Chapter 3

H OLE P ROBLEMS

INTRODUCTION
Problems are what drilling personnel are about! As a junior engineer, it didn't take me long to
recognize that if I could eliminate the drilling problems peculiar to a given area, I could reduce
the cost. Pursuant to that logic, I would draw the anticipated performance curves without
consideration for potential problems. To my dismay, it became apparent that in most cases the
problems could not be eliminated! However, it was equally apparent that the effect of the
problems could be minimized by properly describing the problem, understanding fundamental
causes and determining the most expeditious and economical solution.
Some of the most common problems associated with rotary drilling operations are as follows:
1.

Lost Circulation

2.

Differential Pressure Sticking

3.

Key Seating

4.

Boulders

5.

Salt

6.

Hole Instability

7.

Deviation

8.

Pressure Control

9.

Hole Cleaning

This chapter will discuss the first six as the latter are covered by complete chapters later in the
book.

LOST CIRCULATION
Lost circulation occurs when the effective hydrostatic becomes greater than the formation pore
pressure plus the resistance to flow of the fluid through the formation. The effective hydrostatic
(also known as the equivalent circulating density or ECD) is the hydrostatic added to the
frictional pressure loss in the annulus plus the effect of cuttings accumulation.
Mathematically:
Phe = Ph + Pfa + Pca

Equation 3-1

The formation resistance is:

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Drilling Practices
Chapter 3

Fr = P + f (, kh ) + f (M )

Equation 3-2

To properly understand lost circulation, it is necessary to have a fundamental understanding of

rock characteristics. Reservoirs are described by their porosity ( ) and permeability ( k ).
Porosity is defined as the ratio of void space volume divided by the bulk or total volume and
expressed as a percentage. Figure 3-1 illustrates matrix or primary porosity. As illustrated, the
primary porosity can be as high as 47.6% for spherical particles stacked on top of each other.
In hydrocarbon reservoirs, primary porosities generally range from lows of approximately 8
percent in deep reservoirs to highs of approximately 30 percent in the shallow, prolific
reservoirs. In addition to primary or matrix porosity, sedimentary strata may contain secondary
porosity. Secondary porosity includes fractures, caverns, vugs, oolites and alterations in
mineral composition. The magnitude of the secondary porosity can be as high as 100% in the
case of cavernous porosity. Chalk, for example, contains no interconnected primary porosity,
but may contain significant secondary fracture porosity. Many older limestones contain very
small (3-6% or less) ineffective primary porosity with meaningful secondary fracture porosity.
Dolomite is an example of secondary porosity caused by the mineral substitution of the Mg ++
ion for the Ca ++ ion in the rock matrix causing additional porosity due to the reduced size of the
magnesium ion. "Vugular" and "oolite" porosity are terms associated with reef type limestone
deposits and are caused by the death and decay of the marine creatures living in the reef.

Figure 3-1. Unit Cells and Groups of Uniform Spheres for Cubic Rhombohedral Packing

Permeability is a measure of the resistance to flow of a fluid thru a rock. The units of
permeability are darcys (D) or millidarcys (md = D/1,000). Permeability may also be thought of
as a measure of the degree to which the pore spaces are interconnected. Values of
permeability in productive reservoirs range from 0.1 md in deep, hard rocks to as high as 10
darcys in prolific reservoirs. Other examples are given in Table 3-1.

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Table 3-1. Typical Values of Porosity and Permeability in Productive Reservoirs

12%

1-10 md

Frio - US Gulf coast

12-20%

100-300 md

Ghawar Field - Arabia

20-30%

1-12 darcys

Shale

20-30%

10-5 md

Pennsylvanian Morrow - Mid-continent US

Cement

0.01-0.1 md

Lost circulation will be divided into surface hole and intervals with high matrix porosity and
permeability, deeper zones with low primary and high secondary porosity, and lost circulation in
the presence of potential hydrocarbon production.

LOST CIRCULATION IN THE SURFACE HOLE OR INTERVALS WITH HIGH PRIMARY POROSITY AND
PERMEABILITY
The surface hole interval is characterized by high productive capacity (combination of porosity
and permeability). Only in this geologic environment is it possible to lose whole mud into
primary porosity. In more normal environments, the mud solids which range in size from 2-200
microns are too large to pass into the matrix porosity and are deposited on the formation face
forming an impermeable filter cake and preventing further losses. Any solution to lost circulation
problems must be in response to Equations 3-1 and 3-2.
Under these circumstances, whether shallow or deep, lost circulation is most often combated by
thickening the mud in order to reduce its ability to pass thru the matrix porosity. Thickening is
most commonly accomplished by adding lime (Ca(OH)2) to mixtures of benetonite (gel) and
water. It must be remembered that the Ca++ ion is a contaminant which reduces the yield of
bentonite. Commonly, sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) is added to fresh water prior to the
addition of bentonite to remove any excess calcium in the make up water and maximize the
bentonite yield. Therefore, if an intentionally contaminated system is to be used, it is imperative
that the bentonite be premixed in fresh water and then contaminated and flocculated with lime.
Remember, water plus bentonite plus lime yields thick mud; whereas water plus lime and
bentonite yields only contaminated water.
If the thick mud fails to solve the lost circulation problem, the most common alternative is to drill
without returns to the surface which is commonly referred to as "dry drilling." Dry drilling should
only be considered when hydrocarbon production is not anticipated. Many operators are
reluctant to drill without returns to the surface due to potential stuck pipe problems. Such
problems are caused by insufficient annular velocities or sloughing of the formations above the
lost circulation zone. To combat sloughing conditions, experienced operators use a "mud cap"
which involves pumping viscous and sometimes weighted mud down the annulus while drilling
with water accompanied by viscous sweeps as dictated by torque and drag. The most common
mistake is insufficient annular velocities. Some field personnel feel obligated to reduce the

