INTRODUCTION

Each human language is a complex ensemble of knowledge and abilities enabling

speakers of a language to communicate with each other, to express ideas,
hypotheses, emotions, desires, and all the other things that need to be expressed.
Linguistics is the study of these knowledge systems in all their aspects: how is such a
knowledge system structured, how is it acquired, how is it used in the production and
comprehension of messages, how does it change over time. Linguists consequently
are concerned with a number of particular questions about the nature of language.
Second Language Acquisition is the name of a scientific discipline devoted to
studying the process through which people acquire a second language.
The purpose of this research is, in a broad form, to analyse how our L1 (Spanish)
and L2 (English) influence on the acquisition of a third language (Portuguese/Italian).
In a more precise way, this research will examine how the grammatical structures
(some compound past tenses) of an L1 and an L2 influence directly in the acquisition
of their counterparts in an L3.
Reflecting on the processes that take place during acquisition, some questions were
posed; how do the students relate grammatical structures of L1&L2 with the ones of
L3? Do the similarities and differences between L1&L2 with regard to L3 affect the
process of learning and acquisition of L3?
Our hypothesis, therefore, claims that learners base their acquisition of compound
past tense structures on the rules and structures of the previous ones. This acquisition
is built on the similarities and differences the languages share.
Consequently, this investigation will approach the role of interference and transfer
from L1 and L2 during learning and acquiring an L3
In order to confirm or reject our hypothesis, we will analyse samples of learner
language collected from our own notes when learning Italian and Portuguese. The
items to be scrutinised will be the grammatical structure of compound tenses.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Second Language Acquisition

Second-language acquisition or second-language learning is the process by which

people learn a second language. Second-language acquisition (often abbreviated to
SLA) is also the name of the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process.
Second language refers to any language learned in addition to a person's first
language; although the concept is named second language acquisition, it can also
incorporate the learning of third, fourth or subsequent languages.
The aim of SLA is the description and explanation of the learners linguistic or
communicative competence. To this end, the researcher must examine aspects of the
learners usage or use of the L2 in actual performance, by collecting and analysing
either samples of learner language, reports of learners introspections or records of
their intuitions regarding what is correct or appropriate L2 behaviour.
Learner Language
It is a creative construction of a system in which learners are consciously testing
hypothesis about the target language itself.
By a gradual process of trial and error and hypothesis, learners slowly and tediously
succeeded in establishing closer and closer approximation to the system used by
native languages. Interlanguage is a term that refers to a system that has a structurally
intermediate status between the native and the target language.
Corder used the term idiosyncratic dialect to connote the idea that learners
language is unique to a particular individual, that the rules of the learners language
are peculiar to the language of that individual alone. Second language learners are
forming their own self- contained linguistic system.
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)
It is the study of two languages in contrast. In accordance to CAH, the interference
of the first language system with the second one is the most important barrier to
second language acquisition.
Robert Lado asserts that it is possible to know as well as to foresee and describe
the patterns that will and will not cause difficulty in learning, by comparing
systematically the language and the culture to be learned with the native language and
culture of the student. ( Brown 2008)
Those elements that are similar to the learners native language will be simple for
him to acquire and those elements that are different will be difficult. According to
Stockwell, Bowen and Martin there is a hierarchy of difficulty by which we can make a
prediction of the relative difficulty of a given aspect of the target language.
Types of Errors
Researchers in the field of applied linguistics usually distinguish between two types
of errors: performance errors and competence errors. Performance errors are those
errors made by learners when they are tired or hurried. Normally, this type of error is
not serious and can be overcome with little effort by the learner. Competence errors,
on the other hand, are more serious than performance errors since competence errors

reflect inadequate learning. In this connection, it is important to note that researchers

