plateau in south Costa Rica)
Accreted sediments (recycled older accreted sequences
or hemipelagic sediment)
Fig. 11. Comparison of the Upper Cretaceous to Miocene interpreted evolution of the margin in west Panama and south Costa Rica. Numbers in the upper left corners refer to major
events outlined in Fig. 10. Full characterization of these events is given in the text (Section 5).
an exotic oceanic plateau) based on an integration of geochemical

and tectonostratigraphic data (Buchs et al., 2009; Di Marco et al.,
1995). An exotic origin for the Inner Osa Igneous Complex is more
likely, as suggested by: (1) higher compositional heterogeneity of
the igneous rocks of the Inner Osa Igneous Complex relative to
those of the Azuero Plateau, which point towards distinct origins for
these two complexes; (2) distinct sedimentary facies in the two complexes, which suggest different environment of deposition in the
Upper Cretaceous; and (3), absence of proto-arc or arc-related
dykes in the Osa Igneous Complex, which are relatively common in
the Azuero Plateau and are expected to occur pervasively in the
Central American arc basement. The age of formation of the Osa Igneous Complex is ConiacianSantonian (~8983 Ma) based on biochronologic data from interbedded pelagic sediment (Buchs et al., 2009).
A Paleocene age of accretion is dened by the youngest sediment of
the Golto Formation (Maastrichtian) and the oldest age of the
Pavones Formation (Late Paleocene) that represents an overlap
sequence on top of the Inner Osa Igneous Complex (Buchs et al.,
2009; Di Marco et al., 1995).
In south Costa Rica, a phase of subduction erosion during the
Paleocene is suggested by the spatial arrangement of the Golto and
Inner Osa Igneous complexes. In the absence of block displacement
along the margin, occurrence of an arc sequence (Golto Complex)
in contact with accreted sequences (Inner Osa Igneous Complex) is
in disagreement with the long distance generally observed between
the trench and arc volcanoes. This spatial arrangement likely indicates that the forearc wedge was eroded before the accretion. Accretion of the Inner Osa Igneous Complex was possibly preceded by
subduction of topographic highs that led to indentation of the margin.
Also, a period of net subduction erosion or non-accretion is suggested
between the Late Paleocene and Middle Eocene by severe deformation and lack of large amounts of accreted sediment at the contact
between the Inner and Outer Osa Igneous complexes (Buchs et al.,
2009).
5.4. Middle Eocene volcanic front retreat, subduction erosion and
accretion
In Panama, retreat of the volcanic front since the Middle Eocene
(~5040 Ma) is well documented by radiometric ages and regional
mapping (del Giudice and Recchi, 1969; Lissinna, 2005; Lissinna et
al., 2002; Wegner et al., 2011; Wrner et al., 2009) (Fig. 3). This
retreat occurred over ~150 km to date and allowed the Azuero Marginal Complex to escape from burial under younger arc volcanoes.
Possibly, the retreat occurs in response to subduction erosion or shallowing of the angle of the subducting slab (Lissinna et al., 2002).
In west Panama, accretion of the Azuero Mlange and Azuero
Accretionary Complex occurred in or prior to the Middle Eocene as
dened by the ages and tectonostratigraphic relationships between
these two units and the age of the overlapping Covachn Formation.
44
Interbedded shallow marine limestones of the Azuero Accretionary Complex provide a clear Early Eocene maximal age of accretion for this unit.
Similarly to the Golto and Inner Osa Igneous complexes, the
spatial arrangement of the Azuero Mlange, Azuero Accretionary
Complex, and Azuero Marginal Complex in west Panama suggests
the loss of a signicant part of the outer forearc prior to the accretion
of seamounts and oceanic islands (Fig. 2). Possibly, this spatial distribution reects indentation of the margin by subducting topographic
highs before the emplacement of seamount fragments of the Azuero
Mlange or Azuero Accretionary Complex in the Middle Eocene.
In South Costa Rica, the Outer Osa Igneous Complex accreted at
least in part during the Middle Eocene, as indicated by Coniacian
Santonian to Middle Eocene ages of the accreted seamounts and the
Late Eocene age of formation of some parts of the Osa Mlange
(Buchs et al., 2009). Some of the older seamounts that form the
Outer Osa Igneous Complex possibly accreted after emplacement of
the Inner Osa Igneous Complex during the Early Eocene. Schistose
volcano-sedimentary rocks preserved in greenschist facies conditions
at the contact with the Inner Osa Igneous Complex (Buchs et al.,
2009) may record exhumation processes associated to the accretion
of the Outer Osa Igneous Complex.
5.5. Accretion of the Osa Mlange (San Pedrillo Unit)
The Osa Mlange in south Costa Rica has been previously interpreted as: (1) an accretionary complex composed of deformed olistostromal deposits and hemipelagic sediment (Buchs and Baumgartner,
2007; Buchs et al., 2009; Di Marco et al., 1995); (2) a tectonic mlange
at the base of the Osa Igneous Complex (Meschede et al., 1999); or (3),
an accretionary complex composed of dismembered volcanosedimentary sequences originally located on top of a seamount chain
(Vannucchi et al., 2006, 2007). An olistostromal origin for the innermost unit of the mlange (San Pedrillo Unit) accounts best for mapping along the shoreline at a 1:5000 scale, biochronologic data and
geochemical analyses of igneous rocks (Buchs et al., 2009). These
data show that blocks of sediment and igneous rocks embedded in
the mlange matrix sourced in the Osa Igneous Complex and Central
American volcanic arc. This material and hemipelagic sediment that
forms the bulk of the mlange matrix was interpreted as accreted
trench deposits originally formed during a mass-wasting event. Possibly, this event was triggered by a subducting seamount. A Late Eocene
accretion age of the San Pedrillo Unit is based on biochronologic data
from the blocks and matrix in the mlange (Buchs et al., 2009).
In constrast to south Costa Rica, no accretion is recorded in the
Azuero area during the Late Eocene. This observation, evidenced by
thick turbiditic deposits in the outer forearc (Tonos Formation) and
continued retreat of the volcanic front, supports occurrence of a
period of net erosion until the Miocene.
5.6. Accretion of the Osa Mlange (Cabo Matapalo and Salsipuedes units)
A second phase of accretion of the Osa Mlange is supported by the
occurrence of the Cabo Matapalo and Salsipuedes units that mostly include accreted calcareous hemipelagicpelagic sequences (Di Marco et
al., 1995). A Middle MiocenePliocene age of accretion is based on biochronologic data from accreted sediments and overlapping sediment
(Buchs et al., 2009, and references therein). This period of accretion
broadly correlates the Middle to Late Miocene erosional event observed
on offshore seismic proles (Kolarsky et al., 1995a) and may indicate
accretion was coeval to an uplift in the outer forearc.
collision of the Cocos Ridge led to sever deformation and uplift of

