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472
Optical
THOMAS
G. GIALLORENZI,
ON MICROWAVE
JOSEPH A. BUCARO,
ANTHONY
current
The principles
of fiber
are discussed
sensor
this
The
and other
sensor
opticat
are detaited
Achievable
a description
is presented.
laser diode,
of
and
of operation
of
performance
characteristics
and expected
VOL. MTT-30,
NO. 4, APRIL
1982
of acoustic,
Trends
Additionally,
other
these fiber
acoustic
to fabricate
magnetic,
the
gyro,
in the development
application
outlined.
G. PRIEST
Paper]
is re-
and timitations
used
types
sensors
technology
technology
fiber
DANDRIDGE,
(Invited
AbstractThe
AND TECHNIQUES,
SCOTT C. RASHLEIGH,
viewed.
THEORY
elements permitting
noise cancellation,
because
as extended
In the case
I. OVERVIEW
PTICAL
fiber
AND
INTRODUCTION
sensor development
has matured
to the
in demonstrating
and inherent
technology.
Progress
in the
past few years with over 60 different sensor types being developed. This large number of individual devices is usuilly categorized into amplitude or phase (interferometric)
sensors. In
the former case the physical perturbation
interacts with the
fiber or some device attached to the fiber to directly modulate
the intensity of the light in the fiber. The advantages of intensity sensors, which are described in detail in the body of this
paper, are the simplicity
with multimode
of construction
fiber technology.
is
is not required
to the limit
Manuscript
The authors
DC 20375.
received
of state
October
are with
the
of the
iwt in acoustic
measurements.
Research
U.S.
Laboratory,
Government
Washington,
work
not
preceded this
resulting
in rapid progress.
have en-
As an example,
this technology
flexibility.
While progress has been rapid and many sensor types have
been demonstrated, the technology is not yet fully developed
nor exploited.
Practical problems remain in the aleas of noise
sources and detection processes, in packaging, and in optimized
fiber coatings. As an example, nonreciprocal noise in the fiber
gyro has prevented the ultimate sensitivity from being realized.
In the magnetic sensor, lengths of magnetically sensitive coated
fiber are only available in short lengths (approximately
1 m)
whereas kilometer lengths are desired. Finally, sensor packaging to survive the stringent conditions encountered in operational deployment has not been completed.
These problems
are areas of current efforts, and work in many of these problem areas has only recently been initiated so that they would
not be expected at this time to be completely resolved.
This paper is designed to describe the technology, define
what the current state of the art N, review a number of considerations important to those who may attempt to construct
these sensors, and give the reader a feeling for the potential
of this newly emerging technology.
Section H discusses the
most highly
13, 1981.
Naval
by
U.S.
copyright
GIALLORENZI
et al.: OPTICAL
FIBER
SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
473
The
1
I
I
I
I
frequency
dependence
The
expected performance
Sec-
sensing performance;
however,
noise problems
position
FIBER
SENSOR
I
REF
FIBER
PHOTO
DET
/
Y
n
I
I
SIG
PROC
I
I
l-. .---
configurations
demonstrated
to date, and the status of the
technology will be described in this section.
Amplitude sensors are presented in Section V. The operating
principles, advantages, limitations,
and demonstrated perforSection VI describes diode laser sensors.
I
I
I
SOURCE
have
IASER
/
i
__________
I
I
laser cavity
- --
(PLASTIC
optic
interferometer.
COATED
FIBER)
So
so
Acceleration,
current, temperature,
photoacoustic,
torque,
liquid level, etc., sensors are briefly discussed in Section VII.
Several types use phase effects, whereas others utilize
tude effects.
ampli-
additional
it is hoped
helpful
that
information.
While
final
section
lWm
on the performance
o,~o
of
FREQUENCY
Fig. 2. Minimum
acoustic
sensors
are illustrated
employ
the
conventional
the Mach-Zehnder
as well
arrangement
be seen,
shown in Fig. 1. A
by
threshold
piezoelectric
threshold
of optical
fiber
sensors is their
One
As shown
can be made
as shown
sensors
Various
resulting
in a lightweight,
right,
of the demodulator
fiber.
simple
reference
gradient
fiber
does
not
pressure
gradient.
left,
planar
left
sensitivities
to
with
linear
acoustic
are shown
Linear
and long,
arrays
single
fiber
wavelength
Alternatively,
individ-
can be placed
in a line
array.
As shown
respond
As can
sensor elements
than an acoustic
properties
small
by fiber
and flexible.
If the pressure
the pair
is shown
ear.
can be exceeded
receiver.
desired
For
of the art in
Some examples
longer
directional
with
the signallimit.
hydrophore)
possessed
are light
sensitivities
[4]).
as 1 m.
in the lower
resulting
The extreme
fiber optic
(after
of the human
in the upper
which
ual fiber
including
of state
versatility.
elements
FM discrimination
[4] , stabilized homodyne
[3], synthetic
heterodyne [5] , as well as several others [6] . Actual choice
detectability
advantages
geometric
can be fabricated
or quantum
as short
fiber
shot
detectabilities
of the principal
in Fig. 3.
the
detectability
these
lengths
techniques
optical
sensors (H56
as the threshold
demodulation
is determined
comparison
pressure
lengths
and the
to-noise
II.
detectable
IN kHz
adjacent
on the
by placing
the
to the sensing
Such a gradient
but
to the spatial
to
IEEE TRANSACTIONS
474
ON MICROWAVE
THEORY
AND TECHNIQUES,
substrate,
all fabricated
The sensor
with
fiber
a hard
the strains
plastic.
various
a fiber
with
fiber
ez and e? must
one layer
[7] , [9]
similar
be related
of
has already
account
the exact
fiber.
frequencies
(i.e.,
A >>
the largest
the acoustic
wave
exerts
a hydrostatic
sensor.
to properties
sensitivity
[8]
we take into
four-layer
and then
as given in (l),
The pressure
layers
1982
properties.
a soft rubber
or two
In the following
NO. 4, APRIL
the sensitivity
of the fiber.
of a typical
At low
with
layers
been reported.
geometry
glasses having
coated
To calculate
in the core
of the
sensor),
from
is usually
VOL. MTT-30,
dimensions
pressure
of inches,
of the
on the
this is the
up to several kilohertz.
The polar stresses
or, Oe, and u= in the fiber are related to the strains e?, ee, and
case for
frequencies
e= as follows
[9] :
(1 + 2p)
0;
Fig. 3. Various
detect
the
direction
seen,
gradient
sensors
of these
fiber
signallnoise
processing
as illustrated
in the upper
can be made
Sensitivity
Acoustic
made
right,
by simply
modulation
small
and rugged.
shaded
sensitive
keeping
to achieve
This is readily
Finally,
omnidirectional
wavelength.
frequency
frequencies,
where
propagation
finally,
at ultrasonic
smaller
than
The
fined
must
a fiber
becomes
be taken
pressure
core
change
axial
where
AP.
strain
strain
anisotropic
into
sensitivity
as Ar)l@AP,
a pressure
frequencies
d, the elastic
cross section
bution
direction
become
where
A is compar-
gradients
important.
along
And
to or
mode
distri-
ratio
vi
as
Ei
viEi
hi=
(3)
- 2Vi)
i=2(l
+ vi)
[ 11]
(4)
Since
dlr=yi=d+lr=ri(iU;ly=rl
= Ur+ll,=F,
O, 1,
conditions
(5)
,m - 1),
(6)
(rVmIr=fm =P,
(7)
~ u~Ai =- PAm,
i=o
(8)
phase in a fiber
is de-
where u;(= J_ej dr) is the radial displacement in the ith layer,
and ri and Ai are the radius and the cross section area of the
ith layer, respectively.
Equations (5) and (6) describe the
radial stress and displacement continuity
across the bound-
(1)
[1] that
Here, Pll
E i and Poissons
account.
of the optical
modulus
-.
which are
regimes
A is comparable
distribution
A@ is the shift
related to Youngs
follows :
[10]
the
in a
At intermediate
(ki + 2pi)
1
solutions
hi
Ai
For a cylinder
on the fiber.
u:
[1
(~ +2@
Ai
(1 +Vi)(l
Frequencies
to different
ele-
As can be
of fiber windings.
to an acoustic
at Low
o~
wave.
advantages.
the density
small compared
Acoustic
acoustic
can be readily
by varying
element
sensor w et ends.
accomplished
ments
optic
of an incident
Most
predetection
fiber
or Pockels coefficients
of the core, and n is the refractive index of the core. The first
term in (1) is the part of A@/@AP which is due to the fiber
approximation
length change, while the second and third terms are the parts
[7] .
Using the boundary
conditions
described
by (5)-(9),
the
GIALLORENZI
et
OPTICAL
al.:
FIBER
SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
475
TABLE
I
SINGLE-MODE FIBER (WITHOUT
STANDARD ITT
OUTER COATING)
1
First
Core
00
Clad
Substrate
Coating
6:
(soft)
Composition
SiO*
of
traces
95%
ceo~ (0.1%)
sio~
sio~
Silicone
5X B202
Diameter
(Urn)
26
84
250
72
65
72
0.0035
Young s Modulus
I
\~l
_60-~o
(Iolo
I
300
400
500
dynelcn)
I
600
Fig. 4. Pressure
sensitivity
A@/@AP
of the
ITT
fiber
as a function
of
PO~ssOns
Fig.
cially
plastic
may
of
shows
the
available
coating
vary
a w-shaped
core
index
profile.
The
been
studied
both
the
the
the
fiber
terms
ity.
As
the
I lists
two
they
the
Hytrel
pressure
jacket
silica
fiber.
of
in
smaller
(l)]
part
in
(1)]
are
due
to
contributions
thickness
increases
increases
this
fiber
(Fig.
in
4 it
due
The
and
the
e:
rubbers,
= 4 x
100 dyn/cm2
81f=2x0Odycm2
/P0ym2E=05x
_
k- _
to
E=O.I x10ndyn/cm2
e:
photoelastic
opposite
the
polar-
E=OO1 x 10Odyn/cm2
magnitude
1
t
to
0123456
7891O
FIBER O.D.(mm)
thermoset
plastics,
for optical
fibers include
[12] .
ically a soft material, such as a rubber, introduced for minimizing microbend loss. The outer coating is hard and is introduced
for preserving glass strength, protecting
environments,
MODULUS
N-g 7
the e; change.
Commonly
BULK
is seen
due primarily
rapidly
1.458
some
A@/@AP
4),
has
Fig.
of
0.27
in
to calculate
P12
of a silicone
used
of
0.126
0.49947
of 5 per-
analytically
From
is the
term
thickness
substrate
consists
response
the
Pll
0.17
composed
a cladding
and
this
[first
sensitivity
This
is nominally
a fused
fiber
e;
terms
give
of
of
change
commer-
of Ge02,
and
acoustic
contribution
last
fiber
experimentally
Aq$/@AP
length
and
The
Table
largest
[the
effect,
of
, [8].
sensitivity
that
traces
Si02,
layer.
[4]
with
a typical
as a function
thickness.
The
percent
a Hytrel
of
fiber
Hytrel)
to fiber.
