Quality Gaging Tips

S-W-I-P-E For Gaging Accuracy

By George Schuetz
Director of Precision Gages, Mahr Federal, Inc.

MMS' Measurement & Quality Zone

Link a Friend to This Page Via E-mail

Print this article

Last month we looked at a new Ingress Protection, or IP, standard for evaluating how well a gage will
handle the various conditions it will encounter on the shop floor. We described how a caliper or micrometer
with a rating of IP-67 is impervious to dust and dirt, and is also both water- and coolant-proof. However, we
also pointed out that just because the gage is impervious to environmental conditions, does not mean you
can ignore environmental conditions when taking measurements.
Indeed, the gage or instrument is only "one-fifth" of the total system for taking precision measurements. In
all, there are five elements of a measuring system, which can be conveniently remembered with the
acronym, SWIPE--Standard, Workpiece, Instrument, People and Environment. Whenever there is an apparent
gaging problem, examining these five elements is a good approach to troubleshooting. Let's look at them
more closely.
"S" represents the standard used when the system is setup or checked for error, such as the master in
comparative gages or the leadscrew in a micrometer. Remember, master disks and rings should be handled
as carefully as gage blocks, because nicks and scratches can significantly contribute to error.
"W" is the workpiece being measured. Variations in geometry and surface finish of the measured part directly
affect a measuring system's repeatability. These part variations are difficult to detect, yet can sometimes
manifest themselves as apparent errors in the measuring system. For example, when measuring a centerless
ground part with a two-jet air ring, a three-point, out-of-round condition will not show up because you are
only seeing average size.
"I" is the instrument itself. Select a gage based on the tolerance of the parts to be measured, the type of
environment and the skill level of the operators. Also remember what your customers will use to measure the
parts. Say, for example, you are checking bores with an air gage, but your customer inspects them with a
mechanical gage. Since the surface is not a mirror finish, your air gage will give the average of the peaks and
valleys, while the customer's mechanical gage may say the bores are too small because it only sees the
peaks. Neither measurement is "wrong," but you could end up blaming each other's instruments.
"P" is for people. Modern gages are increasingly easy to use, but failure to adequately train operating
personnel will still ensure poor performance. Even the operation of the simplest of gages, such as air gaging,
requires some operator training for adequate results. Most importantly, the machine operator must assume
responsibility for maintaining the instruments. Checking for looseness, parallelism, nicks and scratches, dirt,
rust and so on, is absolutely necessary to ensure system performance. We all know it, but we can sometimes
forget when in a hurry.
"E" represents the environment. As we've said before in this column, thermal factors such as radiant energy,
conductive heating, drafts and room temperature differentials can significantly impact gage system
performance. And again, while dirt may no longer affect your gage, it still can affect the measurement-making dirt the number one enemy of gaging.
In short, the problem that has you pulling your hair out and cursing your instruments could be as simple as
your shop being a little warmer or a little dustier than your customer's. So before blaming the gage (or the
customer), take a SWIPE at all the factors influencing accuracy.

Quality Gaging Tips

Evaluating Gaging For The Shop Floor

By George Schuetz
Director of Precision Gages, Mahr Federal, Inc.

MMS' Measurement & Quality Zone

Link a Friend to This Page Via E-mail

Print this article

Measuring instruments have been used for the inspection of manufactured parts ever since the first vernier
caliper was introduced. It wasn't difficult to take care of those old tools on the shop floor: A clean cloth, a
little elbow grease and a good storage box were all that was needed to make those gages last a lifetime. In
fact, they often became prized possessions, as craftsmen handed down tools from generation to generation.
In the past 30 years or so, electronic gages have become increasingly common on the shop floor because of
their ease of use, speed and ability to do complex measurements. However, when it came to caring for these
new gages, one thing was clear: You didnt want to get that digital caliper, micrometer, indicator, amplifier or
computer anywhere near water or coolant, or there was sure to be trouble. Either the gage wouldnt work, or,
even worse, it would produce incorrect readings.
It didnt make sense that these gages didnt operate properly in an environment where coolant, grease, dirt
and chips were among the normal working conditions.
Recently, there have been improvements in many of the electronic gaging tools that finally give them the
characteristics needed to survive on the shop floor. Improvements in scale technology, microcircuits and
sealing have made gages capable of literally taking measurements under water.
Now that these types of gages are finally available, a new standard has been created to help identify what
type of tool is best for the environment in which it will be used. This rating is called ingress protection (IP).
Associated with the IP is a two-digit rating number that tells what type of conditions the gage can survive in.
The first digit describes the protection for solid foreign objects, while the second digit indicates protection
against harmful ingress of water. A potential third digit, which is the defined impact protection, has not yet
made its way into the measuring instrument table (see chart).
For example, a gage might have a rating of IP-65. As you can see from the accompanying table, this gage is
totally protected against dust and low pressure jets of water from all directions, with limited ingress
permitted. Today there are calipers and micrometers with ratings as high as IP-67. These can be subjected to
the type of dust and dirt found in the shop, and they are both coolant proof and waterproof.
So, electronic tools can finally be used on the shop floor. What a good idea! But one cautionary note: Just
because these new gages can handle the environment doesnt mean that their measurements are impervious
to environmental conditions. They are still precision gages, and all the basic rules for precision gaging still
apply. Well review the classic SWIPE paradigm next month.
First number
(Protection against
solid objects)

