Basic Electrical Engineering

Transformers

UNIT - 6

Introduction:
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical power from one electrical
circuit to other, which is magnetically coupled together with or without change of voltage and
without any change in power and frequency. The basic use of transformer is to increase or
decrease a.c. voltage. If it is used to increase the voltage, it is called a step-up transformer. If it is
used to decrease the voltage, it is called a step-down transformer. If the voltage is not changed, it is
called one to one transformer.
The transformer is a static device and there are no rotating parts, hence no mechanical
losses. Hence, the efficiency of a transformer is very high, of the order of 95% to 98%.

Construction of transformer:
A single phase transformer basically consists of two parts (i) windings and (ii) core.
There are two windings, which are wound on the limbs of a core, which are insulated from
each other and from limbs. The windings are made of copper, so that, they possess a very small
resistance. The winding which is connected to supply is called primary winding and the winding
which is connected to load is called secondary winding.
The core is made of a ferromagnetic material such as silicon steel, which has a high relative
permeability and low hysteresis co-efficient. The core is laminated to reduce eddy current loss. The
vertical columns of the core are called limb and the horizontal section is referred to as yoke. For
small transformers, each lamination is a single piece. For large transformers, each lamination is
made of two or more sections like I, L, U, T or E.
There are two basic types of transformer construction:
1. Core Type Transformer
2. Shell Type Transformer

Core Type Transformer:

In this type, the winding surrounds a considerable portion of the core. The core uses U & I
section or two L section laminations. Generally LV winding is placed on one limb and HV windings
are placed on the other. However, both the windings are divided into two parts and half of each
winding is placed on each limb, side by side depending on requirement. This is done to reduce the
leakage of the magnetic flux. The low voltage (LV) winding is placed adjacent to the core and high
voltage (HV) winding is placed around the LV winding with insulation between them. This is done
to minimize the cost of insulation. Core type transformers are used to handle low and medium
voltages.
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Transformers

Shell Type Transformer:

In this type, the core surrounds a considerable portion of the winding. The core uses E & I
section or U & T section laminations. The core has 3 limbs. Both the windings are placed on the
central limb. The flux in the central limb divides equally and returns through the outer two legs.
The LV and HV windings are sandwiched as shown in fig. Core type transformers are used to
handle very high voltages.

Comparison of core and shell type transformers:

Core type
The windings surround the core

Shell type
The core surrounds the two windings

There is a single magnetic circuit

There is a double magnetic circuit

The core has two limbs and one window

The core has three limbs and two windows

Simple cylindrical coils are used

Multilayer disc type coils are used

It is preferred for low voltage transformers It is preferred for low voltage transformers

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Transformers

Working principle:
A single phase transformer works on the principle of mutual induction between two
magnetically coupled coils. When the primary winding is connected to an alternating voltage, an
alternating current flows through the primary winding and sets up an alternating flux in the
core. This alternating flux links both primary and secondary windings. Therefore, EMFs e 1 & e2
are induced in the primary and secondary windings respectively. The direction of induced EMF is
given by Lenzs law.
Therefore, by Faradays Laws of Electromagnetic induction,

1 = 1

2 = 2

Where,

.(i)
.(ii)

= rate of change of flux

1 & 2 are the number of turns in primary and secondary windings respectively.
Dividing eqn. (ii) by (i), we get,
2
1

2
1

2
1

= , the transformation ratio or turns ratio.

