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PaliandSanskritareverycloselyrelatedandthecommoncharacteristicsofPaliandSanskritwerealwayseasilyrecognizedbythoseinIndiawhowerefamiliar
withboth.Indeed,averylargeproportionofPaliandSanskritwordstemsareidenticalinform,differingonlyindetailsofinflection.
TechnicaltermsfromSanskritwereconvertedintoPalibyasetofconventionalphonologicaltransformations.Thesetransformationsmimickedasubsetofthe
phonologicaldevelopmentsthathadoccurredinProtoPali.Becauseoftheprevalenceofthesetransformations,itisnotalwayspossibletotellwhetheragivenPali
wordisapartoftheoldPrakritlexicon,oratransformedborrowingfromSanskrit.TheexistenceofaSanskritwordregularlycorrespondingtoaPaliwordisnot
alwayssecureevidenceofthePalietymology,since,insomecases,artificialSanskritwordswerecreatedbybackformationfromPrakritwords.[dubiousdiscuss]
ThefollowingphonologicalprocessesarenotintendedasanexhaustivedescriptionofthehistoricalchangeswhichproducedPalifromitsOldIndicancestor,but
ratherareasummaryofthemostcommonphonologicalequationsbetweenSanskritandPali,withnoclaimtocompleteness.

Vowelsanddiphthongs

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SanskritaiandaualwaysmonophthongizetoPalieando,respectively
Examples:maitrmett,auadhaosadha
SanskritayaandavalikewiseoftenreducetoPalieando
Examples:dhrayatidhreti,avatraotra,bhavatihoti
SanskritavibecomesPalie(i.e.aviaie)
Example:sthavirathera
SanskritappearsinPaliasa,ioru,oftenagreeingwiththevowelinthefollowingsyllable.alsosometimesbecomesuafterlabialconsonants.
Examples:ktakata,tataha,smtisati,iisi,didihi,ddhiiddhi,juuju,spaphuha,vddhavuddha
Sanskritlongvowelsareshortenedbeforeasequenceoftwofollowingconsonants.
Examples:kntikhanti,rjyarajja,varaissara,tratia,prvapubba

Consonants

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Soundchanges [ edit ]
TheSanskritsibilants,,andsmergeasPalis
Examples:araasaraa,doadosa
TheSanskritstopsandhbecomeandhbetweenvowels(asinVedic)
Example:cakravacakkava,virhavirha
Assimilations [ edit ]
Generalrules [ edit ]
ManyassimilationsofoneconsonanttoaneighboringconsonantoccurredinthedevelopmentofPali,producingalargenumberofgeminate(double)
consonants.Sinceaspirationofageminateconsonantisonlyphoneticallydetectableonthelastconsonantofacluster,geminatekh,gh,ch,jh,h,h,th,dh,
phandbhappearaskkh,ggh,cch,jjh,h,h,tth,ddh,pphandbbh,notaskhkh,ghghetc.
Whenassimilationwouldproduceageminateconsonant(orasequenceofunaspiratedstop+aspiratedstop)atthebeginningofaword,theinitialgeminateis
simplifiedtoasingleconsonant.
Examples:prapa(notppa),sthavirathera(nottthera),dhynajhna(notjjhna),jtiti(notti)
Whenassimilationwouldproduceasequenceofthreeconsonantsinthemiddleofaword,geminatesaresimplifieduntilthereareonlytwoconsonantsin
sequence.
Examples:uttrsauttsa(notutttsa),mantramanta(notmantta),indrainda(notindda),vandhyavajha(notvajjha)
Thesequencevvresultingfromassimilationchangestobb
Example:sarvasavvasabba,pravrajatipavvajatipabbajati,divyadivvadibba,nirvanivvanibbna
Totalassimilation [ edit ]
Totalassimilation,whereonesoundbecomesidenticaltoaneighboringsound,isoftwotypes:progressive,wheretheassimilatedsoundbecomesidenticaltothe
followingsoundandregressive,whereitbecomesidenticaltotheprecedingsound.
Progressiveassimilations [ edit ]
Internalvisargaassimilatestoafollowingvoicelessstoporsibilant
Examples:duktadukkata,dukhadukkha,duprajaduppaa,nikrodha(=nikrodha)nikkodha,nipakva(=nipakva)
nippakka,niokanissoka,nisattvanissatta
InasequenceoftwodissimilarSanskritstops,thefirststopassimilatestothesecondstop
Examples:vimuktivimutti,dugdhaduddha,utpdauppda,pudgalapuggala,udghoaugghosa,adbhutaabbhuta,abdasadda
Inasequenceoftwodissimilarnasals,thefirstnasalassimilatestothesecondnasal
Example:unmattaummatta,pradyumnapajjunna
jassimilatestoafollowing(i.e.,jbecomes)
Examples:prajpa,jtiti
TheSanskritliquidconsonantsrandlassimilatetoafollowingstop,nasal,sibilant,orv
Examples:mrgamagga,karmakamma,varavassa,kalpakappa,sarvasavvasabba
rassimilatestoafollowingl
Examples:durlabhadullabha,nirlopanillopa