+ 95
and
detail
name
fiber
silica
B203
sensitivity
single-mode
(trade
from
a fused
cent
pressure
(ITT)
0.149
0.17
Ratio
Hytrel thickness.
CL shows the phase change due to the length change;
e~ and e$ show the refractive
index modulation
term (after [13]).
fiber
The soft
Fig. 5. Calculated
Youngs
outer
tivity
moduli
coating.
pressure
sensitivity y
E and constant
Fiber
parameters
is governed entirely
bulk
versus
modulus
fiber
OD
for
different
(4 X 1010 dyn/cm2)
of
1.
inde-
function
[12].
Inthis case the waveguide experiences anistropic strains
and knowledge of two independent elastic moduli is required
thick the fiber sensitivity approaches a limit which is independent of the coating Youngs modulus.
In the case of a thick
thick
layer.
to predict
the following
way.
of the cross-sectional
For a composite
is a strong func-
moduli
modulus
materials
of that
very little
476
IEEE TRANSACTIONS
ON MICROWAVE
THEORY
AND TECHNIQUES,
VOL. MTT-30,
NO. 4, APRIL
1982
FIBER
CID
:0.inlm
10
9
I\\
E= 0.5x10Odyn/cm2
M
7k\\
,~~
0.01
0.1
10
FREQUENCY lkHz)
Fig. 7. Frequency
dependence
of pressure sensitivity y of fibers with a
0.7 mm OD coated with various elastometers
at 27C.
o Teflon TFE
I, A Teflon
TFE
11, X polypropylene
7823, + high density polypropylene,
nylon,
Hytrel
soft UV curable acrylate.
1
1
00123456
Youngs
moduli
Table L Shaded
rubber (lower).
T hard
UV
curable
pressure
(l)]
modulus
for various
acoustic sensitivity
coating case
reduced sensitivity
materials.
in which the glass waveguide plays the major role in the sensi-
tivityy.
high
bulk
typical
coating
thicknesses,
of approximately
of coating thickness.
These ma-
for
The
[7].
hand, substantially
coatings is relatively
and
(1010dyn/cm21
acoustic sensitivity
modulus material.
acrylate,
7
BULK MODULUS
Fig. 6. Calculated
7241,
versus
a critical tolerance on
thickness control.
Acoustic Response at Intermediate
Frequencies
dimen-
decreases rapidly
as the fre-
broad-band
acoustic performance.
can be utilized as a low-frequency
acoustic
Acoustic Desensitization
Minimizing
to derive
an expression
for
the
acoustic
force,
due
to
phase shift.
sound
p PO
(lo)
vector of the center of the coil element,
GIALLORENZ1
ef al.: OPTICAL
477
not
give a measurable
contribution
is from
optical
the breathing
------
the
mode.
by integrating
around
the coil
force
deter-
cmcwM
ALufwNATE
FO = - rrr~
GLASS
21r
PCda - i(nr~kR
sin 6)
PC sin a da
1
211
+flr~(z~~
1 -~)
da.
p.
Jo
I
I
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
COATING
THICKNESS
Substituting
[pm]
FO = - 2rr.4p0 [f(l
Fig. 8. Pressure
high modulus
materials
gives
versus coating
(13)
thickness.
amplitude
functions,
of the incident
and q = kR sin
pressure-gradient,
[(bds)n]n
where AS
to R.
parallel
and
is a unit
vector
+ i(- rrr~pCkR
subtended
by the element
the axial stresses in the fibers and the force due to the
hydrostatic
between
the fibers.
When
fraction
The total
of the
tension
coil
cross
section
occ~pied
The
equation
tween
t~e
fluid.
pressure p
on
the
the
where
Poisson
The
tion
A>>
and
are the
effective
fibers
Youngs
modulus
and
of
the
sound
coil.
When
of vibration
wave
of a thin
will
the
excite
wavelength
ring.
various
of
modes
the
be similar
Flexural
of vibra-
sound
is long
to the modes
vibrations
will
TAa force.
follows
from
originates
can be expressed
the
from
the
as a balance
ez =uOe iwt/R.
be-
(14)
on this element
is -fAEezA&.
Damping
the fibers
The vibrating
The inertial
where
effective
u is the
which
coil
of the fluid
will
radiate
acceleration
is an average
sound
and
between
between
pc is the
the density
where
for
pm
is the
an element
-
radia-
(15)
density
of
of ACY coil
water.
can now
The
= FOACY/21r
- fA;uOAa/R
+ CJ2UOpWARACI
following
solution
[f(l
is
for
- 26)4(V)
omitted.
the
motion
terms
yields
of vibration:
- nJ, (n)] p.
-tj@/R
(16)
of
as
Rearranging
amplitude
equation
be expressed
OJzuopcARAa
of
them.
fi. =Ap~uOe-iotRAa
obtain
incident
term
force
(12)
ratio.
term
the
of motion
driving
u = uoe-wt,
uo=
nrjpc
and
JI (v)
Jo(q)
term
The
the
pressure
in the fibers
by
surface
(11)
at the center
while
into (14) to
in
the coefficients
(17)
q and ~ can be determined
by applica-
IEEE TRANSACTIONS
478
tion
of (2)-(9).
determined
Finally,
from
the normalized
ON MICROWAVE
optical
phase shift
THEORY
AND
TECHNIQUES,
VOL.
MTT-30,
NO. 4, APRIL
1982
-~
is
(1)
(18)
A@/kOLpO = Re + Im
where
Re = {D(luol/Rj
cos UP - n2(Pll
Im = {D(\uol/R)
sin uP} 71
- P44) p~~(v]}
n,
i
with
i
D=rz2(p11
l/2rz2(p11
-p~q)q+
- 2p44)-1
and IU. 1,UP are the magnitude and phase, respectively, of the
vibration amplitude UO.
In Figs. 9 and 10 are shown the measured acoustic response
of a loop of Hytrel coated fiber compared to theory as calcuThe effect of the fiber loop resonance is
lated from (18).
apparent in Fig. 9.
The directional
High Frequency
Consider
along
At
along
very
across
fiber
account
propagating
frequencies
fiber
cross
with
these
strains
[1[EY-
are
uniform
beam.
In
fiber to act as a
exiting
a fiber
[16].
180
eiAp e)
eiA(32 (i,@)
1
1[
as a perturbation
be stated
the acoustically
tween
shifts
each of
strain
the point
the following
electric
A&l
manner
of interest
[10]
in the fiber,
and EXO
fields.
aIe related
waveguide.
This
at
15 kHz
condition
can
as
strain
phase
principal
locating
to the fiber
coil hydrophore
(19)
coordinates
induced
EA-O
271Y
the fiber.
At higher frequencies,
section.
the polarization
linear retarder.
the acoustic
through
Ex
(Hz)
wave is incident
associated
FREQUENCY
An acoustic
of light
acoustic
optical
optical
The strains
the phase
low
the
, ~s
I 04
the z axis.
the x direction.
wave change
103
Ultrasonic Response
an isotropic
aligned
102
length
,..,, [
birefringence
to the principal
strains
AD each
index difference
The ultrasonically
the ultrasonically
be calculated
[18]
induced principal
induced
(20a)
A@, = kOn3(P12el
(20b)
+ P11ez)/2
~.-~cfl+v~$
wave equation
can
[17],
(22)
el and ez in
strains are
(23)
in vacuum,
index.
as well
the principal
strains
with
tically
position
induced
kO is the optical
coefficients,
strains
as the principal
cross section.
are sufficiently
small
Usually,
wave
In general,
(24)
vary
the acous-
so as to act only
GIALLORENZI
et
OPTICAL
al.:
FIBER
SENSOR
TECHNOLOGY
479
(24) by expanding @ and J in terms of cylindrical basis functions and applying four boundary conditions which hold at
the surface of the fiber.
must be continuous
The displacement
the boundary.
The results of such a calculation for a single-mode fiber are
shown in Fig. 11 as a function of ka for an acoustic pressure
of 104 pa. At low frequencies (ka approximately
O) the acous-
tically induced phase shift is independent of polarization direction. In this limit the value obtained here is exactly that calcu-
.,o~
increases until
mately
6) is reached.
polar-
k.
Fig. 11. Ultrasonically induced phase shift per unit length (2.54 cm)
to
and pressure (104 pa) for polarization parallel and perpendicular
the incident ultrasonic wave. The single-modefiber radius is a (40 urn)
and k is the ultrasonic wave number.
parallel polarization
decreases rapidly as one first begins to
increase ka, becoming zero for ka approximately
1.5. At this
FREQUENCY
1.0,
point, eJel = - P11/P12. Since ezlel <1 and PIz > Pll for
silica glass this condition is not obtained for the perpendicular
~
:
rises rapidly
as ka increases, and
transduction
mechanism
at megahertz frequencies.
A sensor based on acoustically induced birefringence can be fabricated with a single piece of
fiber in which the two eigenmodes are excited equally at the
beginning of the ,region of interaction between optical beam.
in the fiber and the acoustic wave. This is accomplished by
aligning the input linear polarizer and quarter wave plate such
that circularly polarized light arrives at this point. When the
output
optical
beam is properly
of the polariscope,
acoustically
12
(MHZ-FOR
a = 411@
24
18
I
so
3642
I
2.0 -
polarization.
x
f
3,0
4.0 5.0
~
!-
6.0
0
0
d
7.0 -
WAVELENGTH
80L~
0,0
1,0
2,0
4,0
3.0
k,
5,0
=0.632S Vm
6,0
7,0
Fig. 12. Ultrasonically induced birefringence AL3 per unit length (1 cm)
and pressure (104pa) versus ka. The single-mode fiber radius is a
(40 ~m) and k is the ultrasonic wave number.
modulation
index A6.
Sensor Packa@ng
Since the first
reports
of laboratory
fiber interferometric
[4] employed
components
laboratory
ferometers
coupling
noise and
optical components.
A considerable
improvement
IEEE
480
TRANSACTIONS
ON MICROWAVE
THEORY
AND
TECHNIQUES,
of device operation
will
VOL.
MTT-30,
NO. 4, APRIL
1982
descriptions
of
The fundamental
behind
coupling
cility
and detector
pair.
to permit
and normally
would
de-
FIBER
OPTIC
MAGNETIC
SENSORS
Introduction
This section of the paper will consider recent developments
principle
of sensor operation
is associated
proposed
jackets on
silica and doped silica optical fibers, namely, the Faraday rotation approach and the magnetostrictive jacket or stretcher approach. In the former approach an external magnetic field H is
respective magnetic
applied longitudinally
to a fiber to produce a rotation in the
direction of linear polarization.
Smith [21] demonstrated that
this technique can be utilized to measure high electric currents
in the O-1000 A range without the dangers of short-circuiting
cables.
responses anticipated
at 1-10 kHz.
in thin
calculated the
of thin metallic
bers is sufficiently
small (=1.5 X 10-2 min A-l) that only
large currents and magnetic fields can be detected by the Fara-
day approach.
been incorporated
paramagnetic ions into optical fibers to raise the Verdet constants to much higher levels than those observed in the base
glass itself. Rare earth ions can be incorporated into silica to
greatly enhance the Faraday effect, but constraints on volubility
of the ions in the glass and the optical absorption introduced
by the ions limit the enhancement which can be achieved in
practice.