(cf. Gefen 1979) distinguish between mistakes which are lapses in performance and
errors which reflect inadequate competence. Other researchers (cf. Burt and Kiparsky
1974) distinguish between local and global errors. Local errors do not hinder
communication and understanding the meaning of an utterance. Global errors, on the
other hand, are more serious than local errors because global errors interfere with
communication and disrupt the meaning of utterances. Local errors involve noun and
verb inflections, and the use of articles, prepositions, and auxiliaries. Global errors, for
example, involve wrong word order in a sentence. Finally, language learning errors
involve all language components: the phonological, the morphological, the lexical, and
the syntactic.
Cross-linguistic Influence (CLI)
CLI is the weak version of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis. The former recognizes
the significance of interference across languages; the fact that such interference exists
and can explain difficulties, but it also recognizes that linguistic difficulties can be more
profitable explained a posterior after the fact. When errors appear, teachers can
utilize their knowledge both of the target and native languages to understand sources
of error.
CLI asserts that prior experience places an important role in any learning process,
and that the influence of the native language as prior experience must be
acknowledged.
CLI implies much more than simply the effect of ones first language on a second:
the second language also influences the first; furthermore, subsequent languages in
multilingual all affect each other in various ways. (Brown, from 211 to 213)
Transfer
L1 transfer refers to the influence that the learners L1 exerts over the acquisition of
an L2. This influence is apparent in a number of ways. We may find a Negative
Transfer which occurs when L1 functions as one of the sources of error in learner
language. Another type is the positive transfer: in this case the learners L1 can
facilitate the acquisition of the L2. Avoidance, another phenomenon, occurs when a
feature in L2 is not present in the learners native language. Some of the L2 forms tend
to be overused in accordance with the norms of the learners mother tongue. The
beginning stages of learning a second language are especially vulnerable to
interlingual transfer from the native language, or interference. In these early stages,
before the system of the second language is familiar, the native language is the only
previous linguistic system upon which the learner can draw.
Cross-linguistic influence
Many variables converge to cause cross-linguistic influence. Some variables play a
role in lexical cross-linguistic influence regardless of whether two or more languages
are in contact. These variables range from the general, such as typological similarity
between languages.

Anderson claimed that a grammatical form or structure will occur consistently and
to a significant extent in interlanguage as a result of transfer if and only there already
exists within the L2 input the potential for (mis-)generalization from the input to
produce the same form or structure. Typological similarity between languages with
regard to a particular feature is a necessary condition for transfer to occur.
Kellerman assumed that the learners recognition of congruent forms between the
native and target languages either facilitates or interferes with L2 acquisition.
Variables that can interact to facilitate language transfer in both L2 and L3
acquisition
Learner-Based Variables:
Proficiency is one of the most important factors determining the likelihood of
language transfer. There is general consensus among researchers that language
transfer is more likely to occur at lower levels of proficiency. The general consensus is
that much L2 L3 transfer is the result of low L3 proficiency. In order for the second
language to provide material for transfer, the speaker must have a certain degree of L2
competence.
Ringbom claims that while the L2 provides more material for transfer of form,
instances of transfer of meaning as well as semantically-based lexical transfer, which
require considerable fluency and automatization in the source language, show more
evidence of L1 and L3 influence, even when L1 and L3 are typologically distant.

Amount Of Target Language Exposure and Use

A further interesting point regarding the multilingual situation is that the amount of
L2 exposure has a direct effect on its likelihood of being the source of transfer to L3.
Language Mode The concept of language mode (Grosjean, 1995, 2001) has
guided many recent studies of cross-linguistic influence (Dewaele, 1998, 2001; Fuller,
1999; and others). Grosjean (2001) claims that the amount of language transfer, in
particular lexical transfer, depends directly on the speakers language mode, defined
as the state of activation of the bilinguals languages and language processing
mechanisms at a given point in time (p. 2). Language mode is a continuous variable
ranging from the monolingual to the bilingual poles, whereby the base language that
frames the utterance is always in a state of total activation because it governs
language processing, and the guest language(second language) can range from either
low activation (no language known by the speaker can ever be completely deactivated)
to nearly total activation (see Figure 1 below). When the speaker is in monolingual
mode, the guest language is at low activation and there is no code-switching or lexical
borrowing, but in bilingual mode, the guest language is nearly as activated as the base
language and causes frequent code-switches and lexical borrowings.
Grosjeans model is easily adapted to trilingual speech. For an L3 speaker, the base
language is always fully activated, and the two guest languages are at varying degrees
of activation. A trilingual with low L3 proficiency in monolingual mode will not show
signs of L1 influence in L3 production but might still show signs of L2 interference,

often without conscious awareness (De Angelis & Selinker, 2001; Ringbom, 2001). It
appears that the L1 is easier to deactivate than the L2.
L3 production is characterized by a specific cognitive mode, the talk foreign mode
(Selinker & Baumgartner-Cohen, 1995), in which another non-native language known
by the speaker is the source of negative transfer for no conscious strategic purpose
such as filling a lexical gap.