Definition

Second number
(Protection against
liquids)

Definition

No protection

No protection

Protected against solid objects

over 50 mm (for example,
accidental touch by hands).

Protected against vertically falling

drops f water.

Protected against solid objects

over 12 mm (for example,
fingers).

Protected against direct sprays up to

15 degrees from the vertical.

Protected against solid objects

over 2.5 mm (for example,
tools and wires).

Protected against direct sprays up to

60 degrees from the vertical.

Protected against dust. Limited

ingress (no harmful deposit).

Protected against low pressure jets of

water (for example, for use on ship

decks.). Limited ingress permitted.

6

Totally protected against dust.

Protected against strong jets of water

(for example, for use on ship decks.).
Limited ingress permitted.

Protected against the affects of

temporary immersion between 15 cm
and 1 m. Duration of test is 30
minutes.

Protected against long periods of

immersion under pressure.

Quality Gaging Tips

Understanding Plate Gages
By George Schuetz Marketing Manager ,
Tools and Gages
Mahr Federal, Inc.

Visit MMS' Measurement & Quality Zone

Link a Friend to This Page Via E-mail

Print this article

Youve seen the bench-mounted ID/OD comparative gage with the tilting stage plate to set and locate the
part being gaged. This basic design, which has been around for more than 50 years, is convenient for fast,
comparative gaging of flat and relatively thin-walled parts, such as ball and roller bearing rings, where
diameter measurements must be made in a plane parallel to at least one of the faces, and sometimes at a
particular depth on the ID or OD. Sometimes the location is the minimum or maximum diameter of the ball
bearing race.
The gage consists of a plate that is ground flat, and it may incorporate some wear strips on which the part to
be gaged is rested. In many cases, however, the plate is no more than a protective surface for the gaging
mechanism. Instead of resting the part on the plate, which could cause it to wear and destroy the reference
plane, the gaging surface is built into the sensitive and reference contacts of the gage. It is much easier and
less costly to replace the contacts on this design than to replace or regrind a reference plate. This design also
provides less surface area for dirt or chips to get into the measuring loop and potentially affect measurement
results.
There are two types of contact arrangements in these plate gages: a T plate design and a V plate version.
With either version, there are movable reference and sensitive contacts that are set close to the diameter to
be measured.
The T plate design is the most common and probably the most familiar. Because the reference contact and
the sensitive contact are in line, the gaging principle is the same as in a portable snap gage. There is a
difference in the plate design, however. The contacts used on the plate gage are not flat and parallel, as in a
snap gage. They are generally curved or donut-shaped, which calls for special consideration. The gage may
not necessarily pick up the max or min diameter of the part every time. Some slight swinging of the part
through the contacts is necessary to identify the min or max position. The second reference contact on the T
can help locate the part. However, it should only be used to position the part close to the true diameter. It
should be set to produce a reading slightly outside of the min or max value. Otherwise, if it is set to be
exactly on the zero diameter, any other position would produce a chord reading and not read the true
diameter of the part.
The other contact configuration is the V plate design. It incorporates two reference stops, one at the top of
each arm of the V, that must be adjusted symmetrically to ensure that the part is staged on the center plane
of the V. This double stop has a locating effect similar to that of a vee block and provides positive and precise
location of the part on the gage. This greatly speeds up the measuring process, eliminating some of the

operator involvement, and it is especially useful when the part might contain an odd lobing characteristic
from the machining process.
However, there is a drawback to this type of contact arrangement. Because the sensitive and reference
contacts are not in a direct line, there is not a one-to-one relationship between sensitive contact movement
and the diameter. Thus, there are two special considerations that should be borne in mind when using this
type of gage. The first is that the angle between the reference contacts determines the multiplier needed to
determine the measurement, just like the multiplier used when measuring a diameter on a vee block. In
most cases, this angle is 60 degrees and the ratio is 4:5. This means that for every four units seen by the
indicator, five units come out (which is another way of saying the sensitive contact is multiplied by 1.25 to
get the correct result).Plate gages are a mainstay in the bearing industry, and they can also be used
anywhere that fast, accurate readings of ODs or IDs are needed.
These configurations work only for comparative readings and cannot be stretched into the absolute
measurement world. This is because there is a window of accuracy wrapped around the angle setup for the
reference contacts. But if the sensitive contact is moved significantly away from or toward the reference
contactsas would probably happen in an absolute measurement scenariothe angle relationship changes.
This changes the multiplier needed to get correct results. To correct for this, a scaling multiplier based on the
measurement size and the location of the contact would be needed. It could be done, but its pretty
complicated for a bench fixture gage.