However, theoretical sensitivities of approximately
10-4 G/m of fiber optic path length seem possible in rare earth
doped optical fibers if they can be fabricated with acceptable
polarization
preserving properties.
The Faraday approach re~~ires both special materials and sophisticated fiber drawing
techniques to provide highly sensitive detection of magnetic
fields.
The alternate approach employing magnetostrictive materials
not only is more straightforward,
but also is potentially capable
of much greater sensitivity in magnetic field measurement.
Therefore, the balance of this section on fiber optic magnetic
field sensors will concentrate on this technique. The principles
Magnetostrictive
materials have
sensors by Rashleigh
Magnetostrictive
these materials,
~~ is
(25)
Using (25) the ~~ for nickel is calculated to be 32.8 X 10-6.
GIALLORENZI
et
al.:
OPTICAL
FIBER
TABLE
SENSOR
481
11
TECHNOLOGY
~ ~~o
CUBIC CRYSTALS*
10-6)
(x
~lll(x
static magnetostriction
10-6)
Experimental
measurements.
-Fe
or expansion
-20
pathlength
of magnetostrictive
generated by contraction
materials
bonded to optical
-7
30
60% Ni-Fe
27
22
73% Ni-Fe
(annealed)
14
73% Ni-Fe
(quenched)
15
14
80% Ni-Fe
placing
the magnetostrictive
sensor in an oscillating
3% Si-Fe
27
7X Si-Fe
-5
evaporation
120
and electroplating
magnetostriction
can either
be positive (expanding dimension) or negative (contracting dimensions) with 30 percent nickel yielding approximately zero
dimensional
positive magnetostriction,
exhibiting
the highest
contraction.
For reasons of fabrication simplicity, corrosion
resistance, and availability, pure nickel is a convenient material
to use in fiber magnetostriction
devices. However, its properties
are greatly influenced by the presence of impurities, processing,
the deposition
to operation.
laboratory
metallic
tivity
fiber magnetic
with
percent
cold spinning
static magrretostriction
constant
magnetic
field Ho.
The
is given by
by the Allied
Chemical Corporation
quenching
flywheel
a molten
stream of material
on a
configurations
including
Helmholtz
coils, magnetic circuits,
solenoids, and current carrying cylinders about which the
fiber is wrapped. Separate sets of coils were used to generate
the time varying and constant bias fields. Fig. 16(a) and (b)
illustrate
field strength
to date in our
metallic
where k is a constant.
metallic
glasses produced
values of magnetostriction
field HI
In
fabrication
magnetostriction
to which fibers are bonded in either a straightline or cylindrical
configuration.
Commercially
available
fiber
has utilized
Iron-cobalt
Co providing
after
60-70
substantially
coating
order to eliminate
alloys, longitudinal
both by vacuum
For iron-nickel
in
-4
-590
are configured
-5
-36
magnetic
-24
-46
Ni
capable of
detecting phase shifts as small as 10-6 rad. The optical pathlength of the signal arm was modulated at a frequency ti,n by
two
IEEE
482
TRANSACTIONS
ON MICROWAVE
THEORY
AND
TECHNIQUES,
VOL.
MTT-30,
NO. 4, APRIL
1982
fiber
fibe,r
?
metal
nickel
tube
or
(c)
(b)
(a)
Fig. 15.
film
rod
Basic configurations
of magnetic
metallic
fiber
sensors:
(a) Mandrel
investigation
strip
glass
sensor,
(b) coated
of metallic
L%g.al
.Am
coils
jl
single-mode
optical
output
input
\1,
dc
at a frequency
temperature.
ac
(a)
chamber to minimize
atmospheric pressure.
Another parameter of interest
k--l
,.
,,,.,.
.,
,,,
.,
.,.
..
L+) ],,,
)j~~p
J
,:,
,,,.:.
,,.,..
#..
II
exhibit
%../
input
d4m
ioutput
(b)
glass stripline
sensor using
two pairs of Helmholtz coils to generate time varying and constant
bias magnetic fields. (b) Schematic of cylindrical metallic glass sensor
in which alternating
and direct current passed through a copper
cylinder is utilized to generate magnetic fields.
Schematic
diagram
directions
of metallic
of metallic
glasses in longitudinal
The metallic
and transverse
glass response
to
were demonstrated
magnitude
and minimum
frequency
in magnetic materials,
and environmental
noise such as that produced by random
thermal fluctuations and pressure perturbations.
The data presented in Fig. 18 were primarily for the assessment of peak
magnetostrictive
performance
of respective materials.
The
circuitry was designed to provide a basis for such comparisons
at frequencies centered near 1 kHz.
The effects of applied magnetic bias field are dramatically
illustrated
response
with
fiber
!4
optical
some variation
limitation
of magnetic sensor response appears to be associated
with eddy current losses induced in the metals. The low fre-
strip
single-mode
but appears to remain relatively stable in the region from 1001000 Hz investigated in our experiments. The high frequency
II
Ii
but at ambient
me,alllc-gla~~
II II copper
Ubig
(a)
fiber
-
Fig. 16.
sensor.
output
of a 2605 SC metallic
signal excitation
as a function
The response
and metallic glass were observed to change dramatically following heat treatments to anneal residual strains. The sharpness
of the magnetostriction
versus bias field curve appears particularly sensitive to such heat treatments as well as to the presence
of impurities
in the materials.
Experiments are continuing
with bulk, thin fflm, and stripline sensors to optimize
conditions
as evidenced by peak magnetostriction
field dependence characteristic curves.
annealing
and bias
GIALLORENZI
et
OPTICAL
al.:
FIBER
SENSOR
TECHNOLOGY
the laboratory
100
/
METALLIC
E
13
a
z
0
SENSOR RESPONSE
MAGNETIC
GLASS
*2605
CO
483
can be utilized
to extrapolate
to a minimum
L=7cm
10
sensitivities of various types of sensors measured in our laboratory under a variety of bias field conditions.
The data are
K
u
+
u
H~: O
included
5
E
films
LU1
L
E
w
for bulk
on fibers,
metallic
STRIP
$
1/
MET GLAss
nickel jacketed
vacuum
fibers, electroplated
evaporated
10-4
AC
10-3
MAGNETIC
10-2
FIELD
10-
(Gauss)
nickel
on fibers,
films
olL~_L___L
nickel
FFiEQUENCY CHARACTERISTICS
OF
METALLIC GLASS SENSOR
varying alternating
The
sensitivities for the metallic glasses are several orders of magnitude better than those observed for bulk nickel. The metallic
glass 2605 SC has exhibited a minimum detectable field of
5.0 X 10-9 G for a 1 m projected sensor length. These data
were obtained on the as-received material which has not been
subjected to a field anneal to further enhance its properties.
Table III also reports for the first time the results on electroplated nickel films deposited directly onto a fiber. Electroplating enables one to produce a sufficiently
thick film to
minimize mechanical loading by the fiber. The electroplated
fibers were annealed at 10OOC in hydrogen prior to measurement.
The important
initially
oL_L__LJ~
102
10
tinuous
10
FREQUENCY
(Hz)
production
of metal
and fundamental
OF
METALLIC
DC
MAGNETIC
GLASS
SENSOR
FIELD
of long con-
enhanced
sensitivityy.
The ultimate sensitivity of the fiber magnetic field sensors
may be limited by a variety of instrumental,
environmental,
material
sure fluctuations
EFFECT
[30]
constraints.
Temperature
must be considered
and pres-
sensitivity.
If magnetic sensitivities
can be fur-
Applications
The development
01
I
0.4
MAGNETIC
I
12
I
0.8
BIAS
1.6
(gauss)
room tem-
G in the laboratory,
IEEE
484
TABLE
SENSITIVITIES OF MAGNETIC
BIAS
TYPE OF SENSOR
TRANSACTIONS
ON MICROWAVE
III
AND
TECHNIQUES,
MINIMUM
confidence
DETECTABLE
Bulk
Nickel
Gauss)
(Ga.ss/Meter
8.0
3.0
Jacket
(t
Nickel
ls
Film
NO. 4, APRIL
of
Fiber)
6.0
10-7
1.0
10-4
2.3
10-8
OPTIC
GYROS
10-7
FIBER
Introduction
dicted
rotation
sensitivities,
pre-
(pm)
1982
MTT-30,
FIELD
IV.
(HDC in
VOL.
THEORY
Nickel
= 1.5
MecallIc
,um)
Glass
(//2605
Film
and sensitivities
onstrated
CO)
predictions.
gyroscopes have
approaching
Glass
(//2605
Hetallic
= 0.6
Metallic
(}2605
0.96
5.0
10-9
3.0
10-5
28.0
I.O
IO-7
performance
optic gyroscope development is reviewed with particular emphasis placed on the problems and noise sources that limit
sC)
Evaporated
(t
Cylinder
Glass
Flh
WBI)
Glass
Strip
CC-Hard
performance.
Several of the more promising gyroscope configurations are discussed with their results, advantages, and
limitations.
Dir)
Principle
less sensitive in the field. SQUIDs require cryogenic instrumentation for their operation which severely limits the condi-
of Operation
tions under which they can be utilized. The fiber optic sensors
with 10-8 -10-9 G/m sensitivities would appear to approach
SQUIDs in lengths of 100-1000 m at 1 kHz. Even if the fiber
magnetometer requires thermal stabilization to increase signalto-noise in the device, it is more straightforward
to stabilize at
cal phase difference 2@ = 8rr NA f2/Xc being introduced between the two counterpropagating
light beams. Here, NA is
the total area enclosed by the fiber coil, A and c are the free
room temperature
Even if the
there are a
rotation
fiber
not
magnetometers.
For the detection
easily attained
of a metallic
performance,
present
rate.
fiber directional
and velocity,
respectively,
in the
day
(l/l.)
(dI/d(2@)
= ~ sin 2@ is small for small rotations.
To
maximize the small signal sensitivity, the phase modulator in
a Sagnac interferometer.
Rotation of the gyroscope about an
axis parallel to the axis of the fiber coil results in a nonrecipro-
is an attractive
configuration
for the design of a gradient magnetometer.
By
employing metal jacketed fibers in both arms of the interferometer and balancing the device to produce a null response to
rotation in earths field and to time-varying, spatially coherent
signals, it should be possible to construct a high sensitivity gradient type device. Balancing of the two arms can be achieved
by both length adjustment as well as tuning of the bias field.
Other potential classes of applications of magnetic field sensors include magnetic antennas for detection of electromagnetic signals and the design of a magnetooptic compass to pro-
fibers, it is informative to review the sensitivity limit as determined by quantum noise. The uncertainty or noise with which
optical
[36]
to the square
A Sagnac phase
intensity
change
GIALLORENZ1
et al.:
OPTICAL
485
11
11
1,1
,...A.= 0.85 pm
L
z
n
o
n
z
u
K 10-7 T
POLARIZATION
CONTROLLER
,o-,~
0.1
0.2
0,5
51020
FIBER
W1OO
LENGTH
(km)
as [37]
TABLE
Here, L and R are the fiber length and radius of the fiber coil,
IV
k (!lm)
0.85
1.06
1.3
1.55
a (dB/km)
2.0
0.83
0.37
0.18
coil. Other losses such ascoupling loss and insertion loss of the
fiber directional coupler have been ignored. In (26) the fiber attenuation has been explicitly taken into account as this allows
the optimum fiber length for maximum gyroscope sensitivity to
be evaluated as a function of fiber attenuation.
fiber length corresponds to cuL = 8.69 dB.