Linguistic Awareness
Facilitate language transfer depend on the learners ability to notice native- and
target-language linguistic features. Cooks notion of multi-competence refers to
multilingual linguistic competence characterized by increased metalinguistic
awareness, greater creativity and cognitive flexibility, and more diversified mental
abilities.
Age
Learners acquire the second language more quickly when they are children.
However, the language 3 acquisition requires a more complex cognitive development,
so it will be acquire at high speed when the learners became older.

Context
As during L2 production, the likelihood of language transfer during L3 production is
inversely proportional to the degree of control and monitoring.
Formal situations causes the L3 speakers to produce shorter utterances and more
lexical errors, whereas the informal situation leads to more mixed utterances

STRUCTURES
Spanish structure
PRETRITO PERFECTO COMPUESTO

Construction
Auxiliary verb to have= Haber + past participle Haber
SUBJECT + INDICATIVE PRESENT TENSE OF THE VERB "HABER" + PAST
PARTICIPLE

Use

This structure is used when we write an action in an in concluded period of time, an

unfinished action, or an action that is happening actually.

Ej.: Este ao ha llovido muy poco.

(= el ao contina...)
This year has rained so little.
(The year goes on)

Italian: Perfective Past tense

Structure: Passato Prossimo
It is a compound tense that is built with the indicative mood of the verbs essere: to
be, and avere: to have + participle past of the main verb.
For example:
La tassa di soggiorno non inclusa nel prezzo.
El impuesto municipal no est incluido en el precio
The city tax is not included in the price.
Passato prossimo with the auxiliary verb essere:
"Essere" is used with the intransitive and reflexive verbs. In addition , it is used with
verbs that reflects movement with some exceptions
Sono nato nel 1947.
He nacido en 1947.
I was born in 1947
Tommaso uscito.
Tomasso ha salido
Tomasso has gone out.
Il reppresentante venuto tre giorni fa.
El representate ha venido hace 3 das.
The represent has come three days ago.

"Essere" concords in relation to the gender and number of the subject in the
sentence
Lucia rimasta a casa.
Quando siete arrivati?
Cundo han llegado?
When have they arrived?
Le ragazze sono tornate ieri.
Las seoritas han vuelto ayer.
The ladies have come back yesterday.
I prezzi dei cellulari sono ridotti del 5%.
El precio de los celulares se reducen 5%.
The price of the cell phones are reduced by 5%

"Essere" usado com verbos que indicam fenmenos atmosfricos:

piovuto tre giorni fa.
Ha llovido hace tres das.
It has rained three days ago.
. Passato prossimo with the auxiliary verb "avere:

"Avere" is used with transtive verbs:

Durante la passeggiata, ho perso il portafoglio.

Durante la caminata, he perdido el portafolios.
During the walk,I have lost my wallet.
Giordano hanno passato una buona estate a Parigi.
Giordano ha pasado un buen verano en Pars.
Giordano has experienced a good summer in Pars.
Ho parlato con molta gente.
He hablado con mucha gente.
I have talked with much people.

The Passato Prossimo: structure

Avere- to have

Io ho
Tu hai
Lui/Lei ha
Noi abbiamo
Voi avete
Loro hanno

Essere- to be

Io sono
Tu sei
Lui/Lei
Noi siamo
Voi siete
Loro sono

The Preterito Perfeito Composto

Pretrito Perfeito Composto

Pronombres sujeto

Verbo TER

Participios

Eu

tenho

amado

Tu

tens

comido

Ele / Ela / Voc

tem

partido

Ns

temos

vivido

Vs

tendes

dito

Eles / Elas / Vocs

tm

feito

The Preterito Perfeito Simples

erbos Regulares (-ar, -er, -ir)

Para conjugar los verbos regulares apenas sustituir la terminacin (-ar, -er, -ir)
Am(raz) -ar (terminacin)

Am (raz) -ei (terminacin)

