Assssmnt of th wash practic among primary schools in kampala, a cas study of

makindy division

By Diana Nankunda
2010BSCPH PT 043

Suprvisor
Dr. John Charls Okiria

a study dissrtation prsntd to th Institut of Halth Policy and Managmnt in Partial

Fulfillmnt of th rquirmnts for
award of th Bachlors dgr of Public Halth of
Intrnational Halth Scincs Univrsity

Jun-2016

Tabl of Contnts
Tabl of Contnts............................................................................................................. 1
Dclaration.................................................................................................................... 4
approval........................................................................................................................ 6
acknowldgmnt............................................................................................................ 7
Ddication..................................................................................................................... 7
List of abbrviations......................................................................................................... 9
Oprational Dfinitions................................................................................................... 11
abstract....................................................................................................................... 12
CHaPTR ON............................................................................................................. 13
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................... 13
Background to th study............................................................................................... 13
1.2 background of th study ara..................................................................................... 16
1.8 justification of th study........................................................................................... 20
CHaPTR TWO............................................................................................................ 22
LITRaTUR RVIW.................................................................................................... 22
2.0 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 22
2.1 Rviw of contributions of diffrnt scholars to th subjct...............................................22
2.2 WaSH program thortical framwork.........................................................................28
2.2.1 Watr supply................................................................................................... 28
2.2.2 Drinking watr................................................................................................. 28
2.2.3 Hand washing.................................................................................................. 29
2.2.4 Sanitation....................................................................................................... 29
2.3Rviw of mthodologis usd in similar studis.............................................................34
2.4 Idntifid gap for th study....................................................................................... 36
3.7 Study Variabls and thir indicators............................................................................38
Study variabls and thir indicators.................................................................................38
CHaPTR FOUR........................................................................................................... 41
PRSNTaTION aND aNaLYSIS OF TH FINDINGS............................................................41
4.3. Lvl Sanitation in primary schools............................................................................44
4.4 Lvl of School hygin.......................................................................................... 50
4.4.1 Facility status.................................................................................................. 52
2

4.4.2 Hand Washing................................................................................................. 55

4.4.3 School ncouragmnt on corrct us of facilitis.........................................................57
CHaPTR FIV............................................................................................................. 59
DISCUSSION............................................................................................................... 59
CHaPTR SIX.............................................................................................................. 60
CONCLUSION aND RCOMMNDaTIONS.......................................................................60
Rfrncs................................................................................................................... 61
Work plan.................................................................................................................... 65
Budgt........................................................................................................................ 66
aPPNDICS................................................................................................................ 66

Dclaration
I DianaNankunda hrby do dclar that this rsarch works is my tru pic of work and it has
not bn prsntd in any Institution for any award as part or as a whol.

Signd ..
Diana Nankunda

approval
This rsarch dissertation has bn submittd to th Univrsity for examination with my
approval as a Univrsity Suprvisor

Dr John Charls Okiria (PhD)

Univrsity Suprvisor

acknowldgmnt

Ddication

List of abbrviations

Oprational Dfinitions

10

abstract

11

CHaPTR ON

INTRODUCTION
Background to th study

Globally Th Millnnium Dvlopmnt Goals [MDGs] rcogniz th importanc of watr and

sanitation in goal 7c: To halv th proportion of th population without sustainabl accss to
improvd drinking watr and basic sanitation. (UNICF, 2006) according to th 2006 MDG
updat from th World Halth Organization (WHO) and Unitd Nations Childrns Intrnational
ducation Fund (UNICF), th world has mt th 2015 goal for improvd watr but will miss th
goal for improvd sanitation covrag by half a billion popl. (UNICF, 2006) Most of th
population without accss to improvd sanitation and improvd watr is in southastrn asia and
Sub Saharan africa.
Statmnt validating WaSH in schools appar in th commitmnt of govrnmnts as wll as
intrnational agncis and ar rflctd in intrnational chartrs such as convntion on th rights
of th child (1990), millnnium dvlopmnt goals (2000 MDG), intrnational yar of sanitation
(2008), global hand washing day (15 Octobr), intrnational dcad on watr for lif (200520015), Dakar framwork for action ducation for all mting our collctiv commitmnts
(200), unitd nations dcad of ducation for sustainabl dvlopmnt (2005-2015).

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Rgionally, a survy conductd in 1995 covring 14 countris which includd african countris
obsrvd, that most primary schools in poor countris do not hav adquat sanitation. Primary
schools in Uganda, just lik othr dvloping countris fac th challngs associatd with
inadquat sanitation and hygin ducation.

1.2 background of th study ara

Gographically, th study will b rstrictd to Makindy division which is on of th fiv
divisions in Kampala district and its th largst on, th division is dividd into slam dwllrs
and middl /uppr incom group, and will b conductd among slctd primary schools in th
division and within th widr fild of watr, sanitation and hygin which ncompasss svral
aspcts lik watr practics, hygin practics and sanitation practics among th primary
schools.
1.3 Rsarch qustion
What ar th WaSH practics in primary schools in Makindy division Kampala district?
1.4 Statmnt of th Problm
Inadquat accss to saf watr and sanitation srvics, coupld with poor hygin practics,
kills and sickns thousands of childrn vry day, and lads to impovrishmnt and diminishd
opportunitis for thousands mor.
Makindy division is on of th divisions that occurs pidmics of communicabl disas or
xprincd and most vulnrabl groups ar th childrn and school ag childrn, and disass
13

sprad fastr whr many childrn gathr for many hours a day in crampd spacs with
unsanitary conditions, no hand-washing facilitis or soap, and toilts in poor rpair.
Poor sanitation, watr and hygin hav many othr srious rprcussions. Childrn and
particularly girls ar dnid thir right to ducation bcaus thir schools lack privat and
dcnt sanitation facilitis. Without WaSH (watr, sanitation and hygin), sustainabl
dvlopmnt is impossibl.
In Uganda, about 11 million popl hav no accss to saf watr and propr sanitation facilitis.
Th govrnmnt of Uganda, civil socity and othr dvlopmnt partnrs hav invstd
significantly in improvd watr and sanitation srvics. Whil thr has bn an improvmnt in
watr covrag as a rsult of th abov fforts, opration and maintnanc of saf watr and
sanitation facilitis rmains on of th biggst challngs in th country. Inadquat sanitation
has bn found to b a major problm in primary schools spcially sinc th introduction of
UP in th mid 1990s. Now as th UP programm bgins to offload ths pupils into th
scondary school systm and th Univrsal Scondary ducation programm also rolls out, th
sam problms might bgin to afflict mor primary schools in primary schools vn in urban
aras. Morovr, narly all studis that hav bn don on WaSH programs in primary schools
hav only ncompassd on aspct of WaSH that is sanitation facilitis in schools, laving out
th aspcts of watr and Hygin. Dspit th fforts that hav bn dirctd towards addrssing
th issu of poor sanitation, hygin facilitis in schools in Kampala District and othr districts
for xampl th UNICF Watr, nvironmnt and Sanitation (WS) programm 1995-2000 and
Th UNICF School and Community Hygin and Watr Programm (2001-2005); and th fact
that th Ministry of ducation ncourags and provids guidlins for sanitation in schools and

14

th Kampala Capital City authority, thr is a paucity of information about th practics of Watr
Sanitation and Hygin in primary schools in spcifically Makindy division.
WaSH as on of th stratgis bing implmntd currntly in primary schools, dspit this
WaSH shortag is bing rportd thr is no chang. Thus ar thrfor calls to assss th WaSH
in primary schools.
1.5 Purpos of th study
Th assssmnt of th WaSH in primary schools in Kampala, a cas study in Makindy division
in ordr to improv th halth situation in schools and ncourag th policy makrs (MOH),
(MO) and othr stakholdrs th invstmnt in school watr, sanitation and hygin in trms
of availability, quality , functionality and sustainability. Onc th findings hav bn
dissminatd, th govrnmnt, schools, non-govrnmntal organizations, and othr concrnd
individuals and groups ar xpctd to initiat implmntation programs aimd at improving
accss to quality hygin facilitis.
1.6 Objctivs
1.6.1 Gnral objctiv
Th main objctiv of th study was assssmnt of th WaSH practic among primary schools in
Kampala, a cas study of Makindy division.
1.6.2 Spcific objctivs
1. To assss watr rlatd practics in th primary schools in Makindy division
2. To assss th lvl of sanitation in th primary schools in Makindy division
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3. To assss th lvl of Hygin in th primary schools in Makindy division

1.7 Rsarch qustions

1. What ar th watr rlatd practics in th primary schools in Makindy division?
2. What is th lvl of sanitation in th primary schools in Makindy division?
3. What is th lvl of Hygin in th primary schools in Makindy division?
1.8 justification of th study
accss to improvd drinking watr sourcs and sanitation facilitis in schools would considrably
contribut to achivmnt of MDG goals.
Poor halth of childrn affcts thir ability to larn and thrfor influncs thir prospcts in
lif. a study by Protos (2005),
Childrn spnd long hours in school, and th physical nvironmnt and clanlinss of
ducational facilitis significantly dtrmin thir halth and wll-bing. So this study will:1-contribut to th policy of both MoH and Mo,
2-improvmnt of childrn ability to larn
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3-improvmnt of childrn halth and rduction in cost of halth and halth car.