Where, E1 & E2 are the R.M.S. value of primary and secondary induced EMFs.
When the transformer is loaded, current flows in the secondary winding. The VA (Volt
Ampere) rating (power) on either side is same.
Therefore,
E1 I1 = E2 I2
(Assuming that the p.f. of both primary and secondary are equal)
1

Therefore,
= 2= 2=
2
1
1

EMF Equation:
When an alternating voltage v1=Vm sin t of r.m.s. value V1=Vm/2 is applied to the
primary winding of the transformer, the alternating current flowing through the primary winding
produces an alternating flux = sin , which links both the primary winding and the
secondary winding. Hence, an e.m.f. e 1 is induced in the primary winding and an e.m.f e2 is
induced in the secondary winding.
Let N1 & N2 be the number of turns in primary and secondary windings of the transformer
respectively.
Therefore,

1 = 1

= 1

( sin ) = 1 cos

1 = 21 cos = 21 sin( 900 )

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The magnitude of the maximum value of the e.m.f. induced in the primary winding is given by,
1 = 21
The r.m.s. value of the e.m.f. induced in the primary winding is given by,

1 =

1
2

21
2

(i)

= 4.44 1

Above equation is for the r.m.s. value of the e.m.f. induced in the primary winding. Similarly
the r.m.s. value of the e.m.f. induced in the secondary winding is given by,
2 = 4.44 2

(ii)

From the equation of and e1, we find that the induced e.m.f. lags the flux by 90 0.

Ideal Transformer:
An ideal transformer is one in which
i. The permeability of the magnetic circuit (the core) is infinite, i.e., the magnetic circuit
has zero reluctance so that no mmf is needed to set up the flux in the core.
ii. The core of the transformer has no losses.
iii. The resistance of its windings is zero, hence no copper loss in the windings.
iv. Entire flux in the core links both the windings, i.e., there is no leakage flux.

Practical Transformer:
A practical transformer is one in which the winding resistance, eddy current and
hysteresis loss and effect of leakage flux are present.

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Transformers

Transformer on no-load:

V1

Io

I
0

Secondary current is zero for

no-load condition (open circuit)

E1

Io = I + I = no-load current

E2 = V2

I = Io sino = magnetizing component of no-load current

I = Io coso = iron or active or working or core loss component of no-load current
The no-load current = 2 + 2 and is nearly 4% of the rated current.
No-load power factor = cos

The no-load power Wo = V1 Io coso

Thus the primary no-load power input = iron losses.

Transformer on Load:
When an alternating voltage V1 is
applied, a no-load current Io is drawn by the
primary when no load is connected to
secondary. This current set up a flux in the
core. Thus emfs E1 & E2 are induced in the
primary and secondary winding respectively.
When a load is connected to the
secondary of the transformer, the secondary
current I2 flows through secondary winding
having voltage across load V 2. When I2 flows
through the secondary winding, it sets up its
own mmf N2I2, which produces a flux 2, which
opposes the main flux , thus tending to
decrease the flux in the core. Hence N2I2 are
called as demagnetizing ampere turns. The resultant flux reduces resulting in reduction of E 1. So
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Transformers

the primary winding draws an extra current 2 ,

which is known as the load component of the
primary current. 2 is in anti-phase with I2.
Now the flux 1 is set up by 1 2 , which is
equal in magnitude to 2 but in opposite
direction. Thus 2 & 1 cancel each other and
hence, flux in the core remains constant.
The current 2 drawn from primary will
be such that,
1 2 = 2 2

2 =

Therefore,

1 2

= 2

1 = + 2
V1 = -E1 + I1Z1 = -E1 + I1 (R1 + jX1)
E2 = V2 + I2Z2 = V2 + I2 (R2 + jX2)

Equivalent Resistances and Reactances:

Let, R1 & X1 be the resistance and reactance of primary winding and R 2 & X2 be the
resistance and reactance of secondary winding.
The copper loss occurs in both the windings of the transformer.
Total copper loss = copper loss in primary winding + copper loss in secondary winding
= 12 1 + 22 2
Let, 2 be a resistance in primary winding, which causes the same copper loss 22 2 , which
occurs in secondary winding.
Then
12 2 = 22 2

2 = ( 2 ) 2 =
1

2
2

= equivalent resistance of secondary winding as referred to primary.