The theoretical
sensitivity
The optimum
slightly different
polarization
of their different
components
of fiber gyroscopes,
as given by
the output
phase velocities.
phase velocities,
with
to
of overcoming
recently.
sensitivity
have
strated performance
conditions
as dem-
predictions,
unidentified
noise sources still remain.
1) Reciprocal Operation:
In order to ensure unambiguous
detection of the small nonreciprocal Sagnac phase shift 20, all
other nonreciprocal effects must be excluded. For reciprocal
propagation through the fiber ring, the two counterpropagating
of the
insta-
polarization
beams arrive at
perturbations
the orthogonal
(26), has been plotted in Fig. 21 for state of the art fiber attenu1 mW. It is clear that the theoretical sensitivities of fiber gyroscopes, as limited by quantum noise, are very high, but present
experimental gyroscopes have sensitivities substantially lower
Perturbations
operation.
to
How-
Instabilities
coupler manifest
themselves as an
offset and drift of the zero point of the output signal. Stable,
reciprocal operation can be guaranteed only if the interferometer is operated through a common-point,
single-mode,
single-polarization
filter [40]. This means that only light exiting from fiber port 1 in Fig. 20 will have propagated recipro-
cally through the fiber coil, and at the same time, have a stable
zero point. Light exiting through fiber port 2 may have propa-
identically
affected by perturbations
of their common path.
Under this condition their relative phase shift, even after long
gated reciprocally through the fiber coil if the appropriate polarization state is selected, but depending on the stability of the
[38] - [40].
Single-mode
polarization
with
polarization
state to be orthogonal
to the
controller
[42],
[43] is usually
IEEE
486
TRANSACTIONS
ON MICROWAVE
THEORY
AND
TECHNIQUES,
VOL.
MTT-30,
NO. 4, APRIL
placed at one end of the fiber coil, as shown in Fig. 20, to ac-
tively control
the time-varying
applied directly
control
the intensity
of this intensity
of the output
signal [44]
Passive
required
can be intro-
corresponding
the fiber coil. Analysis shows that stringent control of the environment in which the gyroscope operates may be required
for higher sensitivity
2) Phase Bias:
gyroscope applications
[45]
It is a consequence of reciprocal
of a Sagnac interferometer
nonreciprocal
bilities
ciprocal
[46]
to intentionally
instabilities.
More promising
[47]
introduce
introduces
Faraday-effect
instanonre-
and drift
approximately
at a frequency ~0 of ~ cos 2n
where 2CX= 2rr fdT, T is the transit time through the fiber coil
and to = t + T/2 is a shifted time scale. Expanding (27) into
its frequency components
gives
cos 245sin4
mfoto+ . .-
J=lO.Jl(q)
a phase modulation
modulation
introduces
+IOJ2(V)
interfere constructively
and the amount of intensity radiating
from the input port is a maximal, in the absence of nonreciprocal
effects such as rotations. As mentioned earlier, this corresponds
troduce
beams arrive back at the input with equal phases. Hence, they
introduce
I = *10 [1 +Jo(q)
operation
1982
(28)
and q = 2 ~ sin ~ is the
at f. results in
sin 2@.
The amplitude
(29)
make ~ approximately
is chosen so as to
the sensitivity
device detecting,
For a relatively
for example,
1 deg/h with
index ~ must be
filters,
placing stringent
stability
requirements
on
the directional
couplers.
A modification
of the dual-input
gyroscope [55] has the additional problem of not satisfying
reciprocity
requirements.
A dual frequency gyroscope
figuration that solves the phase bias problem differently
be discussed below.
3) Polarization
Degree and Amplitude
iprocity requirement has been quantified
degree of polarization
Extending
interferometer
extinction
required
the polarization
Stability:
The recby considering the
to ensure drift
analysis
stability
[38] , [40]
conwill
[56].
of the ring
intensity
is given
by [56]
I=41gxx12
COS2@
+41 Pllgxxl
cos@[lgxy lcos(@+&l)+lgyxl
COS(O- $2)1
(30)
GIALLORENZI
et
al.:
OPTICAL
for propagation
ferometer.
FIBER
SENSOR
TECHNOLOGY
487
in one direction
filter
is
couplers employed
normal,
low-birefringent
no reports
of work
fibers
[33],
on whether
[34].
fiber
of the x-polarization
interferometer.
the x-polarized
through
the
filter
remains.
the sinusoidal
phase modulation
described above
[lgxylcos&l
+lgyxlcos$21.
the optical
fiber
small amounts
instabilities.
is truly
single mode.
includes
small rotations
Propagation
an inconsequential
assumption
that
of interest.
polarization
polarization
state to ensure
of amplitude
but
fluctuations.
to a
an alternative
oplight
the depolarizer),
of even
(31)
it is not
a specified polarization
J1(n)sinz@
can be con-
Additionally,
Equation
couplers
1=41 gXX12Jl(q)sin2@
+41 Pllgxxl
fibers.
reciprocity.
Applying
birefringent
with
with time-dependent
polarization
(32)
the output depolarized; that is, the intensity is evenly distributed over all polarization states. Environmental perturbations
I=41gxx12Jl(n)
1+
ratio
I p I of the polarization
ferometer.
sin 2$.
I g-xx I
extinction
amplitude
aPll&yl
If the polarization
filter
filter
and the
state in the
tion is to be satisfied.
control
can be
to active polarization
stabilization,
great
hopes have been placed on the availability of polarization holding fibers and schemes [57] - [59] to ensure that I t7XYl/1 gxx I
remains small, even in the presence of environmental
tions.
perturba-
external
perturbing
birefringences,
so
beams arrive at
polarization
distribution
states, but do
at the output
and a con-
light is superimposed
transmitted
light.
Environmental
this backscattered
proximately
is at least partially
coherently
light
to fluctuate
on the
light
light, it can
between the two resulting output beams will exhibit fluctuations superimposed on the Sagnac phase. Any reflections within
the interferometer
from, for example, fused joints, fiber/chip
interfaces, etc., have the same effect.
The magnitude of this backscatter-induced
phase noise de-
For
the
by
coil
the
IEEE TRANSACTIONS
488
BEAM
SPLITTER
~oLARIZER
SUPERLUMINESCENT
OIODE
FIBER-OPTIC
DIRECTIONAL
COUPLER
FIBRE
ON MICROWAVE
THEORY
AND TECHNIQUES,
COIL
,,
VOL. MTT-30,
NO. 4, APRIL
PHASE
MODULATOR
OSCILLATOR
This technique
light, providing
a constant background
to the
light [32].
coil.
Consequently,
the fiber
toward
the longer
reduced backscattered
power.
5) Laser Fluctuations:
As in any optical device, the noise
associated with the laser source limits the performance of the
device. Limitations
of laser diodes are discussed in detail in
Section VIII, so only those problems peculiar to the gyroscope
are discussed here. As mentioned
reciprocity
previously,
in a Sagnac interferometer
a consequence of
S = arctan
1~
COS
245
2@
(33)
the counterpropagating
a feedback
modulator.
oscillator
phase shift.
This frequency
L? through
(34)
when R is the radius ofthe fiber coil and n is the effective index
of the fiber mode. To date, this gyroscope has been constructed
with
discrete optical
components
[65]
without
incorporating
imately
the
Then
beamsplitter
(Fig. 20) and losses in the device, most of the
laser power returns to the laser. Such large amounts of feed-
signals
of increasing
OUTPUT
light.
1982
GIALLORENZ1
et
OPTICAL
al.:
FIBER
SENSOR
TECHNOLOGY
489
DETECTOR
POLARIZATION
CONTROLLER
POLARIZATION
CONTROLLER
POLARIZER
BEAMSPLITTER
LASER
ELECTRONIC
FEEOBACK
SYSTEM
SHIFTER
configuration
of the phase nulling
scope (after [65 ]).
gyro-
it will be environmentally
modulators
if
optical
+ 36 /hr
optical
path
the gyroscope
length
difference
operates
decreases substantially
at the wavelength
of minimum
I I
+ 14.4 Ihr
dispersion.
--+>-+~.-t-lc.
ELECTRICAL
ZERO
Experimental
fiber
optic
gyroscopes
have
demonstrated
O Ihr
demonstrated
increase in performance
velopment
couplers,
of many
polarization
fiber
optic
of fiber.
phase modulators,
motion
and reflections
polar-
from
At the
Two particular
lJ
-36
Ihr
Fig. 25.
[35].
of 16 deg/h [4]
(rein)
deg/h and better have recently been seen at NRL, AEG Telefunken, M. I. T., and Stanford University.
V. AMPLITUDE
SENSORS
Introduction
a sensitivity
3
TIME
optical
- 14.4 Ihr
transformers,
components
discrete components
This
such as individual
\/
O Ihr
O Ihr
Ihr
better
O Ihr
-3.6
additional
polarization control.
A long-term rms drift of approximately
10 deg/h has been demonstrated with this device [33].
Finally, typical results for a fiber gyroscope built in NRL
are shown in Fig. 25. The gyroscope configuration
is similar
to that shown in Fig. 20, and the fiber length was 850 m wound
mechanisms
[1],
Although
on detecting an optical
here for completeness.
[2],
[66],
[67]
polarization-based
modulation
index
sensitivities
will continue
to improve
and sensitivities
of 0.1
Q = AI/Iop
(36)
optical
TRANSACTIONS
IEEE
490
The modulation
ON MICROWAVE
threshold
u
ROTATING
TABLE
Both the
MODE
STRIPPER
convention,
STRIPPER
(37)
where q is detector
responsivity
detection
threshold
can be
as
~,
=I_
2eB
112
(38)
qIO
e is the
electronic
charge
bandwidth.
The approach used here will be to calculate the normalized
modulation index of several sensor types. The sensors included
are fiber microbend [72] -[75] sensors, evanscent [76], [77] ,
or coupled waveguide sensors [71], [78].
Moving fiber optic
sensors [79], Schlieren [80] or grating sensors [81], polarization
sensors [82] - [84],
frustrated-total-internal-reflection
[85]
sensors, and the similar near-total-internal-reflection
[86] . It is impossible
detail,
1982
S = qIORQ
where
NO. 4, APRIL
are necessary to
Following
in pressure
written
VOL. MTT-30,
FIBER
detectable
characterize
AND TECHNIQUES,
index Q is attrac-
THEORY
therefore
a brief
description
normalized
modulation
description
of the microbend
induced microbend
with
longitudinal
propagation
(40)
sensor design.
a coupling
modes.