1.9 Concptual framwork

Th concptual fram work in th figur blow suggsts that, indpndnt variabls will b
concptualizd into Watr practics, Sanitation, and Hygin.

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18

CHaPTR TWO

LITRaTUR RVIW
2.0 Introduction
a big proportion of th worlds illnss and dath among childrn blow th ag of 12 is
attributabl to communicabl disass. Sixty-two prcnt and 31% of all daths in africa and
Southast asia, rspctivly, ar causd by infctious disas (UNICF, 2007). This trnd is
spcially notabl in dvloping countris lik Uganda whr hygin rlatd illnsss lik acut
rspiratory and intstinal infctions ar th primary causs of morbidity and mortality among
young childrn (Ibid). Inadquat sanitary conditions and poor hygin practics play major
rols in th incrasd burdn of communicabl disas within ths dvloping countris.Poor
halth of childrn affcts thir ability to larn and thrfor influncs thir prospcts in lif.
according to a study which was don by Protos (2005), childrn with worm infctions hav
highr absntism from school than non-infctd childrn. Basically, this mans that childrn
with worm infctions spnd lss tim and ar disadvantagd in th larning procss. ffctiv
school sanitation and hygin ducation should hlp rduc ths infctions.
This chaptr ntails a summation of contributions from som scholars who did studis in th
sam ara of intrst as pr this study, a dvlopmnt of a thortical framwork, a rviw of
mthodologis usd in studis similar to this study and finally a dscription of th idntifid gap.
2.1 Rviw of contributions of diffrnt scholars to th subjct
UNICF (2011)., Practics of Hygin among School Childrn in angolla, thiopia

19

a study conductd by th Unitd Nations Childrns Fund (UNICF) and th thiopian Ministry
of Halth found that study participants in rural thiopia had poor status rgarding practics of
hygin. approximatly 60% of school childrn survyd did not know about th possibl
transmission of disass through human wast. Simpl hyginic masurs such as washing hands
with soap wr poorly practicd, spcially in rural aras.
anothr study conductd by th Rsarch-inspird Policy and Practic Larning in thiopia
(RIPPL), a program survying rural housholds in th southwst rgion of thiopia, found that
hand washing practics wr also poor. Nw hand washing facilitis, in addition to awarnss
and knowldg about propr hygin, hav ld to som changs in bhavior and attitud, yt th
prvalnc of hand washing rmains low in this rgion.
Jita Jssica (2006)., Sanitation and hygin in primary schools in Uganda
xcrta Disposal
a study conductd by Jita (2006) undr th ministry of halth found out that th dmand for toilt
facilitis is still vry high following UP and almost all schools did not mt th minimum
school standards on sanitation and hygin as highlightd in th main rport. Gnrally sanitation
and hygin was modrat in Kampala, Cntral and Wstrn but much wors in Northrn and
astrn rgions. Govrnmnt fforts hav focusd on construction of toilt facilitis in
govrnmnt-aidd schools only through th School Facilitation Grant (SFG), UP funds and
Local Govrnmnt Dvlopmnt Programm (LGDP). as such, mphasis has bn on facility
dvlopmnt with lss focus on changing practics in sanitation and hygin in schools.

20

Typs of Sanitation Facilitis in Schools

as pr th findings of this study, functional sanitation facilitis wr mostly pit latrins in rural
schools and VIP latrins in urban schools. Watr clost and nwr tchnologis such as COSaN
and Mobilts wr bing xplord for conomizing on spac and addrssing poor soil txturs in
som schools. Modrn toilt facilitis (59%) xcdd traditional pit latrins (41%) in primary
schools and mor prmannt structurs had bn put up for girls than boys.
Urinals for boys wr prsnt in 84% of primary schools and 77% of scondary schools.
Concrt floor (36%) typ was most common but many Kampala schools visitd (63%) and
thos in northrn rgion (49%) had poorly draind urinals that wr unhyginic. Girls urinals,
although not rcommndd, wr prsnt in 2 out of 5 schools visitd, a practic that has to b
discouragd bcaus of its potntial halth hazards.

Sparation of Toilt Facilitis

almost all primary schools survyd in this stud (95%) wr mixd schools; but only 72%
providd sparat facilitis for boys and girls, and ovr a quartr offrd shard facilitis. In
trms of rgions, ownrship and school lvl, Kampala (38%), privatly ownd schools (39%)
and scondary xiii (39%) schools providd last sparat facilitis, indicating inadquat
sanitation for girls in ths schools. Clos to 80% did not allocat sparat toilt facility for
spcific classs; th vry young shard facilitis with oldr pupils; a practic that was rportd to
inconvninc youngr pupils crating sanitation accss barrir for young ons. In a third of
primary (37%) and a highr proportion- 52% of scondary schools, tachrs shard facilitis with
pupils/studnts, furthr constraining young pupils accss to facilitis.
21

Physical Structur of Toilt Facilitis

Structurs obsrvd wr adquat for us in only on third of primary and scondary schools
and stpping slabs wr absnt in half of primary and scondary schools, rndring facilitis
difficult to b kpt clan. Construction and maintnanc challngs in som districts includd
poor soil txtur, high construction costs, limitd physical spac, poor community involvmnt
and slow cultural accptanc for nw tchnologis.
Toilt Facility Hygin
Th study found that hygin was poor spcially in th Northrn and astrn rgions, floors in
most primary (80%) and scondary schools (79%) wr wt and dirty whil walls wr smard
with facs in 1/3 primary and scondary schools visitd. Toilt surroundings wr littrd with
fcs/urin in 2/5 primary and 1/5 of scondary schools, an indication of poor sanitation cultur
but also as a consqunc of usrs avoiding us of dirty facilitis. Toilt facilitis wr within
standard distanc from classrooms but poor hygin ld to pupils complaining of clos proximity
to classrooms.

Hygin Practics and Facilitis in Schools

Hand Washing Facilitis and Practics
Hand washing facilitis (HWF) nxt to toilt facilitis wr found to b prsnt in about four in
tn primary schools (39%), that is wll blow 61% notd 5 yars ago. HWF wr absnt mor in
rural govrnmnt than privat schools. Mor than half of scondary schools had no HWF. Two
out of fiv primary schools HWF wr dry spcially thos in govrnmnt and rural primary
22

schools; a factor closly rlatd to inadquat and irrgular watr supply. Watr containrs wr
small rquiring frqunt r-filling in a third of primary and a quartr scondary schools,
spcially in astrn and cntral rgions.
Hygin ducation to Pupils
Schools ncouragd hand washing aftr us of toilt by offring knowldg but HWF wr not
functional in many schools, thus schools faild to provid an nabling nvironmnt to studnts
for hand washing. Multipl mthods, apart from th curriculum, practical work (29%), school
parads and assmblis (26%), halth clubs (18%), halth staff and snior woman tachr, wr
usd.
Sanitary Matrials
Two thirds of pupils in this study rportd using hyginic disposabl sanitary matrials (pads51% and cotton wool- 14%). Ths wr found to b mostly pupils in Kampala privatly ownd
primary and scondary schools, a rflction of affordability in ths schools. On third of rural
primary pupils usd non disposabl matrials (cloths in 28%), carrying a possibl halth hazard
spcially in day schools whr it may b difficult to chang thm during day. Disposal of usd
pads rmaind a problm; in most cass (71%) thy wr bing thrown into pit latrins,
prdisposing foul smll and difficultis for mptying latrins.