Pronombres Sujeto

Am-ar

Com-er

Part-ir

eu

Am-ei

Com-i

Part-i

tu

Am-aste

Com-este

Part-iste

ele, ela, voc

Am-ou

Com-eu

Part-iu

ns

Am-amos

Com-emos

Part-imos

vs

Am-astes

Com-estes

Part-istes

eles, elas, vocs

Am-aram

Com-eram

Part-iram

SAMPLE ANALYSIS
Samples of learner language collected from our own notes when learning Italian
and Portuguese will be analised. The items to be scrutinised will be the grammatical
structure of compound tenses.
Sample 1
Age: 19 years old
L1: Spanish
L2: English
L3: Italian ( 1 year of instruction: First year of instruction)
Context: The student has to tell what she did at weekend, the following sentence
was in her text.
It was a practice of the skill of writing.

Di sabato sera Io ho uscito con i miei amici al cinema X

Di sabato sera Io sono uscito con i miei amici al cinema.

El sbado a la tarde he salido con mis amigos al cine.

On Saturday afternoon, I have gone to the cinema with my friends.
Analysis: The student knows that she has to use the passato prossimo tense in
Italian, but that tense has two possibilities: the first one, the use of the verb essere for
intransitive and reflexive verbs. In addition, it is used with verbs that reflect movement;
the second one, the use of the verb avere, is for transitive verbs. In this case, she
produces a positive transfer as regard the use of a compound tense. However, the
student makes an error because of the negative transfer of the use in Spanish and
English. Why? In Spanish exists one auxiliary verb of the Preterito Perfecto
Compuesto, the verb Haber= to have, the same happens in English, the auxiliary
verb for the past perfect tense is the verb to have. Taking into account that, we
assume that the student tends to use one form( grammatical structure of L1 & L2)
much frequently than the other(grammatical structure of L3), not paying attention in the
use or the rules of the tense.
Sample 2
Age: 19 years old
L1: Spanish
L2: English
L3: Italian ( 1 year of instruction)
Context: The student has to write the right form of the verb arrivare in passato
prossimo in the following sentence.
Miei amici hanno arrivati dopo la mezzanote.
Miei amici sono arrivati dopo la mezzanote.
Mis amigos han llegado despus de la medianoche.
My friends have arrived after midnight.
Analysis: In this case, the student has to make an election for the appropriate verb
in the sentence. Well, the student has knowledge of the rules of the passato prossimo
tense. It has two possibilities: with intransitive or reflexive verbs, and with verbs that
reflects movement, the verb essere; on the other hand, with transitive verbs, the verb
avere. In this particular case, she makes an error because of the negative transfer of
the use in her mother tongue, and the L2( English) . The point is that in Spanish
grammar, there is one auxiliary verb of the Preterito Perfecto Compuesto, the verb
Haber= to have. Also, the same happens in English, the auxiliary verb for the past
perfect tense is the verb to have. Bearing this in mind, we conclude that the student
tend to use one structure ( from Spanish and English) much frequently than the
other(from Italian), not paying attention in the use or the rules that the tense requires.
From a different point of view, when the student acquires the structure of the passato
prossimo tense, she produces a positive transfer as regard the use of a compound
tense that requires auxiliary verbs.

Sample 3
Age: 19 years old
L1: Spanish
L2: English
L3: Italian ( 1 year of instruction)
Context: The student has to complete the gap with the correct verb in this sentence.
Giussepe mangiatto la pasta.
Giussepe ha mangiatto la pasta.
Giussepe ha comido la pasta.
Giussepe has ate the pasta.
Analysis: the passato prossimo tense offers two possibilities: the first one, the
verb essere for intransitive and reflexive verbs. In addition , it is used with verbs that
reflects movement; the second one, the verb avere, for transitive verbs. In this case,
the student produces a positive transfer as regard the use of a compound tense.
However, she made an error because of the negative transfer of the use in Spanish
and English. For what reason? In both Spanish and English exists one auxiliary verb of
the Preterito Perfecto Compuesto : the verb Haber= to have (Spanish) and the verb
to have (English). Considering that, we infer that the student tends to use the
grammatical structure that they are familiar with ( i.e Spanish : their mother tongue and
English: second language) instead of using the other grammatical structure ( the one
from L3 : Italian) . Due to this fact, the students sometimes makes errors and write
sentences without paying attention to the correct grammar structure/use.