Similarly, 1 = 2 1 = equivalent resistance of primary winding as referred to secondary

2 =

2
2

= equivalent reactance of secondary winding as referred to primary

1 = 2 1 = equivalent reactance of primary winding as referred to secondary

01 = 1 + 2 = equivalent resistance of the transformer as referred to primary
01 = 1 + 2 = equivalent reactance of the transformer as referred to primary
01 = 01 + 01 = equivalent impedance of the transformer as referred to primary
02 = 2 + 1 = equivalent resistance of the transformer as referred to secondary
02 = 2 + 1 = equivalent reactance of the transformer as referred to secondary
02 = 02 + 02 = equivalent impedance of the transformer as referred to secondary

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Transformers

Losses in a transformer:
As the transformer is a static apparatus and does not contain any rotating parts, there are no
mechanical losses viz friction and windage losses. The losses that occur in a transformer are (i)
iron loss and (ii) copper loss.
(i) Iron Loss (Wi): This loss occurs in the iron portion i.e. the core of the transformer hence it is
also called as core loss. Iron loss is of two types (i) eddy current loss and (ii) hysteresis loss.
The eddy current loss (We): The eddy currents are induced in the laminations,
because, the alternating flux produced by the primary winding links the laminations. These
eddy currents flows through the laminations causing power loss in the core and heats up the
core of the transformer. The eddy current loss in the core of a transformer is given by,
=
Watts
Where, We = eddy current loss in watts
Bm = maximum value of the flux density in the core in Wb/m 2
f = frequency of the supply in Hz
t = thickness of the laminations in metre
V = volume of the core in m3
= a constant, whose value depends on the quality of the magnetic material used
for making the core.
The eddy current loss can be reduced by using thin laminations of high permeability
magnetic material.
The hysteresis loss (Wh): This loss occurs because, the core of the transformer is
subjected to cycles of magnetization. It is given by,
= .
Watts

Where,

Wh = hysteresis loss in watts

Bm = maximum value of the flux density in the core in Wb/m 2
f = frequency of the supply in Hz
V = volume of the core in m3
= a constant, whose value depends on the quality of the magnetic material used
for making the core.

Hence,

Iron Loss = Eddy Current Loss + Hysteresis Loss

Wi = We + Wh

2 2

+ 1.6

watts

In the above equation, , , t and V are constants. As long as the applied voltage remains
constant, Bm and f remains constant. Therefore, iron loss in the transformer is considered to
be a constant loss at all loads including no load.
(ii) Copper Loss (Wcu): This loss is due to the resistance R1 and R2 of the primary and secondary
windings respectively.
Total copper loss = copper loss in primary + copper loss in secondary
= 12 1 + 22 2 watts
= 12 (1 + 2 ) = 22 (2 + 1 )
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Transformers

= 12 01 = 22 02
From the above equation, we found that the copper loss in the transformer vary as the
square of the currents, which vary with load. Hence, copper loss is a variable loss.
Hence,

Total Loss in the transformer = Iron loss + Copper Loss

Efficiency in a transformer:
The efficiency of a transformer at any load and p.f. is defined as the ratio of the output at
the secondary winding to the power input to the primary winding.
= =

=
=

+

Power output = V2 I2 cos2

Power input = power output + losses
= V2 I2 cos2 + Wi + (12 1 + 22 2 )
Where, V2 = secondary terminal voltage at full load
I2 = secondary full load current
cos2 = power factor of the secondary
2 2 cos 2
2 2 cos 2
=
2 2 cos 2 + + (12 1 + 22 2 ) 2 2 cos 2 + + 22 02

For a given p.f. efficiency will be maximum when

= 0. Therefore,
2
=

(2 2 cos 2 + + 22 02 )
(2 2 cos 2 )
(2 2 cos 2 ) (
(2 2 cos 2 + + 22 02 ) (
)

)
2
2
2

(2 2 cos 2 + + 22 02 )