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pump strokes and conserve drilling fluids. It must be remembered that the same annular
velocities are needed to carry the cuttings to the zone of lost circulation as to carry them to the
surface. Don't slow down the pump! In reality, if water is substituted for mud, higher pump
rates may be required to compensate for the reduction of viscosity.
Further, in soft formations, high penetration rates can contribute to mud weight while frictional
pressure losses in large holes are generally negligible. Consider the following example.

Example 3-1
Given:

Hole Size

17 inches

Mud weight

9 ppg

Pump rate

400 gpm

Drilling rate

15 feet per minute

Specific Gravity of drilled solids = 2.5

Determine:

The equivalent circulating density ( Phe )

Solution:

From Equation 3-1

Phe = Ph + Pfa + Pca
Pfa = Negligible
Phe = Ph + Pca

Per minute basis:

Volume of Mud = 400 gpm = 400 gallons/min
Weight of Mud = 400 gpm x 9 ppg = 3,600 lbs/min
Weight of Cuttings = Area drilling rate specific gravity density of water
/ 4(17.5 )2
=

144

(15 )(2.5 )(62.4 ) = 3,909lbs/min

Volume of Cuttings =

Weight of Cuttings
Density of Cuttings

Volume of Cuttings =

3,909 lbs/min
(2.5)(8.33lbs/gal)

Volume of Cuttings = 188 gpm

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Hole Problems

Phe =

Total Weight
Total Volume

Phe =

Weight of Mud + Weight of Cuttings

Volume of Mud + Volume of Cuttings

Phe =

3,600 + 3,909
= 12.81 lbs/gal
400 + 188

Therefore, the equivalent circulating density ( Phe ) is 12.8 ppg or an increase of 3.8 ppg due to
the accumulation of cuttings in the annulus. Since the frictional pressure losses are negligible,
the equivalent hydrostatic could be reduced by increasing the pump rate. If the pump rate is
increased to 1,000 gpm in the same example, the equivalent circulating density is reduced as
follows:
Phe =

9,000 + 3,909
= 10.9 ppg
1,000 + 188

or the equivalent circulating density is reduced by 2 ppg.

As drilling people, we must respond according to the existing conditions. In the previous
examples, the problem may be solved be thickening the mud or increasing pump rate. As we
shall see, in a 6 inch hole at 23,000 feet, the solution would be to thin the mud and slow the
pump rate.

LOST CIRCULATION IN DEEPER INTERVALS - HARD ROCKS

Under these conditions, it is unlikely that the primary porosity is sufficient to permit the loss of
whole mud. Most commonly, circulation is being lost into secondary porosity such as fractures.
Since stuck pipe is often associated with lost circulation, it is important to keep the pipe moving
through these intervals. A good alternative is to drill ahead without returns to the surface
following the guidelines in the previous section.
In the event dry drilling is unacceptable, lost circulation material (LCM) is generally the next
alternative. A brief look at lost circulation material is appropriate. Lost circulation material
should be the cheapest, most readily available bulk material. It may be cottonseed hulls in
farming areas, sawdust in mountainous or wooded areas, ground sea shells in coastal areas or
some manufacturing residue in industrial areas. There is no definitive work which suggests that
one lost circulation material or any combination of lost circulation materials is more effective
than another. Lost circulation material is a shallow additive. The best information suggests that
a lost circulation bridge can increase the formation strength by approximately 300 psi. Consider
the following example.

Example 3-2
Given:

Fracture Gradient = 0.5 psi/ft

Determine:

The permissible mud weight at 1,000, 5,000, 10,000 and 20,000 feet if
lost circulation material is added.

