refraction

rfrakSH()n/
noun
PHYSICS

1.

the fact or phenomenon of light, radio waves, etc., being deflected in passing
obliquely through the interface between one medium and another or through a medium
of varying density.
o
change in direction of propagation of any wave as a result of its traveling
at different speeds at different points along the wave front.
o
measurement of the focusing characteristics of an eye or eyes.

Refractive index, also called index of refraction, measure of the bending of

a ray of light when passing from one medium into another. If i is the angle of
incidence of a ray in vacuum (angle between the incoming ray and the
perpendicular to the surface of a medium, called the normal) and r is the angle
of refraction (angle between the ray in the medium and the normal), the
refractive index n is defined as the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to
the sine of the angle of refraction; i.e., n = sin i / sin r. Refractive index is also
equal to the velocity of light c of a given wavelength in empty space divided by
its velocity v in a substance, or n = c/v.

Law of Refraction

The law of refraction, which is generally known as Snell's law, governs the behaviour
of light-rays as they propagate across a sharp interface between two transparent
dielectric media.
Consider a light-ray incident on a plane interface between two transparent dielectric
media, labelled 1 and 2, as shown in Fig. 57. The law of refraction states that the
incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal to the interface, all lie in the same
plane. Furthermore,
(341)

where

is the angle subtended between the incident ray and the normal to the

interface, and

is the angle subtended between the refracted ray and the normal to

the interface. The quantities

and
are termed the refractive indices of media 1
and 2, respectively. Thus, the law of refraction predicts that a light-ray always
deviates more towards the normal in the optically denser medium: i.e., the medium
with the higher refractive index. Note that
in the figure. The law of
refraction also holds for non-planar interfaces, provided that the normal to the
interface at any given point is understood to be the normal to the local tangent plane
of the interface at that point.

Figure 57: The law of refraction.

By definition, the refractive index

is given by

of a dielectric medium of dielectric constant

(342)

Table 4 shows the refractive indices of some common materials (for yellow light of
wavelength
nm).
Table 4: Refractive indices of some common materials at

nm.

Material
Air (STP)

1.00029

Water

1.33

Ice

1.31

Glass:
Light flint

1.58

Heavy flint

1.65

Heaviest flint

1.89

Diamond

2.42

The law of refraction follows directly from the fact that the speed with which light
propagates through a dielectric medium is inversely proportional to the refractive
index of the medium (see Sect. 11.3). In fact,
(343)

where

is the speed of light in a vacuum. Consider two parallel light-rays,

incident at an angle

and ,

with respect to the normal to the interface between two

dielectric media, 1 and 2. Let the refractive indices of the two media be

and

respectively, with

. It is clear from Fig. 58 that ray

must move from

point
to point , in medium 1, in the same time interval,
, in which ray
moves between points
and , in medium 2. Now, the speed of light in medium 1
is

, whereas the speed of light in medium 2 is

the length
is given by
trigonometry,

, whereas the length

. It follows that
is given by

. By
(344)

and
(345)

Hence,
(346)

which can be rearranged to give Snell's law. Note that the lines
and
represent wave-fronts in media 1 and 2, respectively, and, therefore, cross rays
and at right-angles.

Figure 58: Derivation of Snell's law.

When light passes from one dielectric medium to another its velocity

changes, but

its frequency remains unchanged. Since,

for all waves, where is the
wavelength, it follows that the wavelength of light must also change as it crosses an
interface between two different media. Suppose that light propagates from medium 1
to medium 2. Let
and
be the refractive indices of the two media, respectively.
The ratio of the wave-lengths in the two media is given by
(347)

Thus, as light moves from air to glass its wavelength decreases.

Diagram of a light ray being refracted.
Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc.