=0

(2 2 cos 2 )(2 cos 2 + 22 02 ) (2 2 cos 2 + + 22 02 )(2 cos 2 ) = 0

22 02

=0

= 22 02 =
i.e.,

iron loss = copper loss

constant loss = variable loss

Output KVA corresponding to maximum efficiency =

The efficiency at any fraction of full load x is given by,
=

2 2 cos 2
cos 2
=
2
2 2 cos 2 + + 2 2 02 cos 2 + + 2

x = 1 for full load

x = 0.5 for half load

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Transformers

Regulation of a transformer:
The regulation of a transformer is defined as the change in its secondary voltage from no
load to full load, keeping the primary voltage constant.
The regulation is the rise in the secondary terminal voltage, when the full load is thrown
off, without changing the primary voltage.
Let

V2(0) No load secondary voltage

V2 full load terminal voltage

Then

% =

2(0) 2
2

100
C

V2(0)

2
I2X02

A
2

F
2

V2

I2R02
B

I2

fig.(a)
fig.(a) shows a phasor diagram of a single phase transformer on load referred to secondary.
I2 = full load current that lags V2 by an angle 2
cos2 = power factor of the secondary circuit
I2R02 = voltage drop across the resistance of the transformer referred to secondary
I2X02 = voltage drop across the reactance of the transformer referred to secondary
From fig.(a),
Regulation = V2(0) V2 = OC OA
= OG OA OE OA = AE
= AF + FE = AF + BD
= I2 R02 cos2 I2 X02 sin2

% =
=(

2 02 cos 2 2 02 sin 2
2

( + for lagging p.f. & - for leading p.f.)

100

(approximate.)

2 02
2 02
100) cos 2 (
100) sin 2
2
2

= cos 2 sin 2
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Where,

2 02
2

Transformers
2 02
2

100

100

= percentage resistance drop

= percentage reactance drop

QUESTIONS:
1. What are the various types of losses in a transformer? How do they vary with load? How
they can be minimized?
2. The maximum efficiency at full load and upf of a single phase, 25KVA, 500/1000V, 50Hz,
transformer is 98%. Determine its efficiency at
a. 75% load, 0.9 p.f.
b. 50% load, 0.8 p.f.
c. 25% load, 0.6 p.f.
3. Define voltage regulation of a transformer. What is its importance?
Ans: Importance- voltage regulation is said to be good if it is below 3%. To maintain
terminal voltage almost constant for varying load, voltage regulation must be good.
4. A 40KVA single phase transformer has core loss of 450W and full load copper loss of
850W. if the power factor of the load is 0.8, calculate:
a. Full load efficiency
b. Load corresponding to maximum efficiency
c. Maximum efficiency at UPF.
5. A 600KVA single phase transformer has an efficiency of 92% both at full load and half the
full load at UPF. Determine its efficiency at 75% of full load at 0.9 p.f. lag.
6. A single phase transformer has 1000 turns on its primary and 400 turns on the secondary
side. An a.c. voltage of 1250V, 50Hz is applied to its primary side, with the secondary open
circuited. Calculate:
a. The secondary emf
b. Maximum value of flux density, given that the effective cross-sectional area of core
is 60cm2.
7. A 250KVA, single phase transformer has 98.135% efficiency at full load and 0.8 lagging p.f.
The efficiency at half load and 0.8 lagging p.f. is 97.751%. Calculate the iron loss and fullload copper loss.
8. Explain with vector diagram the working principle of transformer on no-load.
9. The primary winding of a transformer is connected to a 240V, 50Hz supply. The secondary
winding has 1500 turns. If the maximum value of the core flux is 0.00207Wb, determine
a. The secondary induced emf
b. Number of turns in the primary
c. Cross-sectional area of the core if the flux density has maximum value of
0.465Tesla.
10. Obtain the condition for maximum efficiency.
11. A 25KVA transformer has an efficiency of 94% at full load unity p.f. and at half full load, 0.9
p.f. Determine the iron loss and full load copper loss.

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