Sensor
fiber
Light
from propagating
in such a way
propagation
=m+-mA.2+%iT2
41)
where
m
is the fractional
difference
in refractive
index between
Q.dT&
dx
(39)
dp
8P=
In order to optimize
fiber
(42)
of
(z~)
AC= &.
Fig. 27 plots dT/dx
(43)
in #m1
as a function
of the mechanical
GIALLORENZI
et
OPTICAL
al.:
FIBER
491
SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
.06
[A
05
7-
pmin
. ;
-~
CORNING
1150 PARABOLIC
A+
HUGHES
P44 STEP
INOEX FIBER
INDEX
threshold
~axBy/2
(zez
qIo
the detection
(47)
FIBER
in the
to the cladding,
[72].
Thus, a microbend
device
II
0.0
An important
.i,tm
wavelength.
critical
mechanical
evident.
wavelength
step index
for parabolic
fibers is clearly
is also present.
wavelength
For
optical
power
tion mechanism
within
is compatible
a fiber.
with
The transduc-
multimode
optical fibers
Furthermore,
improvement
these measure-
operating
point.
Thus,
is expected.
apart in
small As are
When the cores of two fibers are nearly adjacent over some
distance, as shown in Fig. 28, light is coupled from one core
For single-mode fiber, Sheem and Cole [76]
to the other.
have calculated the modulation index
transduction
fiber
[73],
parameter
in Fig. 27.
dT/dx
was a commercially
available
fiber (Corning
fabri-
to
determine
parameter
[90]
the
modulation
has been
analyzed
index.
in detail
Optimization
of
to optimizing
threshold.
the modulation
a specific
optical
cd+
(3+
VDO) (2np/h)
. (n? - n~)l2CP
(3 + VDO) y
()
1}
2 ?rcL
+~
(48)
bias to lower
the
is not illumi-
1 (2eIDcB)112
Prni* =
qIO
Q
(45)
f!
(){[
et al.
by Lagakos
In addition
Q. Sin
The microbend
sensor,
length,
respectively.
As can be
in-
bias
demonstration,
one of the principal advantages of amplitude
sensors is that they may be fabricated with multimode fibers.
Evanescent-type sensors have been demonstrated in multimode
condition
dynamic
maximum
I max
range.
therefore
includes
If a dynamic
signal current
= (2e1D~ll)/2
a calculation
involving
the
the
is given by
10.
(46)
point must be at least as great
IEEE
492
TRANSACTIONS
LIGHT
INPUT
ON MICROWAVE
THEORY
AND
TECHNIQUES,
VOL.
MTT-30,
NO. 4, APRIL
1982
,,
_______
hx
:::,,,:
,:.
.::,
,.,
,:
FIBER
~,,
;,,,,
INTERACTION
LENGTH
,:,,:,:,;
-\ _____
CORES
y;,
...::,
,
n2
nl
i::.
:;,.
>420
\
\
LIGHT
OUTPUT
Although
the demonstrated
evanescent
wave
sensor
of the complex
transduction
microbend
sensor,
mechanical
considerations.
mechanism
ances
true
which
on the
practical
laboratory
is encouraging,
mechanism
optimization
Any
requires
order
performance
a better
is required.
involves
of pm
may
ACOUSTIC
optical
WAVE
As in the
both
sensor utilizing
mechanical
of the
understanding
FERRULE
MOVING
FIBER
and
a transduction
alignment
be difficult
with
ICAL
toler-
to implement
FIBER
LIG
in
LIGHT
devices.
IN
OPT
fiber hydrophore
fibers mounted
[79]
The acoustic
fiber
ends,
a simple
tion
to be measured
between
Relative
a fixed
motion
in the
fiber
FERRULE
geometric
model,
induce
which
between
the transmitted
assuming
the fiber
the modulation
index
the two
light.
a uniform
motion
relative
is free to move.
coupled
light
follows
Utilizing
distribu-
the acoustic
can be written
ONE
as
Q.
rr6.zpclsinO
waves or other
medium
and a fiber
displacement,
(49)
1 - Cos 20)
cos 0 is d/2a,
where
d
is the dc fiber
displacement,
ST
PR
RE
is the angular
sound
frequency,
and
PC
OPPOSED
GRATING
is the acoustic
Although
this
threshold
appeal
impedance.
sensor
has
of approximately
of other
fiber
fiber,
requires
stringent
is not
confined
a significant
sensors.
hydrophore
The major
is that
mechanical
to the fiber.
impact
a moderate
80 dB re 1 ~Pa [79]
amplitude
of the moving
exhibited
on long term
, it lacks
the
disadvantages
it utilizes
tolerances,
The latter
detection
single-mode
and
disadvantage
the
optical
acoustic
gratings
[80]
line gratings
excitation
(Fig.
in the direction
30).
the
to diaphragms
Relative
perpendicular
which
moving
move
the
that
the
modulation
gratings
index
is
under
the
(50)
PC is the acoustic
sound
This
employs
Assuming
Q = 21PCWF
where
sensor
light.
displacement,
light
reliability y.
[81]
transmitted
acoustic
given by
angular
or grating
mounted
the
follow
may have
modulate
sensor
tight
frequency,
of
and McMahon
thresholds
motion
between
the
detection
pattern
will
tually,
however,
of the medium,
period.
appear
is promising
tolerances
Spellman
to the line
impedance
evanescent
[80]
have demonstrated
on the order
sensors like
device.
In
to require
addition,
nonresonance
of 50 dB re 1 ~Pa.
the microbend
Q is the
Concep-
device which
main-
GIALLORENZI
tain
the
long
term
et
optical
power
stability
Polarization
OPTICAL
al.:
within
the
fiber
may
provide
493
better
and reliability.
Sensors
Polarization
birefringence
of single-mode
fibers.
propagation
An acoustic sensor, Fig. 31 for example, changes the birefringence of the fiber coil through
in the fiber by the compliant
variation
12
COMPLIANT
CYLINDER
Fig. 31. Sensor configuration in which perturbations modify the polarization characteristics of light in the fiber resulting in an amplitude
modulation of output signal (after [82]).
cylinder.
as
4.9 X 106 al
Q Lb(l
- a2/b2)
(1-2
[
()1-027 ~
V)+(1+P)$
where
(51)
,,
and
b
is the cylinder
radius.
was considered.
Rashleigh points
(a)
to that of
The
light is confined within a single fiber and polarization components are simpler in principle than those required for the interferometer.
to optimize
mandrel hydrophore
Sensor
(FTIR)
sensor [85]
CLADDING
FIBER
CORE
9%
CLADDING
placement
transmitted
by the output
fiber is
modulated.
Following the analysis of Spellman and McMahon
[85] , and assuming that the modulation
index of the FTIR
device is a function only of the gap displacement which equals
the acoustic displacement
~
(b)
Frustrated-total-internal-reflection
(b) Near-total-internal-reflection
mode
sensor (after
sensor
(after
[86 ]).
IEEE
494
TRANSACTIONS
ON MICROWAVE
( )
%
(52)
though
of the acoustic wave,
4@
~
of amplitude
exception
is not maintained
raise questions
within
toler-
the fiber.
of
Sensor
The final sensor to be discussed, the near-total-internalreflection (NTIR) or critical angle sensor [Fig. 32(b)] is very
similar to the FTIR sensor. The NTIR sensor employs a singlemode fiber cut at an angle just below the critical angle. If the
critical angle (given by OC= sin-l (nz/n 1) is not near 45 (45
requires medium 2 to be a gas) then an additional angular cut
narrow
band of operation.
VI.
DIODE
of refraction,
(53)
n 1 is the
angle,
with
the
LASER
SENSOR
Introduction
In previous sections optical fiber sensors have been shown to
offer great potential
Such devices
sensors) by increasing
However,
for some
Similarly,
monitored
index n2 differently
than n 1 and causes a slight shift of the
critical angle, modulating the amount of light reflected.
The
modulation index has been determined [86]
laser sensor.
Q=~c2n:(n2
- sin2
The functional
1982
competitive with the other sensors; however, the unique properties of large bandwidth
and small size make this device
and
(3
NO. 4, APRIL
x
n
MTT-30,
p=()
VOL.
A comparison
TECHNIQUES,
where
u
AND
stabilization will be required to hold O - @cconstant. As proposed by Phillips [86] , a frequency tunable light source sensor
~=(
THEORY
existing
competitive
a small device.
to
The
either by monitoring
the modulated
intensity
GIALLORENZI
et
OPTICAL
al.:
FIBER
SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
495
TABLE
AMPLITUDE
SENSOR
DEMONSTRATED
PERFORMANCE
MINIMON
MODULATION
INDEX
1I uPa
SENSORTYPE
DETECTABLE
PRESSURE
dB re
(91)
Nicrobend
4X1O-10
Evans
7X1O-11
DISADVANTAGES
Multimode
fiber
Light
confined
to fiber
Critical
alignment
Multimode
fiber
JJ.ght
confined
to fiber
Critical
mechanical
alignment
Light
not
confined
mechanical
(77)
50
(79)
Moving Fiber
ADVANTAGES
(91)
60
(76)
cent
luPa
(79)
Sxlo-11
Single
80
mode
fiber
Critical
mechanical
alignment
Light
not
confined
(80)
(80)
Schlieren
1X1O-10
Polarization
1X1O-10
FTIR
6X10-11
Multimode
50
(82)
fiber
Light
not
confined
(82)
52
(85)
Light
confined
in fiber
Single
mode
fiber
Multimode
Critical
mechanical
alignment
Light
not
confined
(85)
60
fiber
(86)
8x10-14
110
Point
probe
(Projected)
(Projected)
Large
bandwidth
NTIR
LASER
CAVITY
<
~~,o
OSCILLOSCOPE
>
<
d
ANALYSER
EFFECTIVE
REFLECTOR
values
facet
reflector
of the effective
and
external
reflectance
and out-of-phase
reflectance
reflector
of the combination
as a function
of
the effective
reflector
position.
reflectance
function
In the region
are small,
is below
is never achieved.
reflectivity
where
the values
with
the effective
R= Ro+2(l-Ro)m
(54)
COS8
external feedback, r
&ln
and O rep-
RRo
(55)
10 percent;
In any case
reflectivity
in the presence of feedback.
Consequently, the
threshold current level may be changed by altering the phase
of the light fed back into the laser cavity [93] . Thus, by keeping the laser current constant (at threshold for the out of phase
condition),
a change in phase of the light fed back into the
cavity results in a substantial change in the optical output of
the laser. This effect constitutes the basic operating principle
of the combination
on the position
the following
of the effective
facet reflectivity
external reflector
reflectivity.
However, experimen-
and consequently
EXTERNAL
REFLECTIVITY
of the external
is shown
case.
REFLECTOR
DETECTOR
SPECTRUM
Single
mode fiber
critical
mechanical
alignment
Low sensitivity
feedback
of external
equation
into
the
of the external
reflector
is appropriate
for
facet
IEEE
496
TRANSACTIONS
ON MICROWAVE
THEORY
AND
TECHNIQUES,
VOL.