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dsometimesassimilatestoafollowingv,producingvvbb
Examples:udvignauvviggaubbigga,dvdaabrasa(besidedvdasa)
tanddmayassimilatetoafollowingsorywhenamorphemeboundaryintervenes
Examples:ut+savaussava,ud+ynauyyna
Regressiveassimilations [ edit ]
Nasalssometimesassimilatetoaprecedingstop(inothercasesepenthesisoccurs)
Examples:agniaggi,tmanatta,prpnotipappoti,aknotisakkoti
massimilatestoaninitialsibilant
Examples:smaratisarati,smtisati
Nasalsassimilatetoaprecedingstop+sibilantcluster,whichthendevelopsinthesamewayassuchclusterswithoutfollowingnasals
Examples:tkatikatikkha,lakmlaklakkh
TheSanskritliquidconsonantsrandlassimilatetoaprecedingstop,nasal,sibilant,orv
Examples:prapa,grmagma,rvakasvaka,agraagga,indrainda,pravrajatipavvajatipabbajati,aruassu
yassimilatestoprecedingnondental/retroflexstopsornasals
Examples:cyavaticavati,jyotijoti,rjyarajja,matsyamacchyamaccha,lapsyatelacchyate
lacchati,abhygataabbhgata,khytiakkhti,sakhysakh(butalsosakhy),ramyaramma
yassimilatestoprecedingnoninitialv,producingvvbb
Example:divyadivvadibba,veditavyaveditavvaveditabba,bhvyabhavvabhabba
yandvassimilatetoanyprecedingsibilant,producingss
Examples:payatipassati,yenasena,avaassa,varaissara,kariyatikarissati,tasyatassa,svminsm
vsometimesassimilatestoaprecedingstop
Examples:pakvapakka,catvricattri,sattvasatta,dhvajadhaja
Partialandmutualassimilation [ edit ]
Sanskritsibilantsbeforeastopassimilatetothatstop,andifthatstopisnotalreadyaspirated,itbecomesaspirated
e.g.c,st,andspbecomecch,tth,handpph
Examples:pactpacch,astiatthi,stavathava,rehaseha,aaaha,sparaphassa
Insibilantstopliquidsequences,theliquidisassimilatedtotheprecedingconsonant,andtheclusterbehaveslikesibilantstopsequences
e.g.strandrbecometthandh
Examples:straastasattha,rraraaraha
tandpbecomecbefores,andthesibilantassimilatestotheprecedingsoundasanaspirate(i.e.,thesequencestsandpsbecomecch)
Examples:vatsavaccha,apsarasacchar
Asibilantassimilatestoaprecedingkasanaspirate(i.e.,thesequencekbecomeskkh)
Examples:bhikubhikkhu,kntikhanti
Anydentalorretroflexstopornasalfollowedbyyconvertstothecorrespondingpalatalsound,andtheyassimilatestothisnewconsonant,i.e.ty,thy,dy,dhy,
nybecomecc,cch,jj,jjh,likewiseybecomes.Nasalsprecedingastopthatbecomespalatalsharethischange.
Examples:tyajaticyajaticajati,satyasacyasacca,mithymichymicch,vidyvijyvijj,madhyamajhyamajjha,anya
ayaaa,puyapuyapua,vandhyavajhyavajjhavajha
Thesequencemrbecomesmb,viatheepenthesisofastopbetweenthenasalandliquid,followedbyassimilationoftheliquidtothestopandsubsequent
simplificationoftheresultinggeminate.
Examples:mraambraamba,tmratamba
Epenthesis [ edit ]
Anepentheticvowelissometimesinsertedbetweencertainconsonantsequences.Aswith,thevowelmaybea,i,oru,dependingontheinfluenceofa
neighboringconsonantorofthevowelinthefollowingsyllable.iisoftenfoundneari,y,orpalatalconsonantsuisfoundnearu,v,orlabialconsonants.
Sequencesofstop+nasalaresometimesseparatedbyaoru
Example:ratnaratana,padmapaduma(uinfluencedbylabialm)
Thesequencesnmaybecomesininitially
Examples:snnasinna,snehasineha
imaybeinsertedbetweenaconsonantandl
Examples:kleakilesa,glnagilna,mlyatimilyati,lghatisilghati
Anepentheticvowelmaybeinsertedbetweenaninitialsibilantandr
Example:rsir
Thesequencerygenerallybecomesriy(iinfluencedbyfollowingy),butisstilltreatedasatwoconsonantsequenceforthepurposesofvowelshortening
Example:ryaaryaariya,sryasuryasuriya,vryaviryaviriya
aoriisinsertedbetweenrandh
Example:arhatiarahati,garhgarah,barhibarihisa
Thereissporadicepenthesisbetweenotherconsonantsequences
Examples:caityacetiya(notcecca),vajravajira(notvajja)

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Otherchanges [ edit ]
AnySanskritsibilantbeforeanasalbecomesasequenceofnasalfollowedbyh,i.e.,snandsmbecomeh,nh,andmh
Examples:tataha,uauhsa,asmiamhi
Thesequencenbecomesh,duetoassimilationofthentotheprecedingpalatalsibilant
Example:pranapraapaha
Thesequenceshyandhvundergometathesis
Examples:jihvjivh,ghyagayha,guhyaguyha
hundergoesmetathesiswithafollowingnasal
Example:ghtigahti
yisgeminatedbetweeneandavowel
Examples:reyasseyya,MaitreyaMetteyya
Voicedaspiratessuchasbhandghonrareoccasionsbecomeh
Examples:bhavatihoti,ebhiehi,laghulahu
Dentalandretroflexsoundssporadicallychangeintooneanother
Examples:jnaa(notna),dahatiahati(beside
Palidahati)nanla(notna),sthnahna(notthna),duktadukkaa(besidePalidukkata)

Exceptions

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ThereareseveralnotableexceptionstotherulesabovemanyofthemarecommonPrakritwordsratherthanborrowingsfromSanskrit.
ryaayya(besideariya)
gurugaru(adj.)(besideguru(n.))
puruapurisa(notpurusa)
vkarukarukkha(notvakkha)

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