Fortunately, the gages take these angles, ratios and long-range measurements into account, and they
have been doing so for a long time with proven success.

Quality Gaging Tips

Improving Height Gage Results
By George Schuetz Marketing Manager ,
Tools and Gages
Mahr Federal, Inc.

Visit MMS' Measurement & Quality Zone

Link a Friend to This Page Via E-mail

Print this article

As with any measurement, the quality of the result depends on the measurement instrument and the care
with which the operator handles the measurement procedure. Many gages are designed to make this as easy
as possible. A snap gage, for example, has the reference anvil, frame and measuring instrument built in. The
same is true with a bench stand. To obtain a good measurement, all the operator really has to do is correctly
apply the gage to the part.
With an electronic height gage, this is not the case. Electronic height gages are not as self-contained as other
gages. They have the precision scale and the sensing probe but no integral reference, which is the most
critical part. Most electronic height gages are used on a granite surface plate, and the plate provides the
reference for both the height gage and the part that is being measured. The quality of this base plate directly
influences the measuring result. Thus, its important to keep the plate free from dust, chips and dirt.
Most height gages are direct-reading instruments that generally operate in ranges up to 36 inches. As such,
they are especially susceptible to variations in temperature. Because the body heat of the operator (98.6F)
is clearly above room temperature (68F), any heat conveyed to elements of the measuring circuit (base
plate, test piece, height measuring instrument, stylus) can cause local heat expansion and induce
measurement errors. Operators should be very careful in observing the following rules:

Avoid touching the test piece with your bare hands directly before taking the measurement. Use
gloves.
Do not touch other elements of the measuring circuit.
Only touch the height gage at points provided for this purpose; handles are usually provided to
move the gage or engage the air bearings for positioning.

Avoid drafts.

For high precision measurements, put the test piece on the base plate and let it adjust to ambient
temperature (this takes approximately 15 minutes to 8 hours, depending on the size of the part).

Avoid direct sunlight on the instrument, test piece or base plate.

Dont set up the measuring station in proximity to radiators or in the path of air ducts.
Do not check test pieces that were transported through very hot/cold rooms shortly before
measurement.

Once the measuring loop is verified, there are two other critical references that need to be established. The
first is the zero reference for the measuring system. With automated height gages, this is done automatically
when the gage is turned on. A manually driven gage must be zeroed on the granite plate before it can be
used. With a motor driven unit, the gage will automatically move down to touch the surface to set its
reference point. Its not a bad practice to initiate this zeroing routine a second time to make sure that no dirt
or other anomaly has introduced an incorrect reference. Because setting this reference is critical to all the
measurements you will make, its worth the time and effort.
The other important reference is the correction for the probe ball diameter. If a height gage is to be used
only for length measurements taken with the probe moving down, then probe diameter is not important. The
contact point of the probe will be the same as in zeroing. But if grooves, diameters or hole locations are
being measured, or if any measurements are taken with the probe moving upwards, then the probe ball
diameter must be known and taken into account.
Ball diameter is specified for the probe, but there is always some degree of variation. Actual ball diameter
should be added to any dimension that is probed in the upward direction. On height gages that have even
the most basic electronic control, this dimension can be measured as part of a setup routine and is
automatically included in all measurements. The automated process uses a fixture provided with the gage, or
the test can be simulated with gage blocks. The fixture sets up a plane that is measured by the gage from
both directions. The gage then looks at the difference between the two measurements and uses this as the
ball diameter.
The same gage block check can be done by hand on purely manual machines, or the ball diameter may be
measured off-line with a micrometer. Just as with setting the zero reference, this check should be repeated a
number of times. A lot of gages will provide this repeat check automatically and reject the ball diameter
reference if it does not repeat to within a preset limit.
Failing to recheck for ball diameter can be a deadly pitfall when a probe tip is changed. Going from a 10- to
5-mm ball tip would be disastrous if not recalculated.