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Solution:
TOTAL
EQUIVALENT
FRAC
PRESSURE MUD WEIGHT

DEPTH

FRAC
PRESSURE

(feet)

(psi)

(psi)

(psi)

(ppg)

1,000

500

300

800

15.4

5,000

2,500

300

2,800

10.8

10,000

5,000

300

5,300

10.2

20,000

10,000

300

10,300

9.9

Where equivalent mud weight is given by

em =

Total Fracture Pressure

Depth *(0.052 )

Equation 3-3

It can be clearly seen from Example 3-2 that lost circulation material may improve the fracture
pressure from 9.6 to 15.4 ppg at 1,000 feet yielding a 60% increase. However, at 10,000 feet,
the improvement is only 0.6 ppg or an increase of less than 10% in the available mud weight.
Further, as will be seen in deep, small holes frictional pressure losses may be responsible for
the lost circulation problems. Mud rheology is measured only after lost circulation material has
been removed. Limited research indicates conclusively that LCM contributes to viscosity and
increases frictional pressure losses. Further, due to its low specific gravity, the use of LCM
should be discouraged in weighted mud systems. (The use of fine mica to prevent seepage of
weighted muds is an exception.) Plainly, LCM is not a reasonable alternative in a 23,000 foot
well with a 6 inch hole, 2 inch drill pipe and 16.8 ppg pore pressure combined with 17.0 ppg
fracture gradient.
If LCM is to be used, it is common practice to pull a few stands off bottom to avoid the pipe
sticking problems while mixing LCM in the suction pit. LCM concentrations to 30 lbs/bbl are not
unusual and can be pumped thru nozzles in the bit provided the LCM is properly dispersed
throughout the system. Once the suction pit is ready, drilling can be resumed without returns
until returns are regained, the fractured zone is penetrated or until the mud losses preclude
further drilling. It is imperative that the lost circulation zone be completely penetrated prior to
attempting more drastic alternatives since sealing only half of the interval will cease to be
effective once additional interval is penetrated. If this technique is not successful, the drill pipe
may be run open ended to utilize larger concentrations of LCM.
In examining Equations 3-1 and 3-2, it is apparent that hydrostatic reductions using air, foam or
air assist are a reasonable alternative. These procedures are discussed in more detail in the
chapter on "Air Drilling."
The alternative, most commonly following the failure of LCM, involve the use of solids squeezes
such as "gunk", thixotropic cements, diacel and plastics. For many years, the "gunk" squeeze
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was the most popular procedure to control lost circulation. "Gunk" was first made by adding
250-300 lbs bentonite to one barrel of diesel oil and was called diesel oil-bentonite (DOB).
Later, cement was added to the bentonite (50:50 by weight) and the mixture was called "gunk."
"Gunk" was very successful and popular as a treatment for lost circulation primarily because
water activates the slurry and most lost circulation zones are aquifers.
By the late 1970's, the price of diesel had made the "gunk" squeeze very expensive. In
addition, in some countries such as Canada, it had become a violation of regulations to use a
valuable resource in this manner. As a result, the thixotropic or high calcium cements replaced
the "gunk" in popularity and, with experience, in success. The thixotropic cements have been
very successful under the most adverse circumstances. In one case history involving
cavernous conditions, more than ten thousand sacks of cement was being considered, which
would have limited the project. Abandonment of the project was considered. The zone was
squeezed with 300 sacks of thixotropic cement and full returns were obtained for several
months. At regular intervals of 2-3 months thereafter, returns would be lost and the procedure
successfully repeated until the project was completed. In another instance, a hole in the surface
pipe with only soft shallow zones exposed could not be repaired by ordinary means. Again, the
thixotropic cement solved the problem and the project was finished without incident.
Diacel or diatameous earth is a clay having extremely high initial gel strengths. Diacel is
successfully used around the world for lost circulation into both primary and secondary porosity.
Diacel plugs are temperature sensitive and may deteriorate with time necessitating additional
applications.
Plastics and resins were popular during the mid 1960's. However, they were not very
successful. They were expensive and, therefore, used in small quantities. To further
complicate matters, the activator had to be pumped separately, and in many instances, the two
never made contact in the wellbore.
In long sections of open hole, locating the zone of loss can be the most difficult problem in
determining where to spot the plugging material. Temperature surveys and radioactive tracer
surveys are the most common and reliable methods. The temperature survey is more reliable
and involves locating a cool anomaly. The normal geothermal gradient in sedimentary rocks is
illustrated in Figure 3-2 (A) and varies from 1 to 3F/100 feet. Routine drilling operations shift
the gradient as further illustrated in Figure 3-2 (A). A loss of significant quantities of drilling mud
will cool the entire wellbore. However, only that portion of the hole containing the larger
volumes of lost mud will remain cool for long periods of time. The temperature in the remainder
of the hole will move toward the geothermal gradient leaving a "bulge" at the zone of loss
(Figure 3-2 B). Temperature surveys are generally run at two hour intervals in an attempt to
expedite the process.
The radioactive surveys are faster, but generally, not as reliable. Modern tools consist of an
emitter and two detectors as illustrated in Figure 3-3. Weak radioactive materials with a short
half life are used to avoid formation contamination which would effect the Gamma-Ray
correlation log. Depending on the service company, more than a dozen individual "pills" can be
emitted with one trip in the hole. A pump rate is established that will provide an identifiable
velocity. Then, the tracer tool is set at positions in the hole and the detector response is noted
as the passing or failure to pass of the "pill." The tracer tool is simply moved around until the
zone of loss is located by the failure of the "pill" to go up or down, but out into the lost circulation
zone.