Some typical refractive indices for yellow light (wavelength equal to 589
nanometres [109 metre]) are the following: air, 1.0003; water, 1.333; crown
glass, 1.517; dense flint glass, 1.655; and diamond, 2.417. The variation of

refractive index with wavelength is the source of chromatic

aberration in lenses. The refractive index of X-rays is slightly less than 1.0,
which means that an X-ray entering a piece of glass from air will be bent away
from the normal, unlike a ray of light, which will be bent toward the normal.
The equation n = c/v in this case indicates, correctly, that the velocity of X-rays
in glass and in other materials is greater than its velocity in empty space.

Law of Reflection
The law of reflection governs the reflection of light-rays off smooth conducting
surfaces, such as polished metal or metal-coated glass mirrors.
Consider a light-ray incident on a plane mirror, as shown in Fig. 56. The law of
reflection states that the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface of
the mirror all lie in the same plane. Furthermore, the angle of reflection is equal to
the angle of incidence . Both angles are measured with respect to the normal to the
mirror.

Figure 56: The law of reflection

The law of reflection also holds for non-plane mirrors, provided that the normal at any
point on the mirror is understood to be the outward pointing normal to the local
tangent plane of the mirror at that point. For rough surfaces, the law of reflection
remains valid. It predicts that rays incident at slightly different points on the surface
are reflected in completely different directions, because the normal to a rough surface
varies in direction very strongly from point to point on the surface. This type of
reflection is called diffuse reflection, and is what enables us to see non-shiny objects.

Total Internal Reflection

An interesting effect known as total internal reflection can occur when light attempts
to move from a medium having a given refractive index to a medium having
a lower refractive index. Suppose that light crosses an interface from medium 1 to
medium 2, where

. According to Snell's law,

(348)

Since
, it follows that
. For relatively small angles of incidence,
part of the light is refracted into the less optically dense medium, and part is reflected
(there is always some reflection at an interface). When the angle of incidence

is

such that the angle of refraction

, the refracted ray runs along the interface
between the two media. This particular angle of incidence is called the critical
angle, . For
, there is no refracted ray. Instead, all of the light incident on
the interface is reflected--see Fig. 59. This effect is called total internal reflection, and
occurs whenever the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle. Now when
, we have

, and so

. It follows from Eq. (348) that

(349)

Figure 59: Total internal reflection.

Consider a fish (or a diver) swimming in a clear pond. As Fig. 60 makes clear, if the
fish looks upwards it sees the sky, but if it looks at too large an angle to the vertical it
sees the bottom of the pond reflected on the surface of the water. The critical angle to
the vertical at which the fish first sees the reflection of the bottom of the pond is, of
course, equal to the critical angle
for total internal reflection at an air-water
interface. From Eq. (349), this critical angle is given by
(350)

since the refractive index of air is approximately unity, and the refractive index of
water is
.

Figure 60: A fish's eye view.

When total internal reflection occurs at an interface the interface in question acts as
a perfect reflector. This allows
crown glass prisms to be used, in place of mirrors,
to reflect light in binoculars. This is illustrated in Fig. 61. The angles of incidence on
the sides of the prism are all
, which is greater than the critical angle
for
crown glass (at an air-glass interface).

Figure 61: Arrangement of prisms used in binoculars.

Diamonds, for which

, have a critical angle
which is only
. The
facets on a diamond are cut in such a manner that much of the incident light on the
diamond is reflected many times by successive total internal reflections before it
escapes. This effect gives rise to the characteristic sparkling of cut diamonds.
Total internal reflection enables light to be transmitted inside thin glass fibers. The
light is internally reflected off the sides of the fiber, and, therefore, follows the path of
the fiber. Light can actually be transmitted around corners using a glass fiber,
provided that the bends in the fiber are not too sharp, so that the light always strikes
the sides of the fiber at angles greater than the critical angle. The whole field of fiber
optics, with its many useful applications, is based on this effect.

Refraction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the property of metals, see refraction (metallurgy). For the magic effect, see David Penn
(magician). For the refraction in atmosphere, see Atmospheric refraction.
Not to be confused with diffraction, the transmission and bending of waves around an obstacle..

Light on airplexi surface in this experiment undergoes refraction (lower ray) and reflection (upper ray).