the upper plate (e.g. Kolarsky et al., 1995b; MacMillan et al., 2004;
Sak et al., 2009). Similarly, in west Panama, incoming of the Coiba
Ridge may have triggered an uplift of the Azuero area (Fig. 1).
6. Discussion and conclusions
Tectonostratigraphic data of the Azuero area and south Costa Rican
forearc offer an insight into subduction tectonics that occurred along
the Middle American margin between the latest Cretaceous and Miocene. Our results indicate that the margin did not preserve thick packages of accreted sediment between the late Campanian and Middle
Eocene. Instead, the construction of the outer forearc during this period
was dominated by punctual events of seamount accretion. Between
these events, the evolution of the margin was most likely dominated
by subduction erosion or non-accretion as supported by a lack of thick
packages of accreted sediment and the spatial arrangement of autochtonous (arc-related) and exotic (accreted) units in the forearc basement.
A tectonic event of major signicance occurred in Central America in
the Middle Eocene, which marks a transition towards distinct patterns
of tectonostratigraphic development in west Panama and south Costa
Rica (see below). This event is documented in the forearc by an erosional unconformity, the deposition of Middle Eocene shallow marine
limestones, and subsequent development of deepening upward sedimentary sequences (e.g. Baumgartner et al., 1984; Kolarsky et al.,
1995a; Weyl, 1960; Yuan, 1991). The erosional unconformity roughly
corresponds to the base of the Tonos Formation in west Panama
(Kolarsky et al., 1995a) and, possibly, shallow marine limestones of
the Monita Formation in south Costa Rica (Buchs, 2008). Global changes
in the plate tectonics occurred in the Pacic during the Middle Eocene
(e.g. Pilger, 2007; Sharp and Clague, 2006). We propose that these
global changes were associated along the Middle American margin to
a major change in subduction tectonics, which ultimately resulted in
the volcanic front retreat in Panama and a signicant uplift in the
forearc area at the Central American scale. Also, changes in subduction
tectonics in Central America could have triggered a pulse or increased
rate of seamount accretion, as supported by broadly coeval accretion
of the Azuero Accretionary Complex and Outer Osa Igneous Complex.
Net subduction erosion in the Azuero area and the contrasted formation of the Osa Mlange in south Costa Rica followed the change of
subduction tectonics in the Middle Eocene. Possibly, the Osa Mlange
originally extended to west Panama and was later removed by subduction erosion. In any case the west Panamanian and south Costa
Rican tectonostratigraphy illustrates along-strike changes during the
development of the margin after the Middle Eocene. In constrast to
the Azuero area, preservation of accreted stacks of olistostromal
hemipelagic sediments in the Osa Mlange and absence of a volcanic
front retreat in Costa Rica are hard to reconcile with long-term, net
subduction erosion. These observations rather suggest that the margin in south Costa Rica may have experienced a period of net nonerosion or accretion between the Miocene and present.
In conclusion, our results show that forearc sequences exposed in
the Azuero area and south Costa Rica allow us to characterize a complicated pattern of accretion, subduction erosion or non-accretion
during the long-term development of the Middle American margin.
Sequences exposed close to the Middle American trench may represent a valuable complement to offshore drilling and geophysical
studies in the forearc area. Integration of on land and offshore tectonostratigraphic observations should be considered in future studies
aimed at better understanding modern subduction tectonics along
the Middle American margin.
5.7. Recent uplift of the outer forearc