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Drilling Practices
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Figure 3-2. (A) Temperature Survey while Drilling

(B) Temperature Surveys with Lost Circulation

Figure 3-3. Radioactive Survey Tool

LOST CIRCULATION IN THE PRESENCE OF POTENTIAL PRODUCTION

Lost circulation in the presence of production represents one of the dangerous situations in
drilling. Some of the most catastrophic blowouts in the history of the industry have resulted in
this situation. The best solution is to avoid the hazard through effective casing seat testing.
Casing seat testing should always be performed when hydrocarbon production is anticipated.
Testing procedures vary with need and geologic environment. The most common procedure is
to drill a minimal distance (20 feet) below the shoe and test. In some areas, the first sand below
the shoe is drilled prior to testing. In overthrust areas, sedimentary rocks below hundreds or
even thousands of feet of granite are penetrated and tested. The purpose of the test is to
determine the maximum permissible mud weight, to insure the integrity of the cement job or to
insure that the required mud weight will not exceed the fracture gradient at the casing shoe. A

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typical casing seat test is illustrated in Figure 3-4. In this

figure, part (A) illustrates the normal test for sandstone.
Point "A" in the figure represents the mud weight
required for known reservoirs. Point "B" represents the
deviation from linearity and is defined as "leak off." Point
"C" is defined as "break down" and point "D" is defined
as "pump in." If sufficient data are available to determine
that the equivalent mud gradient represented by point "A"
is adequate for drilling below the shoe, it is pointless to
test beyond point "A". For example, if it is known in a
particular field that 15 ppg is sufficient to finish the well
and point "A" represents 15 ppg equivalent mud weight,
there is no reason to pressure beyond point "A".
All wells of uncertain pore pressure should be tested at
least to "leak off." It is more often preferable to test to
"pump in." In general, these equivalent mud weights
should not be exceeded. It has become common
practice in the industry to retest or merely mud up slowly
if higher weights are required in hope that formation
damage has increased the equivalent mud weight at
"pump in" which is, in fact, often the case. However, this
procedure is not without risk because a surge may
exceed the breakdown pressure and reduce the integrity
of the open hole section to the pump-in pressure ("D")
which is unaltered by formation damage. The difference
between points "C" and "D" is the pressure required to
initiate the fracture and could be catastrophic if that
equivalent mud weight is less than required to control the
pore pressure.
Figure 3-4 (B) and (C) represent typical tests for shales
and older limestones, respectively. Most shales do not
break down, but merely balloon while older limestones
may fracture suddenly. When the formation ruputures,
some tests in shale and sand can also look like those
shown in the figure.
The test is usually accomplished with a triplex pump
since low rates are required in order to identify "leak off"
Figure 3-4. Plot of Typical Casing Seat
Tests for (A) Sandstone, (B) Shales,
and "pump in." The volume required is a function of
(C) Limestones
depth, length of open hole interval, hole size and drill
pipe size. Thin fluids are better because gel strengths
absorb pressure. Too much open hole can confuse the results. Consider the following
example:

Example 3-3
Given:

Well depth = 10,000 feet

Mud weight = 9.6 ppg = 0.5 psi/ft

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Drilling Practices
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Equivalent weight required = 15 ppg = 0.78 psi/ft

Determine:

The surface pressure required to test the shoe at 10,000 feet to 15 ppg.

Solution:

Hydrostatic at the shoe at 10,000 feet

Ph10,000 = (0.5 psi / ft )(10,000ft ) = 5,000 psi
Required hydrostatic equivalent to 15 ppg
Phe10,000 = (0.78 psi / ft )(10,000ft ) = 7,800 psi
Required surface pressure

Psurf = (7,800 psi 5,000 psi ) = 2,800 psi

Example 3-4 shows how the pressures within the wellbore react when the well is again tested to
an equivalent mud of 15 ppg after being drilled to 15,000 feet.

Example 3-4
Given:

The data are similar those given in Example 3-3

Well depth = 15,000 feet

Determine:

Solution:

1.

The required surface pressure to test 15,000 feet to 15 ppg.

2.

The equivalent mud weight at the casing shoe at 10,000 feet.

1.

Hydrostatic at 15,000 feet

Ph15,000 = (0.5 psi / ft )(15,000ft ) = 7,500 psi
Required hydrostatic for 15 ppg equivalent at 15,000 ft.
Phe15,000 = (0.78 psi / ft )(15,000ft ) = 11,700 psi
Required surface pressure

Psurf = (11,700 psi 7,500 psi ) = 4,200 psi

2.