Refraction in a glass of water. The image is flipped.

An image of the Golden Gate Bridgeis refracted and bent by many differing three-dimensional drops of water.

Refraction is the change in direction of propagation of a wave due to a change in its transmission
medium.
The phenomenon is explained by the conservation of energy and the conservation of momentum.
Due to the change of medium, the phase velocity of the wave is changed but its frequency remains
constant. This is most commonly observed when a wave passes from one medium to another at any
angle other than 0 from the normal. Refraction of light is the most commonly observed
phenomenon, but any type of wave can refract when it interacts with a medium, for example
when sound waves pass from one medium into another or when water waves move into water of a
different depth. Refraction is described by Snell's law, which states that, for a given pair of media
and a wave with a single frequency, the ratio of the sines of the angle of incidence 1 and angle of
refraction 2 is equivalent to the ratio of phase velocities (v1 / v2) in the two media, or equivalently, to
the opposite ratio of the indices of refraction (n2 / n1):

In general, the incident wave is partially refracted and partially reflected; the details of this
behavior are described by the Fresnel equations.
Contents
[hide]

1Explanation

2Clinical significance

3Acoustics

4Gallery

5See also

6References

7External links

Explanation[edit]

Refraction of light at the interface between two media of different refractive indices, with n 2 > n1. Since the
phase velocity is lower in the second medium (v2 < v1), the angle of refraction 2 is less than the angle of
incidence 1; that is, the ray in the higher-index medium is closer to the normal.

In optics, refraction is a phenomenon that often occurs when waves travel from a medium with a
given refractive index to a medium with another at an oblique angle. At the boundary between
the media, the wave's phase velocity is altered, usually causing a change in direction.
Its wavelength increases or decreases, but its frequency remains constant.[citation needed] For example,
a light ray will refract as it enters and leaves glass, assuming there is a change in refractive
index. A ray traveling along the normal (perpendicular to the boundary) will change speed, but
not direction. Refraction still occurs in this case. Understanding of this concept led to
the invention of lenses and the refracting telescope.

An object (in this case a pencil) part immersed in water looks bent due to refraction: the light waves from X
change direction and so seem to originate at Y. (More accurately, for any angle of view, Y should be
vertically above X, and the pencil should appear shorter, not longer as shown.)

Refraction can be seen when looking into a bowl of water. Air has a refractive index of about
1.0003, and water has a refractive index of about 1.3330. If a person looks at a straight object,
such as a pencil or straw, which is placed at a slant, partially in the water, the object appears to
bend at the water's surface. This is due to the bending of light rays as they move from the water
to the air. Once the rays reach the eye, the eye traces them back as straight lines (lines of sight).
The lines of sight (shown as dashed lines) intersect at a higher position than where the actual
rays originated. This causes the pencil to appear higher and the water to appear shallower than
it really is. The depth that the water appears to be when viewed from above is known as
the apparent depth. This is an important consideration for spearfishing from the surface because
it will make the target fish appear to be in a different place, and the fisher must aim lower to
catch the fish. Conversely, an object above the water has a higher apparent height when viewed
from below the water. The opposite correction must be made by an archer fish.[1] For small
angles of incidence (measured from the normal, when sin is approximately the same as tan ),
the ratio of apparent to real depth is the ratio of the refractive indexes of air to that of water. But,
as the angle of incidence approaches 90o, the apparent depth approaches zero, albeit reflection
increases, which limits observation at high angles of incidence. Conversely, the apparent height
approaches infinity as the angle of incidence (from below) increases, but even earlier, as the
angle of total internal reflection is approached, albeit the image also fades from view as this limit
is approached.