School Rfus Managmnt

23

In a quartr of schools that wr sampl in this study, school compounds wr bushy and dirty
spcially in cntral (29%) and northrn (45%) rgion. Urban (31%) mor than rural schools
(27%) had dirty compounds. Dustbins wr rar and half th primary schools burnt thir rfus
against th rcommndd practics.
2.2 WaSH program thortical framwork
2.2.1 Watr supply
Watr supply is a vry important aspct of a WaSH program. If a school dos not hav its own
watr supply, studnts and tachrs may b forcd to us th local watr sourc, which may b
pollutd. In Burkina Faso, this practic ld to disputs with th local community. If a hand pump
or pipd supply dos not provid sufficint watr during pak hours, such as during braks
btwn classs, a storag tank may b rquird.
Som schools in rural aras hav built rainwatr catchmnts systms consisting of guttrs on th
roofs and cistrns in which th watr is collctd. This is somtims achivd without any
xtrnal assistanc.
2.2.2 Drinking watr
Storag tanks ar to b providd with a tap to prvnt watr from gtting contaminatd by cups
bing dippd in. Idally, ach classroom should b providd with a 20 l watr storag containr
for drinking. Drinking watr should b stord in containrs with covrs and should hav at last
on ladl and two tumblrs. It is usful to hav a platform to rais th containrs off th ground
and to hav soap for washing th vssls and tumblrs. In som schools th cups, buckts and
soap ar takn to a saf storag plac at th nd of th school day.

24

Whn no saf drinking watr sourc is availabl narby, thr is a chanc that watr intndd for
hand washing and anal clansing is also b usd for consumption. as this watr is not always
clan and saf, childrn should b informd of th risk of drinking from ths sourcs and should
thrfor hav accss to a saf drinking watr sourc.

2.2.3 Hand washing

Hand washing facilitis hav to b placd clos to th latrins, sinc hand washing is most
important aftr dfcation. Hand washing facilitis should allow for th placmnt of soap or
othr claning agnts. Studis hav shown that rinsing with watr only is not adquat to rmov
pathogns. Washing hands is only ffctiv whn it is don with soap, ashs or clan mud. If
proprly applid ths ar all qually ffctiv. Ths claning agnts hav to b providd and
nd to b locatd within rach and in a plac whr thy cannot b lost. Th ntir facility
should b dsignd in such way that th watr sourc cannot b contaminatd by contact with
dirty hands. If thr is no tap, a vssl should b providd to scoop watr from a containr.
a good hand washing facility for schools could b a prmannt fixtur of a pr-cast concrt tank
placd abov a brick plinth and complt with a top slab and lid, and taps blow. a good practic
obsrvd is th addition of Omo washing powdr to th watr in th tank. This not only provids
th bst mans of hand washing, it also ovrcoms th problm of soap bars bing stoln.
2.2.4 Sanitation
Pollution of th nvironmnt around placs with a high concntration of popl, lik schools, is
vry likly. Thrfor sanitary facilitis ar to b providd in an fficint WaSH program.
Typs of latrins:-

25

Thr typs of xcrta disposal systms ar rcommndd for schools: pit latrins, vntilatd
improvd pit latrins (VIPs) and pour-flush latrins. For schools in aras whr no or insufficint
watr for flushing is availabl clos to th latrin or whr stons or sticks ar usd for claning,
th VIP latrin is th most suitabl. If a sufficint amount of watr is Protos Uganda: prliminary
litratur study to a SSH stratgy March 2005 availabl clos to th latrin and th facilitis ar
xpctd to b wll-maintaind, a pour flush latrin may b considrd.
among pit latrins, many options xist: ordinary pit latrin, lind pit latrin, raisd pit latrin, and
altrnativ pit latrin. Th convntional concpt of th 10-stanc latrin on top of on narrow,
dp rctangular slv can b rplacd by 10 sparat circular pits lind with intr-locking
cmnt blocks.
Thos blocks can asily b mad locally thus nabling th school to start digging only whn th
blocks ar rady instad of digging a dp trnch and having to wait for a contractor to lin th
slv, with a high risk of collaps. Morovr, circular pits hav an intrinsic strngth in thir
shap, whras thos long and dp trnchs collaps asily without lining.
Sparat pits ar asir to vntilat than on big slv. If som lids ar not rplacd on th squat
hols abov th slv, th air flow invrss asily, producing a bad odour instad of rducing it.
an important lmnt to mak an invstmnt in latrins worthwhil from th cost-ffctiv sid is
thir usful lif. Pits that ar filling rapidly du to a too high ratio of pupils pr latrin and pits
that collaps du to bad or no or us of maladjustd tchnology to th soil conditions, constitut
th main problms that rduc usful lif of latrins considrably, thus dmotivating schools to
invst in latrins.
Numbr of latrins:-

26

an indication for th numbr of latrins rquird is a ratio of on facility for 20 studnts. In

addition, thr ar som othr important factors whn dfining th xact numbr of facilitis: and
ths ar; (a) ar sparat urinals availabl for boys? If so, fwr latrins will b ndd? (b)
What is th proportion of boys to girls? If urinals ar availabl, boys nd fwr latrins? (c) ar
childrn allowd to us th toilts during classs or only during braks? (d) Whn facilitis ar
only usd during braks, thr will b paks in usag and thrfor th capacity nds to b
highr? () How many braks ar thr? (f) Whn thr ar fw braks th capacity nds to b
highr than whn thr ar mor braks, bcaus childrn hav fwr opportunitis to us th
facilitis? (g) Do all classs bgin and nd at th sam tim? (h) Whn timtabls ar diffrnt,
fwr facilitis ar rquird? (i) Th highst pak for usag has to b dtrmind (j) Spcial
attntion for girls nds
Child frindly facilitis:Bsids th considrations mntiond undr 2.5.4, it might also b usful to divid th latrins
ovr diffrnt blocks for diffrnt ag catgoris to catr for thir diffrnt abilitis .g. having a
block for th smallst pupils with small squat hols, narr footrsts, and lowr hand washing
facilitis.
Drainag:Stagnant watr du to poor drainag, blockd swrs, and ovrflowing sptic tanks or soak
aways may crat advrs halth ffcts. It is important to distinguish btwn sullag and
swag. Sullag rfrs to wastwatr from th kitchn, showr, tc. Swag is watr mixd with
xcrta or watr which has bn in contact with xcrta. If possibl, schools should not crat an
nvironmntal hazard by polluting th nvironmnt with contaminatd surfac watr, spcifically
with swag. Schools with VIP or pour-flush latrins dal with th contaminatd watr on sit

27

and ar thrfor no dangr to th nvironmnt. Prfrably schools try to limit th amount of

contaminatd surfac watr. This can b achivd by choosing onsit dry disposal systms or wt
systms which dal with any contaminatd watr on sit, such as a pour-flush latrin with
laching pit. Whn a sptic tank is constructd, th soak away should hav sufficint capacity to
filtrat all contaminatd watr.
Soakaways may also b constructd for sullag. fflunt from sptic tanks can, if a soakaway is
no option, drain into small-bor swrs. Watr which is not contaminatd, such as xcssiv
rainwatr, can dirctly drain into a rciving watr body, a rivr, lak or pond.
Th typ of drainag systm to b slctd dpnds on th lvl of filtration and vaporation
taking plac. Thos in turn dpnd on th soil and wathr conditions and slop of th trrain. In
pri-urban aras, drains should b cland by th municipality. In rural aras, a soakag pit may
b sufficint. For school compounds, unlind opn drains may b considrd. Ths ar only
advisabl whn th slop is lss than 1 prcnt. Grass will hlp to hold th top soil. For slops of
mor than 1 prcnt lining is ndd. Closd drains can bst b avoidd, opn drains should b
cland and maintaind rgularly. Watr should not rmain stagnant in th drains to avoid halth
hazards.

Garbag disposal:-

28

Poor garbag disposal may lad to stagnant watr du to blockd drains, to fly brding and to
th attraction of vrmin. Ths situations can contribut to th transmission of disass. Garbag
thrfor nds to b dalt with in a saf way in a WaSH program.
Th slction of a garbag disposal systm is basically dtrmind by th typ and amount of
wast bing producd. In rural and pri-urban aras, garbag consists mainly of compostabl
mattr. In such cass th stablishmnt of a wll-managd compost hap will suffic. It is not
advisabl to burn garbag, in viw of halth hazards such as rspiratory disass. In som
schools, solid garbag disposal may b mor complx bcaus thy hav a widr varity of
matrials that nd to b disposd of. Plastic and tin wast, for instanc, will hav to b dalt
with sparatly. Ths can ithr b collctd for rcycling or disposd of through a municipal
collction systm. Wast bins placd in vry classroom and around th school compound should
b usd to facilitat collction bfor tratmnt. Somtims spac for garbag disposal is a
problm. an option is for th oldr pupils to collct th garbag and tak it to th municipality if
it is not collctd. Oldr pupils can also hlp with th slction of matrial for rcycling. anothr
option is to ask community mmbrs for thir hlp.
Vissman and Hammr (1990), statd that sanitation in also a vry cultur spcific issu.
Dfcation is in most culturs, an xtrmly prsonal practic and controlld by strict taboos.
Bcaus is in most culturs, an xtrmly prsonal practic and controlld by strict taboos.
Bcaus of its strong cultural dpndnc sanitation improvmnts ar vry difficult to introduc
to th gnral public, sinc improving sanitation in practic mans intrvntion to th prsons
and prsonal lif habits. Mor so fishrmn and pastoralists hav blifs attachd to wast
disposal. That thy may not catch nough fish or thir cows will not produc nough milk if thy
us latrins.