Hydrostatic at 10,000 ft
Ph10,000 = (0.5 psi / ft )(10,000ft ) = 5,000 psi
Total effective hydrostatic at 10,000 ft
Phe10,000 = Hydrostatic + surface pressure

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Drilling Practices
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Phe10,000 = (5,000 psi + 4,200 psi ) = 9,200 psi

Equivalent mud weight at 10,000 feet

em10,000 =

9,200 psi
= 17.7 ppg
(10,000ft )(0.052)

As illustrated in Example 3-3 and Example 3-4, when the zone at 15,000 feet is tested to 15
ppg, the casing shoe is tested to 17.7 ppg. The remainder of the open hole interval between
10,000 ft and 15,000 ft is tested to equivalents above 15 ppg and below 17.7 ppg. Therefore,
should leak off or break down occur at or below 4,200 psi (15 ppg Equivalent), the break down
could have occurred at any point in the open hole section and the test results are inconclusive.
Pressure control expertise becomes of the utmost importance when lost circulation occurs in the
presence of hydrocarbon production. Every consideration must be given to the possibility of a
sudden, uncontrollable flow. This particular problem is discussed in the chapter on Pressure
Control.

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE STICKING

Differential pressure sticking occurs when pipe becomes stuck in the filter cake on a porous,
permeable zone. As illustrated in Figure 3-5, during the normal course of drilling, mud and
filtrate are lost into permeable formations when the effective hydrostatic, Phe, is greater than the
formation pore pressure, P . As the filtrate is lost, the solids in the mud are deposited on the
formation face as filter cake. The characteristics of the filter cake are a function of the solids in
the mud. Generally, a mud with high native solids content leaves a thick, sticky filter cake while
a mud with bentonite produces a slick, thin filter cake. These conditions must be present for
differential pressure sticking to occur; therefore, it is not possible to be differentially stuck in a
long shale interval. Since the drill collars have the largest outside diameter and are usually
slick, differential pressure sticking almost always occurs in the collars.
The symptoms of differential pressure sticking are as follows:
1.

Always occurs opposite a porous permeable zone.

2.

Occurs when pipe is not moving.

3.

May occur anywhere in the hole.

4.

Can continue to circulate freely.

The mechanics of differential pressure sticking are well known to the industry. Annis1 and
others reported that the sticking force is described by the following equation:
Fs = fAf P

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Equation 3-4

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Figure 3-5. Diagram Showing Differential Pressure Sticking Mechanism

Annis wrote extensively concerning the sticking coefficient. Two observations are particularly
significant to field operations. It was observed that ordinary emulsified crude oil reduced the
sticking coefficient to minimal values. Commonly used surfactants were helpful with certain oils,
but ineffective with others, the maximum reduction being about 30%. Common additives such
as CMC and lignosulfonate had no effect on the sticking coefficient. Bentonite solids resulted in
the lowest coefficients for any solids. Of perhaps more significance was the behavior of the
sticking coefficient with time. The sticking coefficient increased by a factor of four in 20 minutes
and by a factor of six in 2 hours. The significance is that efforts to pull the pipe free are more
likely to be successful early.
Efforts to free the pipe must be within the concept of the aforementioned equation. The first
effort should be to pull to the rated capacity of the weakest link of the hoisting system thereby
taking advantage of the low values of the sticking coefficient. The often used practice of pulling
only some small amount over the string weight should be abandoned in this instance. If the
pipe remains stuck after the initial effort to pull free, it is pointless to continue to work the pipe or
otherwise "rodeo" the rig. In fact, other remedial efforts should be commenced as soon as
possible. Otherwise, hole conditions might deteriorate.
The most common method of freeing differentially stuck pipe has been to spot oil. This
technique reduces the sticking coefficient and also thins the filter cake thereby reducing the
contact area. The technique is generally successful within 6 hours. If no success is
experienced within 24 hours, an alternate is usually considered.
Working on the " P " component of the sticking force has become more popular in recent
years. The availability of nitrogen within the continental United States has made pumping
nitrogen bubbles very popular as well as successful. In some areas the hydrostatic is lowered

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Drilling Practices
Hole Problems

by merely pumping a lighter fluid into either the drill pipe or the annulus. The well is then
permitted to back flow reducing the effective hydrostatic and " P ". Lowering the mud weight or
spotting a pill of lighter mud has been effective in reducing the hydrostatic enough to free the
pipe. In the past, drill stem test packers have been successfully used to free pipe. Any effort
affecting the " P " component should be done with caution as some famous blowouts have
resulted from these circumstances.
Spiral drill collars reduce the contact area; however, they are not always successful in
eliminating differential pressure sticking. Shorter drill collar strings and more heavy weight drill
pipe have reduced the problem. Fewer native solids and more fresh bentonite have reduced
instances of stuck pipe. Oil muds reduce, but do not always eliminate differential sticking.