Quality Gaging Tips

Calibrating Gages: With Master (And Engagement)
Rings, Size Matters

A master ring, or ring gage, is basically a bore of known dimension. The precision hole is often used as a
setting master for variable ID gages (such as bore gages, air tooling and mechanical plug gages), for go/nogo mastering of fixed ID gages and for go/no-go OD inspection of male cylindrical workpieces. Ring gages
are made from steel, chromed steel (for durability and corrosion resistance) or tungsten carbide (for extreme
wear resistance).
They are often classed by level of accuracy, with XXX indicating the tightest tolerances; XX, X and Y are
intermediate grades; and Z is the lowest grade. Class tolerances vary by size. Larger sizes have more open
tolerances because they are harder to manufacture. Tolerances may be bilateral for use in setting variable
gages or unilateral for use as go/no-go gages. For rings, go is minus; for plugs, its plus. Go/no-go gages
may often be identified by a groove or ring on their knurled outside diameters.
For example, for a 0.820-inch master ring, the following tolerances would apply:
Class
Class
Class
Class
Class

XXX = 0.00001 inch

XX = 0.00002 inch
X = 0.00004 inch
Y = 0.00007 inch
Z = 0.00010 inch

Of course, the better the class, the higher the price. If you want to stay at a five-star hotel or get the highest
grade for your engagement ring, you have to pay for it. Its the same with master rings. The XXX ring is
manufactured to a tighter tolerance, so there is cost involved. It may take longer to manufacture, take the
skill of a higher paid technician or, if something goes wrong, it may have to be remanufactured and take
longer to get.
Typically, the rule of thumb for selecting a master has been to choose one whose tolerance is 10 percent of
the part tolerance. This, combined with the gages performance, should provide adequate assurance of a
good measurement process. Its usually not worthwhile to buy more accuracy than this 10:1 rule: It costs
more, it doesnt improve the accuracy and the master will lose calibration faster. On the other hand, when
manufacturing to extremely tight tolerances, one might need a ratio of 4:1 or even 3:1 between gage and
standard simply because the master can not be manufactured and inspected using a 10:1 rule.
Take a taper master, for example. Say the angle tolerance is 0.001 inch over a 12-inch long taper. Usually, a
gage or master is not 12 inches long; rather, it might be 1 inch long. At this length, the same tolerance now
becomes 83 microinches. Using the 10:1 rule, the master would have to be 8.3 microinches. Such a gage
would be virtually impossible to manufacture or even measure.
But there are alternatives that can allow these tolerances to be measured and can reduce the cost of your
masters. Masters can be certified to their class (XXX, XX, X and so on), or they can be certified to their size.
This means you may have the tolerance that requires a class XXX master ring, but a suitable replacement
might be a XX ring certified to size. What you will get with this ring is a certificate that documents its size at
various locations as well as the calibration labs measurement uncertainty.
Now you know the ring met the XX class, and you know the exact size of the ring. You can use this
information to your benefit. When setting the gage to its reference (usually zero), set it to the actual master
size. In effect, you are getting XXX performance from your XX ring. Youve saved some money and probably
sped up the delivery of your gage.
Wouldnt this be great if this worked for engagement diamonds, too? That zirconium looks awfully good

Quality Gaging Tips

Micrometer Accuracy: Drunken Threads And SlipSticks

Mahr Federal, Inc.

By George Schuetz
Director of Precision Gages

Visit MMS' Measurement & Quality Zone

Link a Friend to This Page Via E-mail

Print this article

Whether its a screw thread or digital micrometer, the instruments level of precision depends on two factors:
the inherent accuracy of the reference (the screw thread or the digital scale) and process errors.
With a screw micrometer, accuracy relies on the lead of the screw built into the micrometer barrel. Error in
this type of micrometer tends to be cumulative and increases with the length of the spindle travel. This is one
reason micrometers come in 1-inch (25 mm) measuring ranges. Apart from the difficulty of making long, fine
threads, the error generated over the longer lengths may not meet performance requirements.
One way to improve the performance of the measurement is to tune the micrometer to the range where it is
most likely to be used. For example, if a 0- to 1-inch (0 to 25 mm) micrometer is to be used on parts toward
the largest size, the micrometer could be calibrated and set up so that the optimum accuracy is at some
point in its travel other than at its starting point. You could chose the middle to balance any errors at the end
points or elsewhere to maximize performance at any particular point of travel.