29

Mollr (1992) statd that until World War II, most solids or municipal wasts (lavs and grass
droppings) nwspaprs, cans, bottls, coal and ashs strt swpings and discardd matrials.
Such wast was not considrd hazardous and was simply transportd to th local land disposal
facility and st on fir to rduc its volum and discourag th brding of inscts and rodnts. In
Mpigi town this systm is usd to a crtain xtnt but mainly th wasts ar collctd and
dumpd in pits which hav bn dug.
2.3Rviw of mthodologis usd in similar studis

UNICF (2011)., Practics (KaP) of Hygin among School Childrn in angolla, thiopia
This study mployd a cross-sctional pidmiologic study was conductd in angolla, thiopia
angolla (now known as BasonaWrna), locatd in th North Showa zon. It is locatd about
140 km from addis ababa, th capital city of thiopia and has an stimatd population of 81,145
and an ara of 992 squar kilomtrs with 93% living in rural sttings. Th study was conductd
at angolla Primary School, a govrnmnt-ownd institution which provids fr ducation to
childrn in grads 1-8 who liv in th angolla ara.
Th study population in this study was comprisd of all angolla Primary School childrn in
grads 1-6. Ths grads wr chosn bcaus infctious disass most affct youngr childrn.
Studnts absnt (N=52) during th survy priod wr xcludd. Th final sampl siz was 669
studnts (326 girls and 343 boys).
In this study, school staff was usd to communicat th objctivs of th study to th studnts
and participation was compltly voluntary. Study participants providd oral consnt prior to
participating and thr was a 100% participation rat. Th Institutional Rviw Board of addis
30

Continntal Institut of Public Halth (addis ababa, thiopia) and th Univrsity of Washington
Human Subjcts Division (Sattl, Wa, USa) grantd thical approval for th study. approval
from th Worda Halth Offic and th Worda ducation Offic was also grantd prior to th
commncmnt of this study.
Jita Jssica (2006)., Sanitation and hygin in primary schools in Uganda
In this study, th school sanitation survy was dsignd as a cross-sctional dscriptiv survy
using triangulation of both quantitativ and qualitativ approachs to data collction. Th main
focus was on primary schools. Howvr, th survy providd insights on th sanitation situation
in scondary schools and a fw Primary Tachr Collgs (PTCs). Fild data collction was in
th first two wks of august 2005. Howvr, rcords and documnts rviw, and ky informants
at th national lvl wnt up to arly Sptmbr 2005.
Th survy population for this study comprisd of pupils in primary schools, studnts in
scondary schools and PTCs (schools schoolgirls, schoolboys, and halth prfcts). Data was
also collctd from th had tachrs, slctd tachrs (SWT, SMT, ST, tachrs in-charg of
sanitation), and school managmnt committs. District officials such as public halth officrs,
district dirctor of halth srvics, district ducation officrs, and district halth ducators and
inspctors, also providd data for th survy. Othr rspondnts includd staff concrnd with
planning and dlivry of sanitation and hygin in schools and communitis, or rlvant NGOs
working in th ducation sctor. Th data was also collctd from th population that stays nar
th school, as it was assumd that thir sanitation practics could influnc th school practics;
and ths includd local ladrs, and knowldgabl individuals on sanitation and hygin. at th
National lvl, rprsntativs of ky lin ministris and major govrnmnt partnrs wr
intrviwd; som of whom includd officials from MoS, MoH, Watr, Lands and

31

nvironmnt/Dpartmnt of Watr Dvlopmnt (DWD), Local Govrnmnt, MoGLSD, as ky

informants, as wll as from UNICF, WHO, Th World Bank, U, SIDa, DaNIDa, USaID,
among othrs. In th districts, schools wr slctd randomly from a listing obtaind from th
MOS. In gnral, schools wr pickd from at last 50% of countis and sub-countis.
Considrations of siz wr mad and a proportionat-to-siz sampling was usd in slcting th
schools from th slctd districts. In th schools, pupils and studnts wr slctd randomly;
nsuring rprsntation in trms of location of school (rural/urban), ownrship of school
(Govt/privat), in th diffrnt classs a ratio of 1:1 for boys to girls was usd in th slction.
Pupils in primary schools wr pickd mostly from th uppr classs (P4 to P7), thos who could
asily discuss and undrstand issus concrning sanitation and hygin; whil for scondary
schools, all classs wr considrd xcluding thos who wr prparing for xams. In PTCs,
studnt tachrs, tutors and th principals wr intrviwd.

2.4 Idntifid gap for th study

as dscribd in th prvious sctions hr in, som studis hav bn don on hygin and
sanitation practics as standalon variabls that is sanitation alon and hygin alon by various
scalars vn in Ugandan primary schools. Howvr a WaSH program has thr componnts that
is Watr (W), Sanitation (S) and Hygin (H), and this thrfor shows a gap whn it coms to
th watr aspct of th program. additionally, th fw studis that hav bn don in Uganda
hav cntrd on Rural schools whr intrnational sm to provid mor funding for survys
and not urban schools lik thos in Makindy.
32

CHaPTR THR
MTHODOLOGY
3.1 Study dsign
Th study mployd a dscriptiv cross sctional study that was mployd qualitativ and
quantitativ mthods for data collction to th assssmnt of WaSH in primary schools in
Kampala, a cas study in Makindy, Division.
3.2 targt population
Th targt population of th study was all primary schools in Uganda.
3.3 Study Population
Study population was th 17 slctd primary schools in Makindy division, Kampala district.
3.4 Sampl siz dtrmination
Th sampl includd only 10% proportion of th total numbr of primary schools in th division
that is; 176 * 0.1 = approximatly17 primary schools

33

3.5 Study unit

Study unit was a primary schools with WaSH facilitis and as ky informants school
administrators and Halth prsonal in schools.

3.6 Sampling Tchniqu/Procdurs

a random sampling mthod was usd to slct 17 primary schools within Makindy division for
th assssmnt. Th sampling tchniqu that was usd to sampl th schools was purposiv
sampling. This sampling stratgy was chosn bcaus th tchniqu allowd Schools with
spcific profils to tak part in th study.
3.7 Study Variabls and thir indicators
Study variabls and thir indicators

Objctivs

Indicators

Watr

Numbr of tabs or gricans, clannss , Obsrvation chcklist

accssibility, .t.c
Numbr of toilts, sparatnss, clannss, obsrvation
privacy, handicappd ons , .tc

Sanitation

Mthod of data collction

Hygin

availability if hand washing facility with soap, obsrvation

awarnss of th studnt to thir us, thir numbr
and thir narnss to th toilts, .tc
3.8 Data collction tchniqus and instrumnts
Various mthods of data collction wr usd to obtain vidnc of th cas and provid answrs
to th rsarch qustions (Soy, 2006). To collct data, structurd prsonal intrviws wr usd.
Th qustions addrssd issus such as watr collction and storag, adquat hygin facilitis
for th childrn, with mphasis on thir accssibility, privacy, and quality. Scondary sourcs
34

wr to supplmnt primary data.