Sample 4
Age: 19 years old
L1: Spanish
L2: English
L3: Italian ( 1 year of instruction)
Context: The student has to tell what she did at weekend, the following sentence
was in her text.
It was a practice of the skill of writing.
Mia sorella studiata tutta la settimana per la prova da chimica.
Mia sorella ha studiato tutta la setimanna per la prova da chimica.
Mi hermana ha estudiado toda la semana por la prueba de qumica.
My sister has studied all the week for the chemical test.
Analysis: In this example, due to the fact that the student makes a positive transfer
using a compound past tense, she made an error because of the negative transfer
acquired in the grammar structure of Spanish and English. Lets see the following: In

her mother tongue, Spanish, we can find one auxiliary verb of the Preterito Perfecto
Compuesto, the verb Haber= to have. This situation could be find at English too;
here the auxiliary verb isto have. Taking into account that the student has as her L1
(Spanish), and as her L2 (English), she receives more influence from their grammatical
structures. In Italian, the use of passato prossimo requires an election between two
possibilities: the first one, the verb essere for intransitive and reflexive verbs.
Besides, it is used with verbs that reflect movement; the second one, the use of the
verb avere, is for transitive verbs. Therefore, taking into account the transfer
produced by L1 & L2, we deduce that the pupil generally use one
construction( grammatical structure of L1 & L2) more frequently than the
other(grammatical structure of L3), not paying attention to the exceptions and the
grammar rules of the tense.
Portuguese: Compound Tenses (Perfective Past Tenses)
In Portuguese, the compound tenses are formed by the auxiliary verb ter/haver +
the past participle of the main verb. Although both auxiliary verbs can be used, ter is
used more frequently.
We will analyse the Preterito Composto do Indicativo and the Preterito mais-queperfeito. They follow the pattern of compound Tenses:
Preterito Perfeito Composto do Indicativo
* Auxiliary verb TER/HAVER+ PAST PARTICIPLE.
This tense is used to talk about an event or fact that took place recently.
Ex: Eu tenho estudado demais ultimamente.
I have over studied lately.
He estudiado de ms ltimamente.
Preterito mais-que-perfeito (Simples and Composto)
-This tense has two forms:

Composto:
-Auxiliary verb TER/HAVER (preterito perfeito do indicatvo: its past simple form)+
PAST PARTICIPLE.
Simples:
-This form does not require an auxiliary verb but a certain conjugation
depending on the regularity of the verbs. (See Appendix)
This tense is used to express an action that occurred before another action in the
past and a fact situated in the past.
Ex: O aula j comeara quando eu cheguei l.
The class had (already) started when I arrived there.

La clase ya haba comenzado cuando llegue.

Sample 1
Age: 18 years old
L1: Spanish
L2: English
L3: Portuguese (1st year of instruction)
Context: After the tense has been presented, Ss are required to write sentences
using the Preterito Perfeito Composto.

Tenho visitado Bolivia com minha familia

-I have visited Bolivia with my family.
-He visitado Bolivia con mi familia.

Correct form: Tenho visitado Bolivia com minha familia nos ltimos tres anos.
Analysis: At first view, the sentences seems correct. The structure of the verb is
well used (auxiliary verb + past participle); therefore we infer that it has occurred a
positive transfer related to the structure since Spanish and English share the same
structure for compound verbs. However, there is an error related to the use of the verb.
In Portuguese, the preterito composto do indicativo is used to express something that
has occurred recently and with frequency as well. In the sample, the student used the
tense to express something she has done in the past without specification of the date
or times she has done it. This would correspond to one use of present perfect in
English used to talk about life experiences. We can assume then, that there has been
a negative transfer of one of the uses of present perfect in English.
Sample 2
Age: 18 years old
L1: Spanish
L2: English
L3: Portuguese (1st year of instruction, last term)
Context: Ss are required to write sentences using a compound tense.

Na ltima semana elas tem convidado todo mundo para a festa.

-In the last week, they have invited everyone to the party.
-En la ltima semana, ellas han invitado a todo el mundo a la fiesta.