Diagram of refraction of water waves

The diagram on the right shows an example of refraction in water waves. Ripples travel from the
left and pass over a shallower region inclined at an angle to the wavefront. The waves travel
slower in the more shallow water, so the wavelength decreases and the wave bends at the
boundary. The dotted line represents the normal to the boundary. The dashed line represents the
original direction of the waves. This phenomenon explains why waves on a shoreline tend to

strike the shore close to a perpendicular angle. As the waves travel from deep water into
shallower water near the shore, they are refracted from their original direction of travel to an
angle more normal to the shoreline.[2] Refraction is also responsible for rainbows and for the
splitting of white light into a rainbow-spectrum as it passes through a glass prism. Glass has a
higher refractive index than air. When a beam of white light passes from air into a material
having an index of refraction that varies with frequency, a phenomenon known
as dispersion occurs, in which different coloured components of the white light are refracted at
different angles, i.e., they bend by different amounts at the interface, so that they become
separated. The different colors correspond to different frequencies.
While refraction allows for phenomena such as rainbows, it may also produce peculiar optical
phenomena, such as mirages and Fata Morgana. These are caused by the change of the
refractive index of air with temperature.
The refractive index of materials can also be nonlinear, as occurs with the Kerr effect when high
intensity light leads to a refractive index proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
Recently, some metamaterials have been created that have a negative refractive index. With
metamaterials, we can also obtain total refraction phenomena when the wave impedances of the
two media are matched. There is then no reflected wave.[3]
Also, since refraction can make objects appear closer than they are, it is responsible for allowing
water to magnify objects. First, as light is entering a drop of water, it slows down. If the water's
surface is not flat, then the light will be bent into a new path. This round shape will bend the light
outwards and as it spreads out, the image you see gets larger.

Refraction of light at the interface between two media.

2D simulation: refraction of a quantum particle.The black half of the background is zero potential, the gray
half is a higher potential. White blur represents the probability distribution of finding a particle in a given
place if measured.

An analogy that is often put forward to explain the refraction of light is as follows: "Imagine a
marching band as it marches at an oblique angle from a pavement (a fast medium) into mud (a
slower medium). The marchers on the side that runs into the mud first will slow down first. This
causes the whole band to pivot slightly toward the normal (make a smaller angle from the
normal)."
Why refraction occurs when light travels from a medium with a given refractive index to a
medium with another, can be explained by the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics
(the complete method was developed in 1948 by Richard Feynman). Feynman humorously
explained it himself in the recording "QED: Fits of Reflection and Transmission - Quantum
Behaviour - Richard Feynman (The Sir Douglas Robb Lectures, University of Auckland, 1979)".
[clarification needed]

Clinical significance[edit]
In medicine, particularly optometry, ophthalmology and orthoptics, refraction (also known
as refractometry) is a clinical test in which a phoropter may be used by the appropriate eye care
professional to determine the eye's refractive error and the best corrective lenses to be
prescribed. A series of test lenses in graded optical powers or focal lengths are presented to
determine which provides the sharpest, clearest vision. [4]

Acoustics[edit]
In underwater acoustics, refraction is the bending or curving of a sound ray that results when the
ray passes through a sound speed gradient from a region of one sound speed to a region of a
different speed. The amount of ray bending is dependent on the amount of difference between
sound speeds, that is, the variation in temperature, salinity, and pressure of the water.
[5]
Similar acoustics effects are also found in the Earth's atmosphere. The phenomenon
of refraction of sound in the atmosphere has been known for centuries;[6] however, beginning in
the early 1970s, widespread analysis of this effect came into vogue through the designing of

urban highways and noise barriers to address the meteorological effects of bending of sound
rays in the lower atmosphere.[7]

Gallery[edit]

This section contains a gallery of images. Galleries containing

indiscriminate images of the article subject are discouraged; please impro
or remove the section accordingly, moving freely licensed images
to Wikimedia Commons if not already hosted there. (May 2014)

Refraction in a Perspex (acrylic)

block.

The straw appears to be broken

because of the difference between
the angle at which light from it strikes
the vertical edge of the glass versus
the horizontal surface of the water.

Photograph of refraction of waves in

a ripple tank.

Refraction at a steep angle of

incidence

Double aorta artefact in sonography

due to difference in velocity of sound
in muscle and fat.