Obsrvation chcklist
Obsrvation is th tchniqu of obtaining data through dirct contact with a prsons or group of
prsons. Sinc, th main focus of this qualitativ rsarch is naturalism; th rsarchr obsrvd
th vidnt WaSH program componnts in th various schools to nsur that th program is
xisting in th school

Ky informant
Ky informant intrviws ar qualitativ in-dpth intrviws with popl who know what is
going on in th community. Th purpos of ky informant intrviws was to collct information
from a wid rang of popl for this study, th ky informants wr school administrators
lik had tachrs, dputy had tachrs and th halth prsonnl in th school or halth
authoritis in school sctors in Makindy. With thir particular knowldg and undrstanding,
can provid insight on th natur of problms and giv rcommndations for solutions.
3.9 Data analysis tchniqus and prsntation
Th raw data was inspctd, cland and ditd to liminat rrors which wr misundrstood by
rspondnts. Cods wr assignd to corrspond for ach qustion for asy statistical analysis.
Th coding frams usd wr numbrs and lttrs. Th data was ntrd in th computr, codd
and analysd using Statistical Packag for Social Scintists (SPSS vrsion 17) th rsults of th
study wr prsntd at univariat lvl in frquncy tabls, bars and charts
35

3.10 Quality control tchniqu (validity and rliability instrumnts)

To maintain th quality of th data structurd and pr-tstd chck lists wr usd to collct
information. Two days training was givn to all data collctors, assistants and suprvisors. Th
collctd information was frquntly chckd at th fild by th suprvisors. Th ovrall
suprvision was don by th principal invstigator. Chck lists wr chckd for compltnss
vry night at th tim of data collction and incomplt ons wr snt back to th data
collctor for chck-up undr suprvision. Fdbacks on prvious day activitis wr givn for
both data collctors and suprvisors.
Data claning was don and 5% of data was r-ntrd and compard with th alrady ntrd
data to maintain its quality

3.11 thical considration

Th study was adhrd to standard thical rquirmnts. Prmission was obtaind from th
Univrsity Rsarch thicscommitt as wll as from th school administrations. Th
rspondnts wr fully informd about th study and allowd to ask qustions. additionally, th
potntial participants wr informd of th voluntary natur of study and thir right to withdraw
from th study at any tim or stag if thy so wish. Thy wr thn b rqustd to provid an
activ informd consnt in writing to tak part in th study.
3.12 Limitations of th study
Th rsults of this study ar no wid-ranging bcaus of th small sampl siz usd; it may not
giv a vry clar pictur of th hygin situation in rlation to school attndanc. Som of th
36

rspondnts had bias as rgards xposing th hygin situations of thir school with an ffort to
protct th imags of thir schools and thrfor gav almost all positiv rsponss contrary to
what was visibl on th school prmiss, which may hindrd accuracy.

CHaPTR FOUR
PRSNTaTION aND aNaLYSIS OF TH FINDINGS
4.1 Introduction
This chaptr dals with th prsntation and intrprtation of th findings of th study which
wr don in rlation to th rviwd litratur and in rgard to spcific objctivs of th study
outlind blow:

To assss watr rlatd practics in th primary schools in Makindy division

To assss th lvl of sanitation in th primary schools in Makindy division

To assss th lvl of Hygin in th primary schools in Makindy division

Th findings ar prsntd with th hlp of tabls for purposs of asir undrstanding, clarity
and intrprtation.

37

4.2 Watr rlatd practics

Thfirst spcific objctiv of th study was to assss watr rlatd practics in th primary
schools in Makindy division.
Obsrvations rlatd to availability of watr at school.
Obsrvations rlatd to school watr

Ys
%

Frquncy

Total

15

88.2

11.8

17

Is thr watr availabl for drinking

13

76.5

23.5

17

Prsnc of watr tanks in th school

11

64.7

35.3

17

ar th watr sourc far away 30m from toilts

13

76.5

23.5

17

ar th watr sourc far away from th rubbish pit

16

94.1

5.9

17

Prsnc of plac to drink watr at school

Frquncy

No

Sourc: fild data

Provision of watr for drinking, hand washing, flushing, and claning, school mal prparation
and tc, is vry ssntial for th childrn and th staff to b abl to practic appropriat hygin
bhaviour.
Th tabl abov shows that 88.2 % of th schools in Makindy division in Kampala hav a plac
to drink watr from but only 76.5 % hav watr availabl at school for drinking at school.
38

according to drinking watr policy vry school should hav drinking watr availabl for pupils
to drink howvr this is not th cas for som schools in Makindy division Kampala which can
rsult th pupils and th staff to not drink nough watr or drink watr from othr unprotctd
sourc which could b harmful to thir halth and contaminatd watr that is consumd may
rsult in watrborn disass including viral hpatitis, typhoid, diarrhoa, dysntry and tc.
Th prcntag of schools with watr tanks is 64.7% which show that som schools dont hav
watr rsrvoirs, 76.5% of th schools hav watr sourcs 30m away from toilts and 94.1% of
th schools hav watr sourc far away from th rubbish pit watr containrs must b away from
th pollution sourc & with rgular claning.
Watr sourcs for schools in Makindy division, Kampala.
Watr sourc
Borhol
Pip watr
Rain watr
Total
Sourc: fild data

Frquncy

Prcnt
1
12
4
17

5.9
70.6
23.5
100.0

From th tabl abov, most of th schools (70.6%) in Makindy division, Kampala hav pipd
watr, 23.5% of th schools hav rain watr and vry fw schools gt watr from borhols. Th
tabl blow shows that th main sourc of drinking watr in schools is barrl (58.8%), 11.8% of
th schools us tap watr and 29.4% of th schools us othr sourcs of watr. Drinking watr
tratd or boild so that it saf for but som schools in Makindy division allows pupils to drink
tap watr and vn from othr sourcs which wr not indicatd.
Sourc of watr for drinking
Sourc of watr for drinking
Tap

Frquncy
2

%
11.8
39

Barrl
Othrs
Total
Sourc: fild data

10
5
17

58.8
29.4
100.0

Rsults indicatd that th major sourc of drinking watr was mainly from Barrl/ containrs
or rain watr barrls, this was mainly obsrvd in mor than 58.8% of th primary schools in
Makindy division, only 29.4% of th primary schools usd othr sourcs whil th limitd
proportion of schools 11.8% wr dpndnt on pipd watr spcially taps for drinking.
This implis that in most schools had limitd sourcs of watr for drinking, and th safty of
major sourc is not gnrally guarantd, unsaf sourc of watr can lad to watr born disas
including diarrhoa and dysntry. .
4.3. Lvl Sanitation in primary schools
Th study was st to assss th lvl of sanitation in primary schools; to achiv this ,
obsrvations chcklists wr usd to assss th lvl of sanitation rgarding sanitation for th
primary school, th typs of toilts wr idntifid and xamind th ratio distribution of
boys: girls ratio in trms of toilt that

wr found availabl in ach school. Th objctiv

furthr involvd xamind th sanitation practic for staff mmbrs and young ons, rubbish
disposal in slctd primary schools rspctivly
Rlatd Sanitation practics in Primary Schools
Obsrvations rlatd to school
sanitation
Prsnc of functional toilts
ar thr toilts for boys
ar thr toilts for girls
ar thr toilts for mal staff
ar thr toilts for fmal staff
ar thr wast bins in th fmal
staff

Ys

17
17
17
15
13
4

100.0
100.0
100.0
88.2
76.5
23.5

No

%
0
0
0
2
4
13

0
0
0
11.8
23.5
76.5

Total
17
17
17
17
17
17

40

ar toilts suitabl for youngrs

ar thr toilts for disabld
ar thr signs for toilts
ncouraging
ar th toilts away from classs
ar th toilts away from kitchn

5
0
2

29.4
0.0
11.8

12
17
15

70.6
100.0
88.2

17
17
17

5
12

29.4
70.6

12
5

70.6
29.4

17
17

Sourc: fild data

Provision of sufficint, functional, accssibl, scur, asy claning and culturally appropriat
toilts at th school is vry crucial to prvnt transmission of disas, dcras absntism and
dcras gndr quity (nrolmnt of girls)
Rsults indicat that 100% of th obsrvation mad from th study; thr major practics
wr idntifid including; prsnc of functional toilts in all primary schools, availability of
toilts for both boys and girls rspctivly. In addition, 88.2% of th obsrvation indicat
availability of toilt for mal staff and 76.5% for fmal staff but only 23.5% indicatd
availability of wast bins in th fmal staff. Only 11.8% of th toilts had signs ncouraging
corrct us of th toilts and hand washing aftr us of th toilts and kping clan compound
and classs which is significant to incras th lvl of adquat hygin information of th
school childrn. Rsults also showd 70.6% of toilt facilitis away from kitchn in all primary
schools, as pointd out th school sanitation policy toilts should build at last 10m from th
kitchn and th plac of food prparation. 29.4% of th class rooms wr only away from th
toilts, although th school sanitation guidlins ar assrting that th toilts must b laid or build
a plac far away from class rooms. Howvr, non of th primary schools had stablishd toilts
for disabld childrn or staff mmbrs.
Th findings imply that givn th availability of both toilts for both gndr, it was clar
that schools wr not vry strictly on gndr considrations for all th school facilitis for
41

xampl on staff toilt facilitis among othrs, at th sam tim thr was no spcial
considration of

vulnrabl

prsons

spcially

popl

with disabilitis. Gnrally, th

facilitis rquird to maintain bttr sanitation wr stablishd without strict considration of

gndr snsitivity; thrfor, it also mans that sanitation practic primary schools was on
avrag obsrvd irrspctiv of gndr and hnc no gndr policy.