Analysis: The structure and the use of the tense are correct. We can infer that a
positive transfer related to the structure of the compound tenses has been produced
since English and Spanish share the same structure. Moreover, considering the stage
of development, we assume that the correctness of the structure used is linked to the
lack of vulnerability in the late stage of development.
Sample 3

Age: 18 years old

L1: Spanish
L2: English
L3: Portuguese (1st year of instruction)
Context: Students are required to complete an exercise using the tense (preterito
mais-que-perfeito simples ou composto).

Ele j tinha estudado o livro quando a professora chegou.

-He had already studied the book when the teacher arrived.
-El ya haba estudiado el libro cuando la profesora llego.

Eu j tinha comprado o guarda-chuva quando comeou chover.

- I had already bought the umbrella when it started to rain.
-Yo ya habia comprado el paraguas cuando empez a llover.

Analysis: The structure of the verb is correct as well as the use of the tense.
Nonetheless, it has been noticed that the student prefered the compound form of the
verb in most of the sentences (there were 10 sentences). We assume that the
phenomenon of avoidance occurred since both the Spanish tense Preterito
Pluscuamperfecto and the English tense Past Perfect only have one form of the verb
to use. Considering this, the student avoided using the preterito mais-que-perfeito
tense (which has the same meaning as the compound one) because this feature is not
present neither in the L2 nor the L1.
Sample 4
Age: 19 years old
L1: Spanish
L2: English
L3: Portuguese (2nd year of instruction)
Context: Ss have to rewrite a passage of a story using the correct tenses.
(...) O senhor Da Silva tinha comprado todos os artigos para o acampamento.
As oito da noite sua esposa preparou o jantar com os produtos que tinha comprado do
supermercado(...)
- (...) Mr. Da Silva had bought all the articles for the camp. At eight o clock in
the afternoon his wife prepared the dinner with the products she had bought from the
supermarket. (...)
- (...) El seor Da Silva haba comprado todos los artculos para el
campamento. A las ocho de la noche su esposa prepar la cena con los productos
que haba comprado del supermercado(...)

Analysis: The tenses are well used considering the context. However, this
passage belongs to a literally excerpt. Therefore, it would be more appropriate to use
the preterito mais-que-perfeito simples since this tense is found much more
frequently in literary works. Taking into account that this feature does not exist neither
in English nor in Spanish, this could be an avoidance phenomenon (as well as the
one produce in sample three).

CONCLUSION
At the beginning of this research, we affirm that first and second language of
students highly determine the process of acquisition of a third language.
There are different type of items in the languages that we could bear in mind in
order to examine that influence: grammar structures, vocabulary, morphemes, and
so on. Moreover, we have to bear in mind the context, the level of proficiency and
the possible connections between the learners mother tongue and the second
language.
After analysing the samples of learner language and reading through the theories
we could corroborate our hypothesis that highlight how the L1 and L2 influence in
the acquisition of a third language.
Throughout this process we identified how likely of been transferred are the
structures of the compound tenses. As Spanish and English share the same structure
for these tenses, most of the times the students realise a positive transfer from these
languages to the third ones (Portuguese and Italian). Phenomena like avoidance and
overuse tend to occur but with less frequency.
Apart from that, we could establish that the learners create a sort of habit,
because they tend to follow the pattern (structure) taken from L1 & L2. Consequently,
sometimes they commit performance errors because they are produced more
frequently since they do not pay attention to the specific grammatical rules. Besides,

these errors could be analysed as local considering that they do not interfere in the
communication, i.e. the message is understood anyway.

Learners base their acquisition of the new languages on the rules and
structures of the previous ones

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Libros :
BROWN, D. (2008).Principles of language learning and
teaching. Longman
ELLIS, R. (1997).

The

study

of

Second

Language

Acquisition. Oxford OUP

CORDER, PIT, S (1997). Error Analysis and Interlanguage.
Oxford. OUP
Paginas webs, blogs:

 TU PORTUGUES (2015)
http://www.tuportugues.com/gramatica/modos-tiemposverbales/indicativo/preterito-mais-que-perfeito-simples

CASTELLI, E. Gramatica del Italiano

http://elblogdegramaticaitaliana.blogspot.com.br/
Journals
MURPHY, S. Second Language Transfer During Third
Language Acquisition. Teachers College, Columbia University.
TREMBLAY, M.C, Cross-Linguistic Influence in Third
Language Acquisition: The Role of L2 Proficiency and L2
Exposure. University of Ottawa.