Aside from the calibration error of the thread, which reflects the accuracy of its movement per rotation, there
are two other thread-related errors to be aware of. One is error within the rotation, known as drunken
thread, because of slight thread waver over the course of a rotation. The other is slip-stick, or backlash,
which is caused by unwanted slop between the mesh of the threads. This is a common cause of reversal
errors. As a point of reference, the drunken thread is like profile error on a machined surface, while slip-stick
is similar to backlash errors seen in gears on dial indicators.
With electronic micrometers, the thread usually drives a sensing head over a scale or uses a rotary encoder
as the displacement indicator. Both can induce errors, but the thread of the barrel remains the largest source
of error. An electronic micrometer can remember and correct for such errors, and, in the end, can provide
better performance than the interpreted mechanical micrometer.
The process for checking the performance of a micrometer is similar to the process for checking other
comparative or scale-based instruments. Gage blocks of known sizes are measured, and deviations from
expected values are plotted. Usually the gage blocks are chosen so that the spindle travels for a full or half
turn of the screw. A rotation of the screw can be analyzed by taking small increments of measurements
around the peaks discovered on the first pass. These incrementsmaybe ten steps in one revolutionmay
reveal larger errors or show patterns that were machined into the screw threads.
The other significant cause of errors can be found in the parallelism of the anvils. The precision method for
inspecting the condition of the anvils is with an optical flat. Using a monolithic light source, it is generally
acceptable to allow two visible bands when assessing individual anvil flatness. For inspecting parallelism, six
bands may be observed, the combined total of both sides.
The applied measuring force of the sensing anvil on the part and the reference anvil is the other source of
process measuring error. The friction of ratchet drive thimbles reduces the deflection of the micrometer
frame, but the condition still exists as a source of error. With about 2 pounds of measuring force, typical
frame deflection is roughly 50 microinches, although this is apt to increase on larger micrometers where the
rigidity of the frame increases.
Other sources of error can also sneak in. Temperature, dirt and the means by which the operator aligns the
gage to the part affect any micrometers overall performance.

Quality Gaging Tips

All Over The Dial
By George Schuetz
Director of Precision Gages, Mahr Federal, Inc.
MMS' Measurement and Quality Zone

Link a Friend to This Page Via E-mail

Print this article

There are endless variations in the dials used on mechanical dial indicators. In most cases, though, they can
be broken down into two distinct styles: balanced and continuous. Lets take a look at both.
With a balanced dial, the graduations around the dial represent the smallest value, or resolution, as marked
on the dial face. The numbers on the indicator face are an aid in counting the value of the divisions, usually
grouped by 10, but also representing 2, 5 or 20 steps around the dial.
In reading a balanced dial indicator, keep in mind that you are using a comparative indicating device, and the
indicator reading usually means nothing by itself. The indicator reading must be added to or subtracted from
the value of the reference or master to which the gage was set.
Revolution counters are those extra little hands on indicators that keep track of the number of times the big
hand completes a revolution. These may seem a little strange, as the typical ANSI balanced dial indicator has
less than three revolutions available, but it is much easier than it might seem to miss a revolution. A warning
that the indicator has gone through, or not reached its zero point, is very helpful in preventing bad parts
from being accepted.

But the warning can also tell you more than that. The revolution counter can
tell you whether the indicator is within its measuring range, or in the pretravel or over-travel area. It can warn you that the indicator may be too high
in amplification for the application, and that perhaps a slightly longer range,
lower resolution indicator would be better. Or it can provide an indication that
something has shifted in the gage setup, or even that the part being
measured is out of control, indicating that something in the process has
Pictured is a balanced dial
shifted.
(left) and a continuous dial
(right). The Rev-counter is
On the cautionary side, the revolution counter should not be relied on too
invaluable for long range
heavily as a measurement device. The counter is pretty small, so to use it as measurements.
part of the measurement is not always reliable. And, as with all mechanical
indicator specifications, the longer the range, the more open the performance tolerances become. On
balanced dials, use revolution counters for their intended purpose: a warning indicator. They can be a sure
sign that something is wrong.
Continuous dials are usually found on long rang indicators that typically have more than the standard 2 1/2
dial revolutions. Some may even have extremely long measuring ranges. The dial is read much like a
balanced dial, but there are no minus readings and, generally, there are larger numbers. Long range dial
indicators will almost always have a revolution counter. Here the revolution counter is invaluable. It is used to
keep track of the number of times the indicator hand has moved past zero, much better than your eye could.
With a combination of the revolution count and the graduation count, a measurement can be determined.
The range of these indicators is a valuable characteristic in many applications.Typically, long range indicators
will be used on a bench stand, allowing the user to measure a wide range of parts using the base as the
reference point. The long range indicator can also be used on a machine to monitor the position of a slide to
aid in manufacturing a part. Both are acceptable applications.
Keep in mind that long range dial indicators are also comparative instruments, even though they may have
measurement characteristics. Used improperly, they can cause potentially serious errors. As we noted, the
longer the range is with these indicators, the larger the acceptable error. In some cases, a 2 percent error is
typical. Because 2 percent of 4 inches is 0.080 inch, this level of inaccuracy could constitute an error larger
than the tolerance range on many parts. The proper method to use the indicator would be to set the gage
with a master at 4 inches. The rev counter and the hand might be set to zero as the 2 rev position for its
starting position. Then the gage would act as it were intendedas a dial comparator.