Toilt typs in primary schools

Toilt typs in school
Pit latrin
Flush toilts

Frquncy
8
7

%
47.1
41.2

VIP (Vntilatd improvd pit-latrin)

11.8

Total

17

100.0

Sourc: fild data

From th abov findings 47.1% of th obsrvations indicatd that most primary schools had
pit latrins, and 41.2% obsrvations mad showd flush toilts availabl in sampld schools.
For th VIP toilts wr only 11.8% in obsrvation. Th findings imply most school hav
limitd toilts that ar prfrrd for bttr sanitation bcaus VIP toilts wr significantly
lss than th pit latrins and flush toilts. Many schools thrfor hav continuously usd pit
latrins than th prfrrd VIP & Flush toilts.
Numbr of boys, toilts for boys and boys to toilt ratio
Schools
1
2
3
4
5
6

Numbr of pupils (boys)

434
180
210
264
200
527

Numbr of toilts
8
3
3
7
3
12

Ratio
54.3
60.0
70.0
37.7
66.7
43.9
42

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
total
Sourc: fild data

226
370
223
200
179
332
246
321
436
337
151
4836

6
10
2
2
3
6
5
3
5
2
2
90

37.7
37.0
111.5
100.0
59.7
55.3
49.2
107.0
87.2
168.5
75.5
53.7

Rsults indicat that th pupils(boys) stanc ratio diffrd/ varid from diffrnt school to
school; 337:2 ratio in som school 10 tims highr than th rcommndd on 40:1, also
527: 12 stanc ratio of boys to toilts 12 tims highr than th rcommndd and at th
sam tim notd 434: 8 54.3 ratio was also highr than th rcommndd. Thrfor, th
stanc ratio for boys for toilts usag was at stak and hnc chancs ar vry high to shar
facilitis and som of th schools w visitd can b obsrvd that th studnt ar lin up to visit
th toilts at th brak tim, which may contribut to sprad of disass as rsult of poor
sanitation practics.
Numbr of girls, toilts for girls and girls to toilt ratio
Schools
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Numbr of pupils (girls)

431
255
270
246
250
496
232
422
223
256
173

Numbr of toilts
8
5
6
7
4
8
6
4
2
2
3

Ratio
53.9
51.0
45.0
35.1
62.5
62.0
38.7
105.5
111.5
128.0
57.7
43

12
13
14
15
16
17
Total

330
264
333
450
375
153
5159

6
5
3
4
2
3
78.0

55.0
52.8
111.0
112.5
187.5
51.0
66.1

Sourc: fild data

For th girls, it indicats stanc ratio 496: 8, 450:4 as illustratd was highr than th
rcommndd on 40:1. This mans that sanitation practic in rgard to toilt facilitis rmain
vry low in primary schools; this situation put th young girls at a highr risk of acquiring
various disass in school community du to gratr numbr of pupils sharing avrag 4-8
toilts or vn dropout of th school or incras th absntism of th pupils.
Numbr of toilts in a school by sx
Numbr of toilts

Sx
Boys

1-5
6-10
11-15
Total

N
11
5
1
17

Girls
%
64.7
29.4
5.9
100.0

N
11
6
0
17

%
64.7
35.3
0
100.0

Sourc: fild data

Rsults indicat that 64.7% of both boys and girls us avrag of 1-5 toilts but 35.3% of
th girls can shar 6-10 toilts compard to only 29.4% of th boys rspctivly. This
thrfor, th proportion of both boys and girls in highr than th availabl toilts facilitis and
to mak mattrs wors, ths facilitis wr mainly pit latrins.
Numbr of toilts in a school by staff, young ons
Numbr of toilts

Sx
Mal staff

Young ons
Fmal staff
44

1-5
No
Total

N
13
4
17

%
76.5
23.5
100.0

N
15
2
17

%
88.2
11.8
100.0

N
5
12
17

%
29.4
70.6
100.0

Sourc: fild data

Findings indicat that 88.2% of fmal staff had avrag of 1-5 toilts mor than 76.3% for mal
staff. Rsults also rvald that ovr 70.6% young ons had no toilt facilitis, similarly to
23.5% and 11.8% of mal and fmal staff rspctivly. This mans that proportion of mal
staff was incrasingly highr compard to th toilts stablishd in primary schools and abov
all, all primary school had nothing lik toilt facilitis for young on, young ons wr mor
vulnrabl to poor sanitation practics/ low lvl of sanitation practics.

Functional toilts in primary schools

Numbr of functional toilts
1-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
26-30
Total

Frquncy
2
6
5
3
1
17

Prcnt
11.8
35.3
29.4
17.6
5.9
100.0

Sourc: fild data

From th rsults, only 35.3% of primary schools visitd had functional toilts btwn 6-10
in numbr, 29.4% of ths school had 11-15 functional toilts. But 11.5% of th schools wr
obsrvd with only 1-5 functional toilts. This mans that whras, th sanitation practics
wr obsrvd on toilts, th functional toilts was vry low and thus rducing down th lvl
of sanitation in school.

45

Rubbish disposal in primary schools

Mthod of rubbish disposal
Burning
composit bit
Othrs
Total

Frquncy
11
3
3
17

%
64.7
17.6
17.6
100.0

Sourc: fild data

Rsults, indicat that 64.7% of schools manag thir disposal through burning whil th school
sanitation policy discourag burning rubbish in th school, 17.6% through composit pit and
othrs mthods rspctivly. Tchnically, th primary school had fw mthods usd in rubbish
disposal and yt childrn gathr diffrnt typs of garbag that rquir various rang of wast
disposal
4.4 Lvl of School hygin
Th study was st mak an assssmnt on th lvl of hygin in primary schools in
Makindy division; to answr this, rlatd obsrvations wr mad on various hygin
practics

and th status/ conditions of toilts, availability of hand washing facilitis as

xplaind;

Rlatd obsrvation practics

Obsrvations rlatd to school hygin
availability of hand washing in th
schools

Ys
16

No
1

%
5.9

Total
17

94.1
46

Prsnc of soap or ash at hand

washing
Is th compound of school is clan
ar thr dustbins in th school
compound
ar th dustbins covrd
Is th rubbish collct 100m from th
school
Is th grass slashd in th school
compound
Dos th school has fnc
availability of kitchn in th school
Is th kitchn sparatd th prparation
room
Is th food prpard in a clan
nvironmnt
availability of aprons of food handlrs
availability of caps of food handlrs

1
17
14
7
7

5.9
100.0
82.4
41.2

16

94.1

17

0
3

0
17.6

17
17

10
10

58.9
58.9

17
17

11.8

17

4
0
14

23.5
100.0
82.4

17
17
17

11

64.7

17

12
14

70.6
82.4

17
17

41.2
15
13
17
3

88.2
76.5
100.0
17.6

6
5
3

35.3
29.4
17.6

Sourc: fild data

Rsults indicat 100% of th obsrvation on two major hygin rlatd practics; claning of
school compound, availability of kitchn in th school rspctivly obsrvd in most primary
schools. In addition, 94.1% of th school had hand washing facilitis availabl for childrn
and ntir school community, 88.2% had grass slashd in school compound, 82.4% had thir
dustbins in thir compound , 76.5% with school fncd. Howvr, although on of th most
important hygin practics to promot schoolchildrn is hand washing with watr and soap at
last bfor ating and aftr using th toilts, only 5.9% had soap placd for hand washing,
41.2% of schools collct rubbish 100m from th school and dustbins covrd rspctivly. In
addition, only 35.3% of ths schools prpard thir food in a clan nvironmnt, whil school
guidlins for food prparation pointd out that food prparation prmiss should b kpt vry
carfully clan, surfacs usd for food prparation should b washd with dtrgnts and saf
watr and thn rinsd.
47

This mans majority schools maintaind th practic of claning schools compound and making
sur that kitchn is availabl in schools, hand washing facilitis compard to availabl hygin
rlatd practics; thrfor som

schools paid limitd attntion to som othr hygin

practics as xpctd and hnc th lvl of hygin in this cas was not as high as xpctd
in schools.
4.4.1 Facility status
Functional toilt status
functional toilt
status
Bad
Fair
vry good
Total