MTT-30,
NO. 4, APRIL
the posi-
#/
tion of the external reflection may be measured by this techIt should be pointed out that a fiber may be used to
nique.
reflector
,Y
In this case
the sensor may become sensitive to changes in the fiber characteristics and may be made an external
1982
/
s
//
When optical
state of polarization
of light propagating
60
50
illustrates
characteristics
and 3) out-of-phase
6-)
h-
6
>
of the external
right) [68] . In this example, the reflectivity
reflector was 4 percent and the external reflector being positioned to within 10 ~m of the lasers facet; the effective reflectivity was deduced to be less than 1 percent. By adjusting the
lasers current to threshold for the out-of-phase feedback
72 mA) and continuously
80
mA
(a)
of an
(approximately
70
CURRENT
Results
Fig. 35(a)
Hitachi
for in the
the variation
of laser output
with reflec-
d+Af2
tor position is shown in Fig, 35(b) [68] , By placing the reflector at the point of maximum sensitivity A shown in Fig. 35(b),
a small movement of the reflector (i.e., changing the phase of
the feedback) results in relatively large changes in the output
intensity.
Consequently, the modulation of the external reflectors position (say by an acoustic wave) produces a substantial
intensity
modulation
detector.
The sensitivity
by two
1) the magnitude
reflector
factors:
to the incident
displacement
of the movement
DISTANCE
FROM
LASER
(b)
of the
of the reflector,
10
w
J
m
<
L
LLl
+
w
FREQUENCY
of the minimum detectable displacement and equivalent phase shift with frequency for 4 percent (O) and 98 percent (0)
reflector
shown in Fig. 36. In both cases the minimum detectable displacement increases with a f 1/2 dependence.
From Fig. 36 it can be seen that the minimum detectable
also
fluctuation
phase shift
[96]
Hz
reflector.
10-6
1000
100
width, and SNR of 1. The frequency dependence of the minimum detectable displacement for a 4 percent and 98 percent
reflector placed approximately
10 #m from the laser facet is
is approximately
1.1
responds
noise
limit
(after
[68 ]).
The
to
calculated
of
the
be shown
(the
shot
approximately
in
phase
detector
that
the
the
lasing
noise)
noise
10-8
limit
rad,
of
is approximately
noise
component
wavelength
corresponds
system
the
10-8
due
of
this
similarly
the
to low
diode
to approximately
cor-
thermal
rad.
It
can
frequency
laser
[94]
10-8
rad
GIALLORENZIetaL:
OPTICAL
path length
difference.
amplitude
10-6
Hownoise of
corresponds
observed.
497
to that
has shown that feedback into the laser cavity has little or no
effect (less than I dB on the amplitude noise of both CSP and
BH GaAIAs laser which tends to confirm
intrinsic amplitude
noise which limits the detectability
to
approximately
10-6 rad at 1 kHz. The frequency dependence
of the amplitude noise (f-l/2)
is also similar [97] to that ob-
I
1
0.1
FREQUENCY
Fig. 37.
Frequency
cent reflector
depth),
thereby
reducing
tion [97].
To obtain a small minimum
allowing
the
noise contribu-
amplitude
noise;
nitrogen
to
transmission
istics
of
the
dominated
detectable
dynamic
range
by
using
point
shift
be
to modify
the
to
at
is
discussions
of
Iow
rad)
and
the
the
This
to
If
may,
then
the
ri rad
the
the
however,
be
the
reflector
wave
position
the
to
the
sensor
measurement.
a calibrated
membrane
tested without
gain
phase
on
in
shift
frequency).
range
of
diode
by
laser
using
reflectance)
107
the
change
constant
output
[68].
the
in phase
to
response
acoustic
be
The
con-
feedback
by the photo-
maximum
is shown
source
as
acoustic
membrane
of the
modulation
,adjusted
A typical
may
glass membrane
modulates
as an intensity
was
sensor
a thin
sensitivity
in Fig.
was
being backfilled;
consequently,
37,
used to
In later versions of
ac
constructed using the diode laser sensor [92] , [100] . A schematic of the sensor is shown in the insert of Fig. 39. The
modulation of the reflectors position is achieved by mounting
the reflector on a short piece of magnetostrictive
Ni tubing.
As in the previous
with
a compensator
circuit.
as described
maximum
a dynamic
membrane
produce
measured
The
to
The
sensor
a 4 percent
on
so as to
is then
detector.
where
(i.e.,
incident
which
prior
Sensor:
as an acoustic
sensitivity
cylinder
is sufficient
(dependent
frequencies
y of
Thus,
sensor
loop),
there
maxi-
nonlinearity
rad).
lock
(phase-locked
[101].
loop,
minimum
on a piezoelectric
circuit
about
the
Sensor Configurations
I) Acoustic
be obtainable.
figured
character-
by
0.1
105.
reflector
sensitivity
feedback
by
approximately
Tveten
increased
10-6
is determined
feedback
and
is limited
A num-
for
response
the
of acoustic sensitivity.
the
of the
the
frequency
and
(approximately
(i.e.,
an active
Consequently,
should
lf
used
perturbations
the
sensor
is approximately
electrical
may
then
this
which
of maximum
the
external
are used
are
frequency.
as a micro-
3) Magnetic Sensor:
mounting
Dandridge
resonant
characteristics
of
response
increased
membranes
the
and
light,
fiber
range
shift
sensor
and
The
111 apply.
phase
phase
the
the
dynamic
mum
reason
a fiber
reflected
11 and
The
this
properties
by
Sections
so as to raise
is attached
fiber
by
For
experiments
mirror
structure.
most
temperature
kHz
10
The frequency
The sensitivity
element
response of the
IEEE
498
TRANSACTIONS
ON MICROWAVE
THEORY
AND
TECHNIQUES,
VOL.
MTT-30,
NO. 4, APRIL
1982
many
of these fiber
be
examined.
Radiation
Dosimeters
compartments.
The useful
201
400
200
600
FREQUENCY
Fig. 38.
Frequency
response
600
HZ
of the diode
hydrophore.
laser
sensor
acting
as a
ii
~
30
o
:
40
~
n
BIAS:
-50
10
20 GAUSS
BIAS:
5 GAUSS
BIAS:
O GAUSS
coloration/damage
is therefore energy-dependent with the optical loss induced per unit energy absorbed by 50 keV X-rays,
J/
20
100
200
FREQUENCY
a factor
I
1,000
tiz
associated with
Consequently,
the current
the frequency
passing through
the wire.
to that
of the device
but typically
current
the position
of the reflector
various
types
and
radiation
is known
while optimizing
for
configurations.
to fade
radiation
sensitivityy.
Fig. 42 depicts the fading characteristics over
100 h interval of a sensing fiber waveguide (curve a) together
with that of a DT-60 bulk glass block dosimeter (curve b).
After 60 h the fiber dosimeter at 24 has stabilized with
very little
fading occurring.
As the temperature
increases,
the fading increases up to a factor of ten for a 200C tempera-
were extremely
difficult
to achieve
Current Sensors
The principal
effectsmagnetooptics/striction
or temperature effects. In its
case of current induced temperature variations [104], a fiber
was coated with a thin film of aluminum and a current passed
down the metallic coating. Because of ohmic losses, the temperature of the coated fiber increased and this increase was
sensed by placing the fiber in one arm of an interferometer.
By changing the thermal mass of the control fiber, the frequency response of the sensor could be modified.
ac response
beyond 100 Hz could easily be achieved with
sensitivityy being achieved at 10 Hz [104] .
OTHER SENSORS
Magnetostrictive
strated with
mode coated
microampere
[ 104],
[105] , a relatively
sensor
(1-104 A) was readily achieved, whereas the use of a singlemode coated fiber permitted
10-9 A to be measured. Sensi-
et al.: OPTICAL
GIALLORENZI
499
IMPINGING
(SOP)is
RAOIATION
]1
LIGHT
EMITTING
DIOOE
analyzed bydetecting
orthogonal
directions
rotated
theintensities
by 45
(l,,lz)
in two
to the principal
axis.
angle
H1
11-12
P(z) =
1,+1,
2e~
(AB+46&)2
1/2
sin(AB2+4e~)
f-k$g::
The output
in oscillatory
usable interaction
FIBCR B6Ncx.E
COIL
SUPPLY
.
Ionizing
records
required
irregularities
and internal
birefringent
(neu./cm2)
,.12
,013
1
identical
rate
~
103 -
to
of
10, residual
to
102 z
Q
1:101
-
a negligible
source
spun
fibers
.__co60
100 -
RAY
....d
10-2
101
EXPOSURE
A highly
modulus
with
techniques
(hr!)
current
these sensors
carrying
conductor
it.
magnetic
along
ofmagnitude
rotates
the
than
temperature
type
current
sensors.
utilized
for
sensing
in high
voltage
coil
is wrapped
field
the plane
axis
applications
has a magnetic
interacts
and
with
around
field
the fiber
of polarization
fibers,
the
High fre-
light
output
b y these sens-
been
have
which
A should
improvements.
in fibers
the sensor
10-9
may be measured
effects
birefringent
a principal
better
straightforward
(>1 O kHz)
unlike
Magnetooptical
low
variations
decreases
polarization
magnetooptic
current
were
a major
variations
sensors
by a
be reduced
with
Ug sensitivities
and with
or
with
are more
improvement
has been
the potential
possible.
The
oscillator
Y was given by
8@= 2nm6L/A
orders
ac currents
and
Temperature
may
TIME
twisted,
anisotropy
in these sensors
if the spin
effect
that
beat length
~.
This
value.
indicates
birefringence
.8
In
Analysis
accelerometer
i
U
z
g .4
z
response
is
E/ .5 N
ing
response
.9
0
&
be achievable
the
fiber
1.0
u
~ .7
quency
(~ >>11),
Accelerometers
reported
several
To ob-
and spinning
104
(Roentgen)
Fig. 41. Linearity of Pb flint fiber coloration versus gama ray exposure
and15 MeVneutron
fluence atroomtemperature
(after [102]).
tivities
[106]
0,5 M, NEuTRoNs
~.u$
rates
polarization
While
a long fiber is
due to change
sophisticated
,.-1 _
$
a
twist
isotropic
significantly
temperature.
0
-J
twisting
the intrinsic
of instability
AB
a perfectly
exceeds
maximum
large
[1071
factor
>
~
For
with
i.e., aquarterpolariza-
birefringence
interaction,
104 -
length
birefringence.
,.5 .
fiber
with
its current
associated
with
the
is normally
state
fast
[106].
fiber.
In
launched
of polarization
= 8Lmn/iYd2.
candidate
for aircraft
navigational
applications,
and
when used with a fiber gyro make possible on all fiber navigator.
A variant of the fiber accelerometer
IEEE TRANSACTIONS
500
ON MICROWAVE
THEORY
AND TECHNIQUES,
optical
absorption
cell
containing
studied
(Fig. 43).
A modulated
around/in
the absorbing
1982
In the
+.-+
involves temperature
laser
HeNe
for a 1 dyn/cm2
.lJJJJIJ
9.2m
Chopper
flbre
Coil
Coupler
Coupler
(
mD
\/
Compensate.