Quality Gaging Tips

Gaging Diameter Variation In Machined Holes
By George Schuetz
Director, Precision Gages, Mahr Federal, Inc.

MMS' Measurement & Quality Zone

Link a Friend to This Page Via E-mail

Print this article

As tolerances for machined holes keep getting tighter, we are learning that no hole possesses a geometrically
perfect, symmetrically round shape. No hole is likely to take on a perfect oval (two-lobed) form, either. In
reality, the form of a machined hole or cylinder has a large degree of variation, from something with a fairly
symmetrical outline to some completely distorted and irregular shape. Much of that shape is the result of the
machining process, with the typical three lobe shape of centerless ground parts being the most common.
This can complicate even basic diameter checks. Plus, while roundness variationsincluding lobing and its
counterparts, waviness and roughnessmay only be a small portion of hole size, their presence is the major
cause of vibration, noise, wear and added friction in rotating assemblies.
Plain, elliptical form error (also known as two point lobing) is easily detected by rotating the part in a two
point gage or gaging fixture. Assuming the gage has the resolution necessary to discriminate the variation
(an important consideration), any type of indicating snap gage, air or mechanical fixed plug gageor even
rotating the part under a test or dial indicator in a fixture gagewill be able to pick up the variation. With a
two lobe condition, the max. and min. diameters are located at 90 degrees from each other (Figure A).

Because the contacts are diametrically opposed, a two point gage can easily show these variations. In fact, a
two point contact system will be able to measure the variation of diameter whenever there are an even
number of lobes, regardless of their number.
Odd numbers of lobes are a different animal. It is not uncommon for
operators to mike a diameter, or inspect a part with some high
resolution equipment, only to have the parts not fit into the
assembly for which they were designed. The reason is that gages
having diametrically opposed contacts are not capable of measuring
the complete circumference or envelope of a part and therefore
cannot detect an odd number of lobes. This can be seen in Figure B.
With a three-lobed hole (or part), the two contact points are riding
on opposing high and low points. As the part is rotated in the gage,
one contact sees a high spot while the other sees a low point.
Moving through the rotation, the contacts move up and down these
opposing points, and the variation is cancelled out. The result is a
seemingly consistent diameter reading for a decidedly inconsistent form.
To detect lobing and to count the number of lobes, a basic geometry form gage should be used. This can help
understand the nature of the form being produced by the machining process and help determine the best
gaging method for the application. (When measuring outside diameters, this can sometimes be accomplished
with a vee-block method and a formula. But because the formula requires you to know the number of lobes,
its not much use when thats what you are trying to determine.) If your geometry check shows a three point
or other odd-numbered lobing condition, two point gaging will not suffice. A gage with an odd number of
sensing contacts (usually three) is required. Just as two contacts can find most variation in a part with an
even number of lobes, a three point gage is better at finding variation in holes and parts with an odd number
of lobes.
While there are a number of three point contact gages available for checking this condition, the most
common is air gaging. Because air gaging has the resolution needed to measure tolerances where roundness
variation is critical, it best suits the diameter variation measuring requirements.
Three jet plugs, with the jets set at 120-degree intervals, are sufficient to measure diameter variation in
most odd-lobed holes, regardless of whether there are three, five, or even seven lobes. The operator simply
inserts the probe into the hole, rotates it through a minimum of 120 degrees and either notes the max/min
variation on the gage indicator, or in the case of some electronic probes, gets an automatic read-out of TIR.

Quality Gaging Tips

Another Way To SquareOr Is It Perpendicular?It
Up
By George Schuetz
Director of Precision Gages, Mahr Federal, Inc.
MMS' Measurement & Quality Zone
Link a Friend to This Page Via E-mail

Print this article

There are a number of tools available for shop personnel to evaluate the right angle relationship between two
surfaces.
The basic machinist square has a number of variations, the most common being the hardened steel square
used to check right angles and set up milling and drilling machines. The hardened steel square consists of a
thin blade and a thick beam that are set at precise right angles to each other. The square has no scales and
is not useful for linear measurements. To evaluate the right angle, the user holds the thick beam on the
reference surface and the blade against the side of the part. The user then looks for light between the blade
and the part or slips feeler stock between the two. These types of squares are usually used on work where
tolerances of 0.001 inch are called out.
These so-called squares are not really squares, and they are actually used to check the right angle
relationship between the two surfaces, known as perpendicularity. Most prints have a call-out requiring a
right angle relationship, but one right angle does not make a square. There may also be a call-out for a part