Frquncy

Prcnt

12
3
2
17

70.6
17.6
11.8
100.0

Sourc: fild data

Rfrring to th school sanitation guidlin, toilts should b dsignd and built so that thy ar
hyginic to us and do not bcom cntrs for disas transmission, surfacs that may b dirty
(soild) should b of smooth, watrproof and hardwaring matrial that can b cland with
watr and is rsistant to claning product.
From th abov tabl, findings indicat that 70.6% of all th functional toilts in most
primary schools wr bad compard to only 17.6% that showd fair status. This mant vry
low lvl of hygin in schools bcaus of bad status of functional toilts for both boys and
girls and th staff.
Functional toilt status of boys and girls
Status of

Sx
48

functional
toilts
Bad
Fair
vry good
Total

Boys
N of schools
13
2
2
17

Girls
%
76.5
11.8
11.8
100.0

N of schools
12
3
2
17

%
70.6
17.6
11.8
100.0

Sourc: fild data

Th dsign of th toilts should b includ masurs to minimiz odours and control th brding
sits of flis and mosquitos as indicatd th guidlins.
Rsults showd mor than 76.5% of schools had bad functional toilts stablishd for boys
and 70.6% for girls. Only 11.8% of schools had fair functional toilts for boys slightly lss
than 17.8% for

girls. Thrfor, boys in most schools wr mor vulnrabl to poor hyginic

nvironmnt.
Status of staff toilt facilitis for both mal and fmal in primary schools
Toilt status
Bad
Fair
Vry good
No
Total

Gndr
Mal staff
N of schools
%
1
5.9
4
23.5
8
47.1
4
23.5
17
100.0

Fmal staff
N of schools
2
5
8
2
17

%
11.8
29.4
47.1
11.8
100.0

Sourc: fild data

Toilts should b cland whnvr thy ar dirty and at last onc pr day, disinfctant should
b usd on all xposd surfacs, and if disinfctant is not availabl, plain cold watr should b
usd with a brush to rmov visibl dirty.
Rsults illustrat that 47.1% of th schools obsrvd had vry good toilts for both mal and
fmal staff and in addition only 29.4% of ths schools

had fair toilts for fmal staff

49

compard to only 23.5%. It should b notd thrfor that th proportion of schools with vry
good toilt facilitis for both mal and fmal staff was gnrally low and hnc th lvl
of hygin was not imprssing at all.
Status of Youngr ons toilts in primary schools
Toilt status for th
youngrs
Fair
vry good
Total
No
Total

Numbr of schools

2
3
5
12
17

11.8
17.6
29.4
70.6
100

Sourc: fild data

Smallr childrn ndd to b rassurd that thy ar in no dangr of falling into th pit; and
latrins for youngr childrn should b sparat from thos for th oldr childrn.
From th rsults, 70.6% of th schools had no toilts for young ons sparatd but rsults furthr
indicatd that only 29.4% of ths schools had vry good toilts catrd for young ons. This
mans that hygin practic for young childrn was not tratd as gratr concrn in most
schools
Status of kitchn
kitchn status
Bad
Fair
vry good
Total

Frquncy
6
8
3
17

Prcnt
35.3
47.1
17.6
100.0

Sourc: fild data

as pointd out th school sanitation policy th kitchn must hav nough spac suitabl with siz
50

of food prcisly and must b sparatd from th prparation room and must b far away
adquat distanc from th toilts
Th kitchn must b covrd with matrials asy to clan particularly th floor and th wall and
its rcommndd to b facd with smooth, hard imprvious matrial up to hight not lss than 1
mtrs
Th abov tabl indicat that only 47.1% of th primary schools had fair kitchn slightly
highr than 35.3% of th schools with bad kitchn status. This imply that whras this was a
major practic that most schools had kitchn, th status in trms of thir hygin was
significantly vry low hnc a dclin in lvl of hygin.
4.4.2 Hand Washing
Watr storag and capacity of facility
Capacity of Watr storag facility usd for washing

Frquncy

Prcnt

5
12
17

29.4
70.6
100.0

hands
blow 20 litrs
20 litrs and abov
Total
Sourc: fild data

Rsults indicat that mor than 70.6% primary school put nough storag capacity of watr for
hand washing. This showd a good imag of hygin obsrvation.

Matrial usd for hand washing in primary schools

Matrials usd for hand washing
watr only
watr and soap
Total

Frquncy
14
3

Prcnt
82.4
17.6

17

100.0
51

Sourc: fild data

Most primary schools (82.4%) had using watr only for hand washing mor than th schools
(17.6%). Th implication for this was that th lvl of hygin obsrvation on rquird
facilitis was quit vry low prhaps both watr and soap was rarly usd in most schools;
hnc hand washing with soap ffctivly rducs xposur to diarrhoa causing pathogns and
th school may b likly to gt brakout of disass among childrn.

Washing facility usd in Schools

Kind of hand washing is usd
Tap
JUG
Othrs
Total

Frquncy

Prcnt

10
4
3
17

58.8
23.5
17.6
100.0

Sourc: fild data

From th tabl, obsrvational rsults indicatd that mor than 58.8% of primary schools had
tap watr as thir hand wash facility, 23.5% usd Jug as a hand washing facility. In this cas,
th hand washing facility was not vnly

distributd in ach school in maintnanc of

hygin, it also mant that school had no ffctivs on such facilitis for som rasons.

52

4.4.3 School ncouragmnt on corrct us of facilitis.

ncouragmnt of pupils corrct us of facility

Sourc of
Frquncy
information

Prcnt

Giv information

15

88.2

Using postrs to
dmonstrat
Total

11.8

17

100.0

Sourc: fild data

Th combination of adquat facilitis and corrct bhaviour practics ncouragmnt is mant
to hav positiv impact on th halth condition of th of th studnts.
Childrn ar oftn agr to larn and willing to absorb nw ida, nw hygin bhaviour larnd
at school can lad to lif-long positiv habits, also school childrn can influnc th bhaviour of
othr family mmbrs both adult and youngr sibling than positiv habits influnc as whol th
community
Th fficint of mthod of passing information to pupils on how to us facilitis corrctly is by
informing pupils dirctly (88.2%). anothr mthod is by using postrs to dmonstrat (11.8%).
Passing on information to pupils is vry important bcaus it hlps pupils to larn and nsurs
protction of th facility, to ncourag studnts to wash thir hands aftr using th latrins and
bfor ating food will b hlpful for th school childrn as postrs.

53

CHaPTR FIV
DISCUSSION

54

55

CHaPTR SIX

CONCLUSION aND RCOMMNDaTIONS

56

Rfrncs

1- aCTION, U.H., 2008. RPORT 2009

2- amin, M.., 2005. Social scinc rsarch: Concption, mthodology and analysis.
Makrr Univrsity
3- Bartram, J., Brocklhurst, C., Fishr, M.B., Luyndijk, R., Hossain, R., Wardlaw, T. and
Gordon, B., 2014. Global monitoring of watr supply and sanitation: history, mthods
and futur challngs. Intrnational journal of nvironmntal rsarch and public
halth, 11(8), pp.8137-8165.

4- Daudt, Y. and Singh, K., 2001. Th Right to ducation: an analysis of UNSCO's

Standard-stting Instrumnts. Unsco.

5- Jna, P.C. and Wangmo, D., 2016. arly childhood car and ducation in Bhutan: an
valuativ study. World Scintific Nws, 37, p.279.

6- Lidond, R., 2004. Scaling up school sanitation and hygin promotion and gndr
concrns. School Sanitation & Hygin ducation, p.40.

7- Mistry, S., Pandy, R.K. and Rizzo, V., 2006. Quality ducation packag: strngthning
schools, strngthning communitis. Lucknow: Lucknow Univ., Dptt. of ducation.

57

8- Mlya, M.P., 2016. an analysis of sanitation and watr srvic dlivry in Mahikng
Local Municipality (Doctoral dissrtation, North-Wst Univrsity).
9- Murray, C.J., Laakso, T., Shibuya, K., Hill, K. and Lopz, a.D., 2007. Can w achiv
Millnnium Dvlopmnt Goal 4? Nw analysis of country trnds and forcasts of
undr-5 mortality to 2015. Th Lanct, 370(9592), pp.1040-1054.