KEY SEATING
Keyseating occurs when the combination of dogleg severity and string tension causes the pipe
to drill into the side of the hole. As illustrated in Figure 3-6, the rotation of the drill pipe causes
the pipe to drill into the side of the hole
producing the illustrated hole condition.
Depending on geometry, it is clear that the
drill pipe can pass thru the key seating
interval; however, the drill collars are too large
to enter the smaller hole and may become
lodged.
The symptoms of the keyseat are as follows:
1. Usually high in the hole since a
significant tensile force is required to
produce sufficient lateral force causing
the drill pipe to drill into the side of the
hole.
2. Can occur in any formation. However,
softer formations are most easily
drilled.
3. Encountered while pipe is moving on a
trip.
4. Can go down, but not up provided the
initial contact is not so dramatic as to
cause the pipe to become stuck.
5. Can continue to circulate.

Figure 3-6. Schematic of Keyseating Problem

The keyseat is the most vocal of all drilling

problems. It will manifest itself as a tight spot on a trip well in advance of any significant
problems.
Should the symptom persist or in a known problem area, preventive measures should be taken.
In areas with a history of keyseating problems, stiff bottom hole assemblies will usually eliminate

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Drilling Practices
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the doglegs and keyseating problems. Once the problem appears, a

keyseat wiper is in order. The keyseat wiper illustrated in Figure 3-7
consists of a mandrel on a sub and is added above the drill collars.
The mandrel has about one foot of free travel and is coated with
tungsten carbide on the outside. The sub is free to rotate inside the
mandrel until the key slots on either end are engaged. In the locked
position, the keyseat wiper can be used to back ream through the
keyseat interval.
In the higher portion of the hole where keyseats most often occur, rig
loads are minimal and trip speeds are at their highest. Therefore, the
sudden encounter of a keyseat can cause the string to become stuck
in the keyseat. The most common solution is to drive the string down
using the full weight of the pipe or surface drivers (at depths of
generally less than 4,000 feet). Failing these efforts, the pipe is
backed off and fishing jars run to drive the stuck pipe down out of the
keyseat. Extreme caution should be used in backing off keyseated
pipe. If the back off point is in the keyseated interval, it is often
impossible to screw into or otherwise get over the top of the fish. A
careful study of an offset caliper log should be made and an interval of
gauge hole chosen for the back off. Failing all else, wash pipe will free
the fish provided the fish can be located. If wash pipe is to be used, it
is not uncommon to back off inside the casing string and use the free
pipe as a guide for the wash pipe. In instances where the top of the
fish cannot be located, an attempt to merely drill past the fish is often
successful. In many instances, the fish is successfully passed and the
hole entered below the fish. The fear that the fish will later fall in and
stick the string or otherwise cause problems, is unsupported by
experience.

Figure 3-7. Diagram of Key

Seat Wiper

BOULDERS
"Boulders" are the presence of pieces of formation too large to be removed by the carrying
capacity of the mud. Boulders are caused by extraordinary feature and stress patterns within
the formations or the presence of glacial till. This author has witnessed two extraordinary
instances of the presence of boulders. One occurred in the Cody shale in the Bighorn Basin of
north central Wyoming. An overshot was run to retrieve 6" collars inside a 7" hole. After
several unsuccessful attempts to get over the fish, the overshot was pulled. Lodged inside the
overshot was a piece of Cody shale approximately 6 inches in diameter. The other instance
occurred in central Colorado. A reverse circulating junk basket recovered three large pieces of
limestone with the largest measuring approximately 6 by 8 inches.
The symptoms of a boulder problem are as follows:
1. Severe torque while drilling. Sometimes the table is stopped and the string stuck.
2. Difficulty in pulling off bottom or in pulling the first few stands.
3. No difficulty in circulating.

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Drilling Practices
Hole Problems

4. Free movement down with difficulty in moving up.

5. The tight spot is not in the same place, but rather moves around.
Boulder problems seldom result in fishing jobs. The problems almost always end after the
troublesome formation has been penetrated and the stresses are relieved. Therefore, in many
instances, time and a gentle hand on the brake are the only solutions. Most often a good driller
can gently work by the boulders without getting stuck. Viscous sweeps can be successful,
provided the boulders are not too large. In one operation, viscous sweeps were pumped every
time the erratic behavior of the torque gauge indicated the accumulation of boulders. The
boulders would pass over the shale shaker and the symptoms would disappear for 8-10 hours.
In the event the pipe does become stuck and cannot be freed, caution should be observed in
backing off the collars to insure that the fish can be screwed into. It is usually a simple matter to
jar the fish loose.