to be square, but this refers to the geometric shape of the part. It may be that the reason for calling this tool
a square is that its too difficult to say, Hand me that perpendicular. Because this language is used in the
shop, we can talk about inspecting for the right angle as a squareness check.
A cylindrical square can be used in a similar manner. By placing the cylinder next to the part and using the
same visual or feeler stock check, the operator can get a good sense of right angle.
There are a number of other hand tools used to inspect for the square form in a part, including combination
squares, linear and digital protractors, and even electronic levels. But if parts are more than 8 inches in
length, hand tools cannot cover the range needed, and surface plate tools are required. In addition, hand
tool methods all rely on the observation and skill of the operator to interpret the angle. None provide any
empirical data that can be analyzed or used to begin controlling the process.
For large part/surface plate work, one of the best means to inspect for squareness is to use the precise
vertical ways that are built into a height gage or master squareness gage. Both have a precision slide to
which a dial or test indicator can be mounted. This allows the indicator to be moved in an accurate, vertical
line of travel when both the gage and part are on the surface plate. The advantage of this type of squareness
gage over handheld, visual squares is that the dial test indicator allows the operator to read the exact
amount of error instead of eyeballing it.
Because both the master squareness and height gages use the same reference surface as the part (such as
the surface plate), and because the gages themselves provide a precise reference for the vertical axis, both
are capable of measuring the perpendicularity of the side compared to the base. On the downside, master
squareness gages are not capable of measuring the horizontal axis of the part, and in neither case are the
vertical and horizontal readings tied together, so the user has to plot the individual values to come up with a
measurement.
Those really interested in data collection will want to use a motorized electronic height gage. These gages
not only allow automated positioning but also have the capability of using a high-resolution linear encoder for
positioning the indicator along the vertical axis and a similar linear scale for the horizontal axis. Most
electronic height gages have dedicated, preprogrammed functions for checking perpendicularity. The operator
just enters the length of the path to be inspected and the number of readings to be taken along that path.
The slide can be positioned manually along the path (as with the master squareness gage) to let the gage
controller collect the data, or the gage can execute an automated data measurement routine.
Once the measurement cycle is completed, the processor can provide the actual angle measured, the full
table of the test part or even a graph of the part profile. This can be invaluable for large parts where lapping
can be performed to fix demonstrated high or low spots. The plate is the reference for both the part and the
height gage; therefore, a clean plate and a high degree of flatness are essential when making precision
checks.
In sum, with the handheld, machinist square measurements, operator influence and visual techniques limit
the process to 0.001-inch tolerance levels. Height gages with high performance digital encoders, long-range
measurements, automated gaging routines and computing capabilities can bring surface plate measurements
to levels of 0.00005 inch or better

Quality Gaging Tips

Surface Texture From Ra to Rz
By George Schuetz
Director of Precision Gages, Mahr Federal, Inc.

MMS' Measurement & Quality Zone

Link a Friend to This Page Via E-mail

Print this article

The irregularity of a machined surface is the result of the machining process, including the choice of tool;
feed and speed of the tool; machine geometry; and environmental conditions. This irregularity consists of

high and low spots machined into a surface by the tool bit or a grinding wheel. These peaks and valleys can
be measured and used to define the condition and sometimes the performance of the surface. There are
more than 100 ways to measure a surface and analyze the results, but the most common measurement of
the mark made by the tool, or the surface texture, is the roughness measurement.
It is not uncommon for different parties involved in the production to use different methods for roughness
measurement. In this column we will talk about only two of the many methods of roughness measurement,
how to convert between these two methods, and how to avoid the problems caused by the inevitable use of
more than one roughness measurement.
In North America, the most common parameter for surface texture is Average Roughness (Ra). Ra is
calculated by an algorithm that measures the average length between the peaks and valleys and the
deviation from the mean line on the entire surface within the sampling length. Ra averages all peaks and
valleys of the roughness profile and then neutralizes the few outlying points so that the extreme points have
no significant impact on the final results. It's a simple and effective method for monitoring surface texture
and ensuring consistency in measurement of multiple surfaces.
In Europe, the more common parameter for roughness is Mean Roughness depth (Rz). Rz is calculated by
measuring the vertical distance from the highest peak to the lowest valley within five sampling lengths, then
averaging these distances. Rz averages only the five highest peaks and the five deepest valleystherefore
extremes have a much greater influence on the final value. Over the years the method of calculating Rz has
changed, but the symbol Rz has not. As a result, there are three different Rz calculations still in use, and it is
very important to know which calculation is being defined before making the measurement.
In today's global economy, machined parts are being made and shipped around the world. As a result,
manufacturing and quality control engineers are often forced to decide whether or not to accept a part when
the print requirements are not consistent with measurement on the surface gages in the local facility. Some
quality control engineers might even assume that if a part is checked and passed using the parameter
available, the part would also pass other checks. In these cases, the engineers are assuming a constant
correlation, or ratio, exists between different parameters.
If there were no choice but to accept some assumptions, there are rules of thumb that can help clear up the
confusion and convert Ra to Rz or Rz to Ra. If the manufacturer specifies and accepts the Rz parameter, but
the customer uses the Ra parameter, using a ratio range for Rz-to-Ra = 4-to-1 to 7-to-1 is a safe conversion.
However, if Ra is used as an acceptance criteria by the manufacturer, but the customer accepts Rz to
evaluate the part, then the conversion ratio would be much higher than 7-to-1, possibly as high as 20-to-1.
Keep in mind that the actual shape of the part's profile will have a significant impact on these ratios.
Communication at the outset of the project can avoid most surprises. The approximate, and sometimes
questionable, comparisons can be avoided by developing an understanding of exactly what a parameter on a
print means, and how the various parties involved in the production plan to check surface texture. The best
way for those involved in the production to be in agreement on the parameters for measurement is to have
capable evaluation equipment in both the manufacturer's and customer's facility, making the same check
using the same method. If the manufacturer or the customer uses conversion ratios, then both parties
should be aware of the use of the ratio and be comfortable with the ramifications.