7
Pml
lmll
Detectors
I&!!-
Spectrum
pressure of
N
d
o 6328#m
Iljjjlll
~r[r((v
HeNe
laser
its cell
to be detected.
of the radiation
3 39pm
an
gas to be
NO. 4, APRIL
Ca F2wlndows
VOL. MTT-30,
analyser
A@/@= 2 X 10-O.
make
Although
the device
less sensitive
sensors.
than
The
noise
in the
sensitivity
those
spectrophones
Experiments
tion
of
possible.
of these
of the fiber
to
will
approximately
Temperature
this
fiber
spectrophone
sensor
with
detectable
typical
of construction
makes
sensitive
for
by
feasible
noise-limited.
noise-limited
are in progress
opto-
theoretical
concentra-
absorbers
appearing
and extreme
sensitivity
the perfect
candidate
applications.
of this type
of sensor which
fiber path, or using the fiber itself as the sensor. In the case of
all fiber sensor, a temperature
attractive
for
unachievable
scientific
instruments
and
offer
performance.
Miscellaneous
Sensors
levels, displacement,
strain, torque,
for mea-
fluid
flow,
usually
strain, torque,
or level is to be
Sensors
them
previously
piezoactive
these sensitivities,
Brownian
to minimum
of 3
was limited
With
Brownian
liquids
10 15
The simplicity
devices
sensor.
become
corresponding
for highly
sensitivity
of up to 104 appears
demonstrate
with
it was a factor
using conventional
spectrophone
and improvement
detection
sensitivities
sensitive,
spectrophones
fiber
ambient
acoustic
was highly
in
in adverse environ-
ments (engine cavities, corrosive or electrically noisy environments, etc.) has been achieved. This latter advantage is one of
the most attractive features of these sensors. In some of these
sensor embodiments,
fiber displacement of one fiber relative
to a second fiber is the sensing mechanism, thus eliminating
its need for a mask. In this case fiber displacement leads to a
change in fiber transmission.
Fluid flow and vibration measurements in biological
can be detected using the heterodyne
systems
temperature
dependence
for multicomponents
expansion coefficients
of the refractive
and the
second fiber.
Competitive sensitivities are usually achieved,
while at the same time permitting probing in inaccessible areas
VIII.
SUPPORT
probes.
TECHNOLOGY
of the output
them-
GIALLORENZIetaL:
on light
fed
OPTICAL
back
phase of thelight
into
the
laser
cavity.
501
The amplitude
and
single-mode GaAIAslasers
m
u
u
~
o
z
w
>
F
a
-.!
u
a
they
with different
structure
it
written
be noted
that although
consequently,
Amplitude
homodyne
fiber interferometer
configura-
be indistinguishable
[97].
from
the inter-
100
1000
FREQUENCY
10000
HZ
of frequency
range below
proportional
The amplitude
mum J1 m
to the output
at tim
of the interferometer
is
at
In the interferom-
com.
+4
Noise
directly
on
In a conventional
tion,
#5
-120
-140
high frequency ~100 kHz) noise. In sensor applications, typically low frequency properties (below 50 IcHz) are of interest;
#2
#3
-1oo
#6
+1
is considered).
problem.
The problem
proximately
ferometer).
noise (As/s)
10-6).
10-3 percent)
longitudinal
If the interferometer
detectable
fringe visibility
dB (i.e.,
u is less than 1,
\b/
owing to
the wavelength
noise. It
jumping
(56)
[115].
in an unbalanced
would typically
is therefore
by
mode hopping
a retirement
as the incurred
It is
Coherence Length
are: 1) Hitachi
HLP
1400
The linewidth
the front
facet antireflection
re-
ments by Miles et al. [1 18] and Okoshi et al. [1 19] have in-
IEEE TRANSACTIONS
502
linewidths
5 and 10 MHz.
ON MICROWAVE
may vary
5 MHz
AND TECHNIQUES,
VOL. MTT-30,
NO. 4, APRIL
1982
measure<
ments of both channel substrate planar and buried heterostructure lasers have indicated
THEORY
that linewidth
dependent
on
modal structures
feedback
are shown
relatively
small amounts
values of
(<0.04
values of Iinewidth
satellite
matched
cavity modes.
mode
generation
to approximately
mode operation
of
In Fig. 45 it is these
require
path
lengths
to be
(c)
(b)
(a)
(d)
(e)
Fig. 45. Modal output of the Hitachi HLP 1400 diode laser for various
amounts of optical feedback. (a) Free running laser, linewidth AU =
5 MHz, (b) 0.04 percent feedback, Au = 0.02 GHz, (c) 0.06 percent
feedback, AU = 0.12 GHz, (d) 0.3 percent feedback, Au = 1 GHz, and
(e) 1.5 percent feedback, AU= 5 GHz (after [118]).
[123],
this
performance
for many
sensor
ing to 0.1 mm to ensure good fringe visibility [118] . Fortunately, relatively large amounts of feedback (>0.1 percent) are
required to induce the deleterious effects associated with
multimode
operation.
Backscattering from long lengths of
applications.
To achieve sensitivities below 1 prad, it is necessary to match the paths of the interferometer
to better than 1
mm, which may prove difficult for sensors whose arms may be
100 m long. The phase noise of different structures of laser
isolation
amounts
narrowing
be a problem
[121]
may be required.
Line narrowing occurs with small
of feedback (approximately
103 percent), but line
has been shown not to induce noise in interferom-
problems
with
in interferometer
the diode
systems pro-
powered
it is possible
to the
interferometers
being in quantrature).
(both
of one interferometer
is coupled to the external field to be
measured, this combination
would enable approximately
1
reflection
prad sensitivity to be achieved for path length differences below 1 m. However, this method is unattractive and in practice
may be unworkable.
If small amounts of light are fed back
10-2 percent.
Phase Noise
Phase noise in an interferometer
in the wavelength
of the interferometers
light
source and is
(approxirnately
10
into
the laser
dependent on the phase of the light fed back into the laser
cavity (as well as the amplitude and external cavity length)
[94] , [96] ,
OPTICAL
FIBER
503
SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
is included
discussion
as the
last subsection.
of detection
corresponding
systems
to the optical
is considered
to act only
tures
act only
of the
-40L
reference
the
the fibers,
optics,
including
before
sys-
the signal
The
essential
can be adequately
polarized
is assumed
field
can be represented
form
to linearly
the combiner
arm
arm.
systems
is limited
the
field
detection
of simplicity
on the signal
detection
for
A generalized
to a generalized
point
of the electric
In the interest
on the
various
starting
interferometer.
in Fig. 47.
to
power
connected
tem is shown
system
The
is the form
feadis-
light
and
to be polarization
(at maximum
length
difference:
sensitivity,
A 50 Hz,
Hz, T 2 kHz,
1 Hz bandwidth
(after
[123]).
modulation
of frequency
u-is
applied
fu
=;:
exp
The electric
(57a)
field
at the corresponding
arm is
trinsically
small path difference,
or to balance the MachZehnder fiber interferometers
paths to approximately
1 mm.
tude
;.
to the
of ampli-
of the interferometer
is sinu-
A VU:
f?, =~~
exp
[icut+
Typically,
+ B(t)
is proportional
Two modulator
are generated
[127]
by
of the interferometer
ferometers
may substantially
unbalance
the inter-
Conclusion
The various properties of diode lasers that impose limitations
and restrictions on the design of fiber optic interferometers
have been discussed. It has been shown that by ensuring opti-
stretching
These phase
sections of $ber
to produce
ferences in temperatures
terms
so as
are included
may be trimmed
(57b)
+ @y].
A(t)
interferometer
at the quadrature
condition.
The phase B is
(HOM), homodyne
with dc phase
interaction
should be possible.
Detection
Systems
General Considerations:
The purpose of the detection system is to transform the optical output of the sensor into an
electrical signal proportional
to the amplitude
field. The detection systems for interferometric
of the signal
sensors are of
systems
the combining
coupler
and two
photodiodes
v,
= V.
[1 + a! Cos (s(t)
+ 0,-
0,)]
v,
= V.
[1 - a Cos (s(t)
+ q+ -
@r)]
V3=V,
efficiency
two
(58)
-V*.
produces
a is dependent
on the polarization
The
state
IEEE TRANSACTIONS
504
ON MICROWAVE
SIGNAL
FIELD
,
identity
m-~
-
~
SPLITTER
DETECTION
SYSTEM
D V2
Generalized
text
fiber interferometer
system.
for key to specific configurations.
piezoelectric
See Table
1982
47.
NO. 4, APRIL
Fig.
VOL. MTT-30,
v,
D
V4
AND TECHNIQUES,
analog multipliers have inaccuracies which will corrupt the detected signal and limit the minimum detectable signal S(t). In
particular, if the drift is large enough so that the magnitude of
I
COMBINER
LASER
THEORY
VI
and
stretching
The other
the quadrature
Detection
VI
Frequency
System
U=ll),
No
No
W=IJ,
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
v~ =2vorl
PTDC
W=ti,
HET
SHET
the interferometer
UJ+w,
No
No
U=(JI,
No
Yes
away from
the quadrature
the
Although
frequency
condition.
cosine
another
signal,
to
ble.
see this,
V3 and that
to
sin
a solution
proportional
Unless
to dif-
special
way to extract
proportional
V3 is available,
confined
(S(t)
from
+ @. -
to this problem
proportional
(61)
V3(t)dt.
P3.
@r), in
is possi-
to the cosine
V4
circum-
S(t)
(60b)
[+ C-A].
In
function.
there is no simple
addition
To
the amplitude
is a nonlinear
stances prevail,
If
@,-A-n/2]
+f$.
this becomes
ial task.
[S(f)
=2vo&
PTAC
condition
be
Then
(62)
responds to frequencies
product,
If the variation
in S(t) cor-
condi-
(59)
propriate filtering.
The strong point of the PTDC detection system is that it inThis is possible because the
volves only linear operations.
phase shift A produced by the piezoelectric element is a very
linear function of the feedback voltage V4. A drawback to the
drift
this
in @$and or is in a different
drift
plexity
of this HOM
nals 90
this
can be filtered
apart
function
detection
must
using
from
The
methods
be produced.
the distortion
ination
using multiple
performance
of (59)
system
limitation
induced
reveals
has recently
that
is that
instead
in the HOM
an analog
price
two
for
in com-
output
standard
detection
is
of the
is that
VA is limited
voltage
is approached,
by
An exam-
realization
scheme
ducing
smoothed
[129].
system
PTDC
produces
may be possible.
processing.
circuit
sig-
performing
of the
been published
interferometers
by the nonlinear
The
A method
a 3 X 3 coupler
frequency
the output.
fiber
a glitch
out.
making
longer.
VA must
in the output
The
the
the voltage
range
in a practical
frequency
troublesome
are cylinder
of the PTDC
scheme
to *1 O V.
be reset
to zero.
which
element
the
larger
resonance
is that
must
pro-
Once this
This
reset
be appropriately
piezoelectric
However,
of the integrator
system
bigger
the
problems.
the feedback
and
cylinder
An
associated
the
more
advantage
and balanced
mixer
GIALLORENZI
et al.: OPTICAL
505
we will consider another method
form (63).
-OUT
alignment
thetic
Fig. 48.