SALT
Salt is most often a problem after the well has been completed. The salt will begin to flow and
subject the casing to geostatic overburden pressures of 1 psi/ft. Sodium chloride is not the
culprit. It is rather the mixed salts that cause the problems. When the salts are present in long
intervals, the problems are inevitable.
The solution is simple, but any deviation can be catastrophic. The salts should be drilled with
saturated brine to prevent hole enlargement. The casing in the salt interval should be designed
to withstand at least 1 psi/ft in collapse. Finally, the salt interval should be cemented with salt
saturated cement. There are few reported instances of failure when this procedure is followed.
However, there are still a few reported instances of failure.
Salt creeping into the wellbore can be a problem while drilling. In some cases, the salt will
restrict the diameter of the hole making it difficult to pull the bottomhole assembly or causing the
well to become tight while drilling. The easiest way to alleviate this problem is to pump fresh
water and spot it across the salt water zone. The fresh water will dissolve some of the salt and
enlarge the hole.

SLOUGHING SHALE
Troublesome shales are perhaps the most universal problem in all of drilling. The biggest
problem is that operators tend to over react to the slightest problem and to respond with the
typical oil field philosophy that money will solve any problem. The common denominator to all
shale problems is the presence of a liquid. Other contributing factors to problematic shales are:
1. The presence of sodium montmorillinite or other water sensitive clays.
2. Abnormal pressures.
3. Tectonic stresses.
4. Any combination of the above.

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved.

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Drilling Practices
Chapter 3

It is generally true that shales cause problems because they get "wet." However, it must be
understood that API Water Loss is not related to shale stability! In more than 60 years of drilling
experience, the industry has not produced any evidence linking shale stability to API Fluid Loss.
There is not one major oil company research facility or one major mud company that even
suggests that a relationship exists between the API Fluid Loss and Shale Stability.

WATER SENSITIVE CLAYS

All shales have an affinity for water. When the bonding forces are less than the hydrating
forces, the shales will slough. It must be remembered that the hydrating forces are
perpendicular to the bedding planes. That shale will "swell" and reduce holes size is a myth.
Chenevert was among the first to recognize that water moved into the shale when the salinity of
the formation water exceeded that of the mud. In the alternative, water moved out of the shale
when the salinity of water in mud exceeded that of the water in the shale. The process by which
the water moves is osmosis and the pressures approach 50,000 psi. Further, it makes no
difference if the water is free water or inversely emulsified in an oil base mud. In truly water
sensitive shales the hydrating of the shales can be inhibited with various salts such as
potassium chloride or chemicals such as lignosulfonates. Inhibition has been a part of the
business since the 1920's and is nothing more than that, "inhibition."
The Gumbo shales common to geologically young environments in coastal areas around the
world are an excellent example of water sensitive shales. Gumbo is merely young shale
containing high percentages of sodium montmorillinite commonly known as bentonite or gel.
The name describes the physical state of the clay when the affinity for water is not completely
satisfied. The State of Wyoming is a source of bentonite. This author has experienced such an
accumulation of bentonite after a rain on auto tires that the tires would no longer turn. The
same thing happens in the hole while drilling. If the affinity of the clay for water is unsatisfied,
the clay will accumulate or "gum up" on the drilling assembly hence, the name "Gumbo."
Sometimes strong dispersants such as SAPP are used. However, the most common solution is
an abundance of water in order to satisfy the clay's affinity for water. Gumbo shales are more
problematic when weighted muds are required because the shales contribute to viscosity. The
decanting centrifuge is very cost effective under such circumstances. Some operators use
highly dispersed lignosulfonate muds while others prefer potassium inhibited polymer muds. In
some instances, oil muds are used. Under some circumstances, the highly dispersed fresh
water mud combined with good solids control offers the most economical solution.
In the truly water sensitive environment, cost must be the final measure of success. The
inhibited systems have experienced limited success in controlling hole size while an inverted oil
mud may be even more successful in controlling hole size. However, all costs considered the
water system usually is more economical.

PRESSURED SHALES
The term "pressured shale" has been overworked in recent years. Certainly, pressured shales
do exist and are almost always accompanied by abnormally pressured production. Since the
shales are the source beds for the hydrocarbon accumulation, it is basically geologically
impossible to encounter abnormally pressured shales on either side of a normally pressured
hydrocarbon reservoir unless the reservoir has been depleted.
Abnormally pressured shales are characterized by an abundance of slivers which are 2 inches
long by inch wide and paper thin. The slivers may appear smaller at the surface due to

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Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

Drilling Practices
Hole Problems

breakup as they are being circulated out of the hole. Figure 3-9 illustrates sloughing from
abnormally pressured shale. It is interesting to note that these slivers must come from a flat
surface parallel to the bedding plane and not from the wall
of the hole as is often thought. These shales usually
slough when in the presence of a liquid of lower density
than the pressure in the shale. It is interesting to note that
the presence of a liquid is a must. When shales are drilled
with air, no such phenomenon is observed; however, the
introduction of a liquid phase will produce the previously
described sloughing.
Certainly shale problems can be caused by any
combination of the factors listed. However, in the truly
pressured shales, mud density is the only solution to
control hole size. Under these circumstances, the use of
inhibited muds is illogical. Again economics must be the
final measure. The cost of the larger hole drilled with the
lesser mud must be compared with the cost of the gauge
hole with the more expensive system. Generally, hole
enlargement is not detrimental to drilling, cementing, or Figure 3-9. Abnormally Pressured Shales
completion operations.