While it is best to measure using the parameter specified in the print, there are rules of thumb available that can help
clear up the confusion and convert Ra to Rz or Rz to Ra.

Quality Gaging Tips

The Dial Tells It All
By George Schuetz
Director of Precision Gages, Mahr Federal, Inc.
MMS' Measurement & Quality Zone

Link a Friend to This Page Via E-mail

Print this article

Dial indicatorsyou've seen one, you've seen them all. They are all over the shop, and as you walk around,
they all look the same to you.
But step closer and take a long look, because we are going to examine the indicator dial in detail. No, we are
not going to go inside. We are going to look at the way the indicator presents information to the useron the
dial. There are different styles of dials, and the type is determined by how the indicator is used.
Indicator dials come in two basic formats: balanced and continuous. Whether to use one or the other is very
often determined by the gage and the range of the indicator. However, in general, if the tolerances are
bilateral, such as 0.001 inch, the balanced dial is preferred. If the tolerance is unilateral such as -0.000 to
+0.002 inch, a continuous dial would be the preference.
Some dial indicators are sold with a very limited range, so limited that the dial only displays one revolution of
measuring range. These one-rev indicators with balance dials are designed for high magnification and to
eliminate miscounting the number of revolutions the hand of the indicator travels.
Because the dial indicator is often used on a handheld gage, such as a bore gage or snap gage, the
mechanical travel of the gage is really the limiting factor in the measuring range. Therefore, there is no need
for the dial indicator to have long range. And, since most tolerances are bilateral, the most common dial is
the balance type.
Revolution counters are used on balanced dial indicators, even though they might have only two revolutions
of total travel. This is because the hand may move so fast that the eye can't keep up. A balanced dial might
indicate +0.010 inch when in reality, the hand has made an additional revolution and the actual
measurement is +0.110 inch. In such cases, the rev-counter is a safeguard for assuring the correct reading.
But what if that dial indicator is now mounted to a test stand or a hand gage,
such as a portable thickness gage? The dial indicator is now in a gage that can
measure by comparison, or if the range is long enough, it could even be used
as a direct measuring gage.
In the comparison mode, the dial would be of the balance type, but we have
to start watching out for how many times the hand revolves and keep track of
this number. Otherwise, we could make significant measurement errors and
be off by a complete revolution of the dial.
This is where the rev-counter adds a degree of safety to the result. By reading
a combination of the rev-counter and the dial, a proper result can be
obtained.
When the indicator is used to make a direct measurement from the reference surface, the rev-counter, in
conjunction with a continuous dial, is an absolute necessity. Some long-range indicators can have 10 or more
revolutions, which would be too hard to try to count and remember as the hand went around.
The result of the measurement is the number of revolutions plus the amount read on the continuous dial. But
of course, you have to know how much one revolution is worth.

For example, in the photograph at right, the revolution counter shows two revolutions of the hand, or 0.200
inch, and the big hand has come to rest at the 15 main dial division, or 0.015 inch. The sum of the two
readings is 0.215 inch.
Some dial indicators have more then one rev-counter because they may travel more then ten revolutions of
the dial. In these cases, each rev-counter is marked with its range, and the measurement is simply the sum
of the three dial readings. In such cases, it is pretty simple to take the sum of each indictor for your total
reading.
Very often we take the indicator we use for grantedbut take a moment and examine the indicator dial.
You'll see there's a reason it looks the way it does.