V3
hold
near
are common
More
zero,
mode
elaborate
possible
thus
ensuring
to both
arms
that
and
implementations
Various
[127].
amplitude
thus
of
product
have
been
distortion
PTAC
scheme
[130]
feedback
efficiency,
is a variant
The
oscillator
Fig. 47).
system.
(n)
as well
detection
system (SHET)
which
[5].
as syn-
The signal
(64)
S(t)@, - 0,).
input to the circuit depicted in Fig. 49. The detailed operation of this circuit is described elsewhere [5] . In brief, one
branch of the circuit produces
VT= cos (3titn t) sin (S(t) + f), - 0,)
of
hydrophores.
PTDC
term
element
V3 in this case is
Some of these
of the
phase
oscillating
The oscillating
can
in NRL
scheme
bulk optical
of electronic
In the simple
very
performance.
uses an oscillating
phase (A).
harmonics.
are
to allow
signal V4 is independent
incorporated
The hydrophores
The
scheme
product.
improvements
system
PTDC
the
problems.
heterodyne
a signal of the
out.
width
fluctuations
cancel
for obtaining
It is desirable to identify
This
combines
as a
cuit
VI and
0,).
with
operates
obtain
2CIJ,n from
at high
as required.
V3 to produce
frequency,
90
phase shifts
are easy to
(65)
as the heterodyne
heterodyne
to those of the PTDC detection system. The difference between the PTDC and PTAC scheme is that the PTDC scheme
the PTAC
quency dither
signal V3 directly
of a high fre-
In the appropriate
piezoelectric
amplitude
stretcher
Only a
one such
signal that is
- A - 7r/2.
Relative to the PTDC scheme, the PTAC scheme has the disadvantage of greater complexity
and the advantage of better
control
product.
[71] . Typi-
cally, a Bragg cell (not shown in Fig. 47) is used to shift the
optical
frequency
= 2V0
o!
of
The output
with
- @,).
(63)
Equation (63)
Typically, U - u is in the range of 100 I&z.
has the classic form of a phase modulated carrier. There are a
number of ways of extracting a signal linear in S(t) from this
type of signal. Perhaps the simplest is to apply Vq to the
input of an FM discriminator tuned to Q U. The output
the FM discriminator is then d/dt (S(t)+ % - @i-).
Before discussing the various methods of FM demodulation,
of
how
produces
signal. In fact, S(t) can be on the order of 10-6. This corresponds to a modulation
index of 10-6. To deal with such a
small modulation index, an FM discriminator with a very linear
frequency transfer function is needed. Nonlinearity
will efthus corrupting
the
fectively cause mixing of S(t) and qi~ -$,,
signal.
A special
FM discriminator
that can detect S(t) of approximately
in
0.-4,
has been buflt as part of the FOSS program [13 11An alternative method for processing the heterodyne signal
is a type of phase tracking using an all electronic feedback
circuit [11 1] , [132].
In this method the heterodyne signal
is mixed with a local oscillator at u ~n which has an electrically controlled r)hase. The result of this mixing is of the form
IEEE TRANSACTIONS
506
ON MICROWAVE
THEORY
AND TECHNIQUES,
VOL. MTT-30,
NO. 4, APRIL
1982
2W ~
BPF
BPF
+
+
>
lMHz
CLOCK
V2
DIVIDE
BY
5&lo
the
Heterod!me
Detection
AGC = automatic
interferometer,
as indicated
System ( SHET).
gain control,
PLL
= phase-locked
in Fig. 41.
TABLE
VII
SENSOR DETECTION SYSTEM TRADEOFF CONSIDERATIONS
INTERFEROMETRIC
EOM
Feedback
ble to realize digital versions of this type of circuit using digitally controlled phase variation circuits and voltage controlled
oscillator/counter
combinations
to digitize
and integrate
the
to
inwrfermeter
tems is that
no feedback
to the interferometer
detection
sys-
is required.
System
Tradeoffi
There
pin
+ so)
[g(~o)+(:ax))x=~
s(t)+
o(s,)].
Here g is a nonlinear
function
characteristic
(66)
of a particular
PTAC
BET
WET
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
N.
No
Yes
N.
Fair
Good
coed
Soad
Fair
ron...
Medium
Low
Medium
Med ,um
H.gh
gl.
Ye,
No
No
Yes
Ye,
oscillator
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
no,,.
Yes
Ye.
No
No
No
required
sw~al
inte.f.r.n.r.~
cmfiguracim
error signal.
The principal
PTDC
Signal
required
distortion
characteristics
complexity
Freedom
Freedom
phase
Laser
of
from
reset
from
,..
elect
tch
s.
ampl.tude
re, ection
amplitude
bias.
Unlike
and SO is a
conceived of as being stableneeding adjustment (by mechanical means) only at sensor calibration.
The only issue that
needs to be addressed from the viewpoint of detection systems
is the choice of the bias.
There are three considerations which enter into the selection
of the bias value: sensitivityy, dynamic range, and noise. To
maximize sensitivity, SOis chosen to maximize d(g(x))/dx/x
= S.
Dynamic range is related to an appropriate distortion specification.
The contribution
from
distortion
This is particu-
is favored.
is laser
GIALLORENZI
amplitude
et al.: OPTICAL
noise.
It is possible,
in principle,
507
to cancel this
but are beyond the scope of this paper. Since the output of
amplitude sensors is a modulated beam of light, these sensors
are very compatible with fiber optical telemetry links. Higher
sensor bandwidths
of g(x) is known.
ing point
for sensitivity,
another
dynamic
r~ge,
In the interferometric
for
point.
situation
SUMMARY
AND
operatand a
sensor, these
prevails.
CONCLUSION
Substantial
in the form of new classes of sensors with unparalleled sensitivity, geometric versatility,
and integrability.
Completely
systems appear
optical multisensory
are presently
feasible
with
small integrated
capabilities.
fiber
Efforts
developed sensors
evaluating
components
developing
techniques
for incorporation
and establish~g
the
tremely
application
approaching
cpntiguration
of these geometries
acteristics
verified
and in many
previously
3 dB
predicted
existing technology.
Interferometric
sensors appear to benefit
technology.
sensor char-
fiber
on the fiber,
detection
Ruggedized
sensor
using conventional
technologies.
Sensor loops, meshes, line
arrays, spatially shaded elements, and point sensors are but a
few of the geometries already demonstrated.
The performance
however,
The extended
desi~ offered by fibers permit one to realize designs previously described analytically
but heretofore not implemented
with
performance
in de-
coatings
been required
schemes
technology
optical
multiplexing
several laboratories
implemented,
The highest performance
field deployable
As a result
crease sensitivity
technology
fiber permits
Multisensors
by as much as 15 dB.
Having a common
cost effective
implementation
on the
of these sensors.
using a common
detec-
the realization
tions
suitable
quency
of practical
for
field
interferometric
deployment.
sensor configura-
Research on low
and fiber
accelerated
compatibility
by
detection
preserving fibers,
techniques
fre-
high performance
crease the technology base for the guided wave telecommunications industry.
In this paper an outline of the advantages of optical fiber
sensors has been discussed as well as a number of the existing
technological problems.
Amplitude sensors havebeen demonstrated for sensing magnetic, acoustic, acceleration, temperature, liquid levels, displacement, torque, and strain and offer
cheap, easy to fabricate sensors suitable for harsh environmental deployment.
Adequate sensitivities are readily achieved
and packaging techniques
or appear
Prototype
demonstrations
and
for
various fiber sensor types and indicate a high level of commercial and military
interest.
The technical
competitiveness
of
dollar
market
in a study
by 1990.
[133]
initial
Consequently,
the $58
IEEE TRANSACTIONS
508
ON MICROWAVE
THEORY
Other
7%
Temperature
14%
The
Tveten, K. Koo,
Acceleration
Rad,at,on
42%
11%
Pressure
1990 $584
[4]
million
dollar
sensor market
M,ll,on
(after
[5]
[ 133]),
be very conservative.
try
projections
and limited
systems applications
are outlined
represent
GNOSTICS
[133] . Acceleration
the
largest
market
application
of fiber sensors
fiber
sensors
were projected
in
the
and pressure
to make up 25
a specialty
market.
System level
demonstrations
are being planned by several major laboratories which, if successful, will secure a major market for the
technology.
From the preceding comments we conclude that
optical fiber sensors will impact existing sensor markets in a
significant fashion and that several sensing functions which
were previously difficult
to perform now become tractable
and amenable to solution.
viability of this technology
growth is expected.
in
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1980.
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[2]
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would
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artd J. A, Bucaro,
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1979.
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Static
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[14 ] G. B. Hocker,
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etching
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1980.
A. M. Smith,
Polarization
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S. C. Rashleigh,
[29]
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[34]
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[63]
[64]
[65]
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GIALLORENZI
etal.:
OPTICAL
Thomas G. Giallorenzi,
for
Quantum Electron., P. 458.
FIBER
SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
a photograph
and biography,
see
511
IEEE J
tirst
fiber-optic
acoustic
of acoustooptic
imaging
Joseph A. Bucaro
received the B.S. and M.S.
degrees from
John Carroll
University,
Cleveland, OH, in 1967, and the Ph.D. degree in
physics from Catholic
University
of America,
Washington,
DC, in 1971.
He joined
the Naval Research
Laboratory,
Washington,
DC,
in 1971,
and carried
out
and fiber
for a photograph
p. 564.
and biography,
see
IEEE
Since
Wash@ton,
fiber sensor
in the areas
sensor technology.
Advances
Studies,
Australian
National
Univer-
Dandridge,
Electron.,
Laboratory,
investigating
publications
Scott
C. Rashleigh
(S 72-M74)
was born in
Queensland.
Australia
in 1949.
He was awarded
the B.E. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the University
of Queensland, Australia,
in 1971 and 1975, respectively.
For two years he was with the Institute
of
r~
Anthony
Quantum
sensor publications.
J.
Richard
on
G. Priest
December
19,
Society
of America.
was born
1946.
polariza1979 he
DC.
His
polariza-
in Rochester,
After
attending
NY,
sec-
and biography
not
available
at the time of
Department
1972-1974.
James H. Cole completed
graduate
work
at
Pennsylvania
State University,
University
Park,
in 1973.
He joined
the TRW Defense and Space Systems Group in 1973.
Initially,
his efforts were
aimed
at lowering
the applicable
frequency
range of Bragg and Raman Nath imaging systems.
An investigation
of optical
techniques
for detection
of low frequency
sound followed
the imaging work.
This effort was extended
to
fiber-optic
detection
techniques
in 1975, and
of Physics,
Following
University
of Maryland,
this appointment
he won
Council fellowship
tenable at the Naval Research Laboratory.
In 1976
he became a permanent
member
of the staff of the Optical Sciences
Division,
Naval Research Laboratory,
Washington,
DC.
His principal
interest
is the development
and analysis of mathematical
models for
physical systems. He has worked in the fields of liquid crystals, electrooptic
devices, artificial
membranes,
phase transitions,
polymer
structure, and fiber optic interferometric
worked on models of component
and propagation.
He is currently
tem distortions
and transient response.
Dr. Priest is a member of the American
Physical
Society.