TECTONIC STRESSES
Tectonic stresses are the forces associated with the
movement of the earth's crust. These stresses are the
most common contributor to hole instability in shale
sloughing. Most often these shales are located in or
around mountains or mountain fronts. Or they are
associated with complex subsurface geology. They are
generally geologically older and almost never water
sensitive. Some shales are in more subtle geologic
environments. However, when hundreds to thousands
of feet of shale are present with intervals to gauge and
intervals enlarged, stress is the obvious culprit.
If the shale sloughs due to tectonic stresses, the hole
will generally have an elliptical shape as illustrated in
Figure 3-8.
The term is often called wellbore
breakout. Sloughing is related to the large differences
between the minimum and maximum horizontal stress.
When the stresses are sufficiently different, breakout
occurs perpendicular to the maximum stress.
Fortunately, sloughing will stop when the hole achieves
a predetermined shape. If the formations are also
water sensitive, hole enlargement may not stop and
hole cleaning becomes a problem.

Caliper 1

Caliper 2

Figure 3-8. Elliptical Hole Due to Stress

Related Sloughing

Stress related sloughing can be reduced by increasing

the mud weight. If the value of the minimum and maximum horizontal stress is known, the mud
weight required to prevent sloughing can be calculated. The minimum stress can be calculated

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved.

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Drilling Practices
Chapter 3

by inducing a hydraulic fracture, but the maximum stress can not be measured directly. The
maximum stress can be interpreted from logs and from core testing. Increasing the mud weight
will also slow down penetration rate and increase mud costs.
The solution to the problem is simple and was pioneered by the operators of Western Canada in
the early 1950's -"Clean the Hole." The Canadians increased the carrying capacity by
flocculating the mud (which causes the API water-loss to be high) and cleaning the hole. Other
operators pump viscous sweeps at regular intervals while in the most serious cases, weighted
viscous sweeps are used. Remember! Clean the hole!
A good example is the Waltman shale of central Wyoming. The Waltman was diagnosed by a
major service company as being abnormally pressured and water sensitive. The mud density
was routinely increased to 14.9 ppg and API water loss was reduced to below 6 cc's/30
minutes. Mud costs just to drill the Waltman could easily be in excess of $100,000. Trip time
could be from a day to a week. The Waltman was successfully drilled with a 9.0 ppg flocculated
system with a 35 cc's fluid loss. The mud costs were less than 10% of that for the weighted
muds while penetration rates were so improved that total cost for the interval excluding the
savings in mud was 30% of the best previous effort. Caliper logs indicated that the hole was
essentially in gauge.
In summary, be very critical of shale problems. The worn out "Raise the weight and lower the
water loss" should be abandoned forever as should the routine use of KCl or oil systems. Study
the shale problem and attack the problem. Let science and technology conquer fear and
superstition!

NOMENCLATURE
Af

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Area of pipe in contact with the filter cake, in2

Depth =

Formation Depth, ft

Sticking coefficient

Fr

Formation resistance to lost circulation

Fs

Sticking force, lbs

Pca

Hydrostatic due to cuttings in the annulus

Pfa

Frictional pressure losses in the annulus

Ph

Hydrostatic of the mud

Phe

Effective hydrostatic or equivalent circulating density

Formation pore pressure

Pressure differential (between effective hydrostatic and pore pressure), psi

f ( ,kh )

Function of reservoir characteristics

f (M )

Function of mud and mud solids

em

Equivalent mud weight, ppg

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

Drilling Practices
Hole Problems

SI UNITS
The equations given in the chapter are converted below into SI units.

Equation 3-3:

em =

Equation 3-4:

Fs =

Total Fracture Pressure

Depth *(0.0098 )

fAf P
98

Equation 3-5

Equation 3-6

NOMENCLATURE FOR SI UNITS EQUATIONS

Af

Depth =

Area of pipe in contact with the filter cake, cm2

Formation depth

Sticking coefficient

Fs

Sticking force, kgf

Pca

Hydrostatic due to cuttings in the annulus, Kpa

Pfa

Frictional pressure losses in the annulus, Kpa

Ph

Hydrostatic of the mud, Kpa

Phe

Effective hydrostatic or equivalent circulating density, Kpa

Formation pore pressure, Kpa

em

Pressure differential (between effective hydrostatic and pore pressure),

Kpa
Equivalent mud weight, kg/m3

REFERENCE
1

Annis, M. R. and Monaghan, P. H.; "Differential Pressure Sticking-Laboratory Studies of

Friction Between Steel and Mud Filter Cake," SPE 151, May, 1962.

Copyright 2003 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved.

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