10- Nakabugo, M.G., Byamugisha, a. and Bithaghalir, J., 2008. Futur schooling in
Uganda. Journal of intrnational coopration in ducation, 11(1), pp.55-69.
11- Nansrko, F., 2010. aDQUaCY aND UTILISaTION OF SaNITaTION FaCILITIS IN
SCONDaRY SCHOOLS IN MPIGI DISTRICT (Doctoral dissrtation, Makrr
Univrsity).
12- Nansrko, F., 2010. aDQUaCY aND UTILISaTION OF SaNITaTION FaCILITIS IN
SCONDaRY SCHOOLS IN MPIGI DISTRICT (Doctoral dissrtation, Makrr
Univrsity).
13- Nansrko, F., 2010. adquacy and utilisation of sanitation facilitis in scondary
schools in mpigi district (Doctoral dissrtation, Makrr Univrsity).

14- Naybar, S.R., Wilson, L.R., Carpntr, D.O., Dziwulski, D.M. and Kannan, K., 2014.
a rviw of potabl watr accssibility and sustainability issus in dvloping countris
cas study of Uganda. Rviws on nvironmntal halth, 29(4), pp.363-378.

15- Njuguna, V., Karanja, B., Thuranira, M., Shordt, K., Snl, M., Cairncross, S., Biran, a.
and Schmidt, W.P., 2008. Th sustainability and impact of school sanitation, watr and

58

hygin ducation in Knya. Unitd Nations Childrns Fund and IRC Intrnational
Watr and Sanitation Cntr, Nw York and Dlft, Nthrlands, p.3.
16- Njuguna, V., Karanja, B., Thuranira, M., Shordt, K., Snl, M., Cairncross, S., Biran, a.
and Schmidt, W.P., 2008. Th Sustainability and Impact of School Sanitation. Watr and
Hygin ducation in Knya.
17- Ovrby, L., 2008. Th Halth Bnfits of Watr Supply and Sanitation Projcts: a
Rviw of th World Bank Lnding Portfolio (No. 43207). IG Working Papr 2008/1,
Rport.

18- Park, K., 2009. Halth car of th community. Txtbook of prvntiv and social
mdicin, 20, pp.794-8.
19- Pradhan, a. and Jons, O., 2008. Crating usr-frindly watr and sanitation srvics for
th disabld: Th xprinc of Watraid Npal and its partnrs. Construction.

20- Shordt, K., Snl, M. and Krukkrt, I., 2007. Towards ffctiv programming for WaSH
in

Schools.

UNICF

and

IRC

[onlin]

http://www.

irc.

nl/contnt/download/128071/348559/fil/TP, 2048

21- UNICF (2001). a frsh approach : school halth, hygin and sanitation ducation: a
convrgnc programm for child-frindly schools. Draft. Nw Dlhi, India, UNICF
ducation sctor, India Country Offic

59

22- UNICF, 2005. WHO 2004 Mting th MDG Drinking Watr and Sanitation Targt: a
Mid-Trm assssmnt of Progrss. UNICF/WHO, Gnva, Switzrland.

23- UNICF, WHO (2004) Mting th MDG Drinking Watr and Sanitation Targt. Th
urban and rurak chalang of th dcad WHO and UNICF.

24- Van Lrbrgh, W., 2008. Th world halth rport 2008: primary halth car: now mor
than vr. World Halth Organization.

25- Vivas, a., Glay, B., abost, N., Kumi, a., Brhan, Y. and Williams, M.a., 2010.
Knowldg, attituds, and practics (KaP) of hygin among school childrn in
angolla, thiopia. Journal of prvntiv mdicin and hygin, 51(2), p.73.

26- Waddington, H., Snilstvit, B., Whit, H. and Fwtrll, L., 2009. Watr, sanitation and
hygin intrvntions to combat childhood diarrhoa in dvloping countris. Nw
Dlhi: Intrnational Initiativ for Impact valuation.

27- World Halth Organization, 2005. Dworming for halth and dvlopmnt: rport of th
Third Global Mting of th Partnrs for Parasit Control.

28- World Halth Organization, 2009. Global halth risks: mortality and burdn of disas
attributabl to slctd major risks. World Halth Organization.

60

Work plan
activity

Jun /2015 Sptmbr / Octobr /2015

2015

Dcmbr

March 2016

/2015

Proposal
writing

&

Litratur
Rviw
data
collction

Data
analysis &
Rviw&
61

Rport
writing
Budgt

NO
1
2
3
4
5

xpnss

stimatd Total Cost

Proposal rparation
Data collction
Data analyst
Scrtarial xpnss
GRaND TOTaL

150,000
1,000,000
600,000
300,000
2,050,000

aPPNDICS
Obsrvation chck list
Dar rspondnt:
My nam is a studnt at Intrnational Halth Scincs
Univrsity pursuing a bachlors dgr of public halth. I am currntly conducting rsarch on
th assssmnt of Watr, sanitation and hygin practics among primary schools. You hav
bn chosn to b part of this study as a rspondnt. I thrfor rqust you to kindly assist m to
obsrv and giv your honst viws on th fw qustions blow. Th obsrvation chcklists ar
anonymous bcaus w do not nd th school nam so your viws will rmain confidntial and
your school will not b mntiond.
Obsrvation rlatd to school toilts

No

Prsnc

Status/condition
62

Indicators
1

Prsnc of functional toilts

ar thr toilts for boys alon

ar thr toilts for girls alon

ar thr toilts for mal staff

alon
ar thr toilts for fmal staff
alon
ar thr wast bins in th fmal
toilts
ar toilts suitabl for both
youngr and oldr studnts
ar thr toilt facilitis for th
disabld

5
6
7
8

Ys

If ys howNo
many

xcllnt

Vry
good

Fair

Bad Vry
bad

9
ar thr signs th latrins
ncouraging good hygin
10 ar th toilts at last 50 mtrs
away from classs?
11

Distanc btwn latrins and

th kitchn in th school

Obsrvation rlatd to school hygin

No
Indicators
12
13

Prsnc

Status/condition

Ys

xcllnt

If ys how No
many

Vry Fair
good

Bad Vry
bad

availability of hand washing

facilitis in th schools
Prsnc of soap or ash at
63

14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

hand washing facility

Is th compound of school is
clan
ar thr dustbins in th
school compound
ar th dustbin covrd
Is th rubbish collct at last
100 mtrs from th school?
Is th grass slashd to kp
down inscts and mosquitos,
and rduc th risk of fir?
Dos th school has fnc
availability of kitchn in th
school
Is th kitchn Sparatd from
th prparation room
Is th food prpard in a clan
nvironmnt
availability of aprons of food
handlrs
availability of caps of food
handlrs (hair covr)

Obsrvation rlatd to school watr

No
Indicators
25

Prsnc

Status/condition

Ys

xcllnc

If ys how No
many

Vry
good

Fai
r

Bad Vry
bad

Is thr plac to drink watr at

64

th school
Is thr watr availabl for
drinking
Is in th school watr tanks
ar toilts at last 30 mtrs from
any drinking watr sourc
What is th rlation of th
rubbish pit to th watr sourc?

26
27
28
29

Gnral qustions
What ar th typ of toilt in th school
Pit latrins
Flush toilts (with running watr)
Vntilatd improvd pit latrins(VIP)
Othrs
Hand washing facility capacity
Bllow 20 litrs
20 litrs and abov
What matrial ar usd hand washing
Watr only
Watr and soap
ash
What kind of hand washing is usd

65

Tap
Jug
Othrs
What is th main mthod of rubbish disposal
Burning
Composit pit
Othrs

What kind of plac for drink watr at th school

Hand pump
Tap
Barrl
Othrs
What is th main sourc of watr for th school
Borhol
Pipd watr
Rain watr
Othrs
What do you do to ncourag th pupils to us corrct ths facilitis
a- giv information?
B-nsur facilitis ar functioning
C- Using postr to dmonstrat
38- dos th school hav halth clubs

Ys

No

66

Ky informants
What is th total population of pupils by sx?
Total numbr of workrs?
Do th school hav a budgt for sanitation?, if ys.
approximatly how much?
Do you conduct hygin and sanitation lssons and how frqunt is?
What ar th challngs that thy fac in implmntation?
What stps hav bn takn to prvnt vctor-born disass from sprading as flis
Who provids school claning matrials?
What ar th challngs you fac providing WaSH facilitis in th school?
Do you hav a lady cancllr for th girl child?

Ys

No

If thr ar childrn with physical disabilitis in th school, ar thy abl to us th toilts?

Ys

No

50- If thr ar childrn with physical disabilitis in th school, ar thy abl to us th hand
washing facility?Ys

No

If thr ar childrn with physical disabilitis in th school, ar thy abl to us th drinking

watr?

Ys

No

Dos th school has policy for sanitation?

Ys

No

Is th watr availabl all th tim at th school? Ys

No

67