Acknowledgments
Several ridges composed of drown oceanic islands initially formed
above the Galpagos Hotspot occur between south Costa Rica and
west Panama (e.g. Werner et al., 2003). In South Costa Rica, recent
We thank Garry Huftile, Marc Sosson and an anonymous reviewer

for their constructive remarks. We thank also Richard Arculus, Paul
Mann, Othmar Mntener and Grard Stampi for their comments on

an earlier version of the manuscript, and Peter Flood for revising the
English. Many local people and the Fundacin Quebro provided
their help during eld work. This project was funded by the SNSF
(projects # 00021-105845 and 200021-105845), the Herbette
Foundation (University of Lausanne) and the Socit Acadmique
Vaudoise. The manuscript was written and revised during a postdoc
at the Australian National University and IFM-GEOMAR (SNSF grants
#PBLA22-122660 and PA00P2_134128). This is a contribution to IGCP
546 Subduction Zones of the Caribbean.
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Upper Cretaceous To Miocene Tectonostratigraphy of The Azuero Area (Panama) and The Discontinuous Accretion and Subduction Erosion Along The Middle American Margin

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Tectonophysics 512 (2011) 3146

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Upper Cretaceous to Miocene tectonostratigraphy of the Azuero area (Panama) and

D.M. Buchs et al. / Tectonophysics 512 (2011) 3146

seamounts (Buchs et al., 2009; Hauff et al., 2000); (4) undifferentiated

8. Inner Osa Igneous Complex

1. Santa Elena Complex

2. Geological background of the Azuero area

Undifferentiated accreted plateau and/or seamount fragments

Neogene volcanic arc

Accreted fragments of oceanic plateaus (Cretaceous)

D.M. Buchs et al. / Tectonophysics 512 (2011) 3146

Eocene, which is indicated by shallow marine deposits on top of the

Oc-Parita Fault Zone

Major fault zone

Azuero Arc Group (late Campanian to Middle Eocene)

D.M. Buchs et al. / Tectonophysics 512 (2011) 3146

3. New tectonostratigraphic subdivision of the Azuero area

Accretionary Complex; and (4), younger overlap sequences that

Our tectonostratigraphic subdivision and interpretations are

North-central Azuero and

3.1. Azuero Marginal Complex

South Azuero Peninsula

Ages and stratigraphic relationships

Submarine lava flows (mainly basalt)

39Ar/40Ar ages (black line is for range)

Submarine and subaerial lava flows (basalt)

(data from Hoernle et al., 2002; Lissinna, 2005;

Submarine-subaerial lava flows and related

Paleontologic ages (black line is for range)

Existence indirectly constrained or undefined unit

Undefined age limit

Undefined stratigraphic relationships

D.M. Buchs et al. / Tectonophysics 512 (2011) 3146

C VAB and WPT

Azuero Arc Group

with the Oc Formation (see below). The Azuero Plateau is believed to

D.M. Buchs et al. / Tectonophysics 512 (2011) 3146

As dened by stratigraphic relationships with the Oc Formation (del

anticlockwise PT path prograde from low T/low P to medium

D.M. Buchs et al. / Tectonophysics 512 (2011) 3146

sediment in the Ro Higueronoso along the AzueroSon Fault Zone

shallow marine limestone (Fig. 6A). The conglomerate and shallow

D.M. Buchs et al. / Tectonophysics 512 (2011) 3146

3.4.2.1. Description of the facies. The Covachn Formation is composed

3.4.2.2. Age. An Early to Middle Eocene age can be determined from

D.M. Buchs et al. / Tectonophysics 512 (2011) 3146

suggests an irregular topography of the outer forearc during deposition

ventricosa and G. falsostuarti. The concurrent range of these species

Azuero Accretionary Complex

Submarine lavas and

D.M. Buchs et al. / Tectonophysics 512 (2011) 3146

D.M. Buchs et al. / Tectonophysics 512 (2011) 3146

Inner Osa Igneous

4.4. Covachn Formation

D.M. Buchs et al. / Tectonophysics 512 (2011) 3146

Outer Osa Igneous

Azuero Plateau (autochtonous

late Coniacianearly Santonian (~8985 Ma). The Azuero Plateau will

Marco et al., 1995). Old arc-related volcanic sequences are probably

5.2. Subduction initiation

D.M. Buchs et al. / Tectonophysics 512 (2011) 3146

south Costa Rica