Lecture-10

Prepared under
QIP-CD Cell Project

Internal Combustion Engines

Ujjwal K Saha, Ph.D.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

1

Ideal Four-Stroke Cycle Intake and Exhaust

In the ideal four-stroke cycle the exhaust process is modeled as
constant volume heat extraction and does not consider the
actual gas flow.

Pressure, P

At WOT the intake exhaust

processes are often shown as a
constant pressure processes, e.g.,
56 and 65 where states 1 and 5
are the same.

EV closes
IV opens
IV closes
EV opens

Process 5-6 indicates a decrease in

specific volume which is incorrect
since as the cylinder volume
decreases so does the mass
specific volume remains the same!
This inconsistency results from
treating an open system problem
with a closed system model

Specific volume, v

Ideal Intake and Exhaust Strokes

Valves operate instantaneously, intake and exhaust process
are adiabatic and constant pressure.
Unthrottled: Pi = Pe = 1 atm

EV opens

IV closes (state1)
EV closes
IV opens

Throttled: Pi < Pe

EV opens
EV closes

IV closes

6
IV opens

Supercharged: Pi > Pe
IV opens
6

EV closes

Actual Exhaust Stroke (4 6)

The actual exhaust process consists of two phases:
i) Blowdown
ii) Displacement
Pe

Pi Ti

Products

State 4 (BC)

State 5 (BC)

Blowdown

State 6 (TC)

Displacement

Blowdown At the end of the power stroke when the

exhaust valve opens the cylinder pressure is much higher
than the exhaust manifold pressure which is typically at 1
atm (P4 > Pe), so the cylinder gas flows out through the
exhaust valve and the pressure drops to Pe.
Displacement Remaining gas is pushed out of the cylinder
by the piston moving to TC.
4

Exhaust Blowdown
During the blowdown the gas remaining in the cylinder
undergoes expansion process (neglecting heat transfer) which
can be modelled as isentropic.

Blowdown
Displacement
5

5 (Otto/Diesel)

TC

BC

State 5 at the end of blowdown is a fictitious state corresponding to

no actual piston location.

P5 = Pe
P5
T5 = T4
P4

k 1

Pe
= T4
P4

k 1

Residual Gas
The gas remaining in the cylinder when the piston reaches

TC is called residual gas which mixes with intake gas (fuelair for SI and air for CI).
The residual gas temperature T6 is equal to T5.
The Residual gas fraction f is defined as the ratio of the
mass of residual gas to the mass of the fuel-air (assume
ideal gas Pv = RT).

m6 m6 V6 v6 1 v4 1 T4 P6 1 T4 P6
f =
=
=
=
=
=
m1 m4 V4 v4 r v6 r T6 P4 r T5 P4
since

T5 P5
=
T4 P4

1
1 P5 k

k 1

1
1 Pe k

f = =
r P4
r P4

Typically values of f are in the range 3% to 12%, lower in Diesels (larger r)

6

Exhaust Manifold Gas Temperature (T7)

The gas leaving the cylinder during blowdown has kinetic
energy which is converted into thermal energy when the
exhaust gas comes to rest in the exhaust gas manifold gas
temperature in the exhaust manifold is higher than T5.

Fluid leaving cylinder earliest has higher velocity so

temperature higher when stagnates in the manifold
(T7a > T7b > T7c).
7

Intake Stroke 6 1
When the intake valve opens the fresh gas with mass mi mixes
with the hotter residual gas with mass mR so the gas
temperature at the end of the intake stroke T1 will be greater
than the inlet temperature Ti.
Applying conservation of mass:
mi = m1 mR = m1 m6

Ti

Applying conservation of energy (open system):

U1 U 6 = Q61 W61 + mi hi
m1u1 m6u6 = Pi (V1 V6 ) + mi hi

m1 (h1 P1v1 ) m6 (h6 P6 v6 ) = Pi (V1 V6 ) + (m1 m6 )hi

m1
m6
h1 =
h6 + 1hi + ( P1 P6 )v6

m1
m6

Intake Gas Temperature (T1)

Recall m6 = m1f and assuming ideal gas P6v6 = RT6 and h = cpT

P1
h1 = (1 f )hi + fh6 1 fRT6
P6
P1 k 1
T1 = (1 f )Ti + fT6 1 1

P
k

6

In terms of inlet and exhaust conditions P1 = Pi , P6 = Pe , T6 = Te

P k 1
T1 = (1 f )Ti + fTe 1 1 i

P
k

Volumetric efficiency

v =

P / P 1
mi
= 1 i e
iVd
k (r 1)
3

Pumping work

W561 = ( Pi Pe )Vd

Pumping mep

pmep = Pe Pi
2

W W12
Recall: imep = 34
Vd

e
i

5
1

Net pmep

(imep )net = imep pmep

Heat input 23

Qin = miqin = (m1-m6) qin = m1(1-f) qin

Note: qin is the heat added per kg of inducted gas
10

Valve Overlap
In real engines valves dont open and close
instantaneously
In order to ensure that the valve is fully open during a
stroke for volumetric efficiency, the valves are open for
longer than 180o.
The
exhaust
valve
opens before TC and
closes after BC and the
intake
valve
opens
before TC and closes
after BC.
At TC there is a period
of valve overlap where
both the intake and
exhaust valves are open.
11

Valve overlap
When the intake valve opens the cylinder pressure is at Pe
Part throttle (Pi < Pe): residual gas flows into the intake port.
During intake stroke the residual gas is first returned to the
cylinder then fresh gas is introduced. Residual gas reduces
part load performance.
WOT (Pi = Pe): some fresh gas can flow out the exhaust valve
reducing performance and increasing emissions.
Supercharged (Pi > Pe): fresh gas can flow out the exhaust
valve.
Pe

Pi

Throttled
Pi < Pe

Pi

Pe

Supercharged
Pi > Pe

12

Valve timing angles:

Valve Timing

Conventional engines operate at low rpms, with idle and part

load important High performance engines operate at high rpms
at WOT, with power and volumetric efficiency important
At high engine speeds less time available for fresh gas intake so
need more crank angles to get high volumetric efficiency
large valve overlap.
At low engine speed and part throttle valve overlap is
minimized by reducing the angle duration for valves staying
open.
Variable Valve Timing used to obtain optimum performance
over wide range.

13

Intake and Exhaust System for Single cylinder engine

P
Air cleaner

Cylinder

Muffler

14

Intake and Exhaust Manifold

The intake manifold is a system designed to deliver air to the
engine from a plenum to each cylinder through pipes called
runners.
Velocity magnitude (m/s)

Exhaust manifold used to duct the exhaust gases from

each cylinder to a point of expulsion such as the tail
pipe.
15

Volumetric Efficiency
Recall the volumetric efficiency is defined as:

v =

2ma
a ,oVd

Volumetric efficiency is affected by :

i) Fuel evaporation
ii) Mixture temperature
iii) Pressure drop in the intake system
iv) Gasdynamic effects

Note: piston speed proportional

to air flow velocity

or engine speed

N = ( S / 2) U p

16

Factors affecting v
Fuel evaporation:
In naturally aspirated engines (no supercharging)
the volumetric efficiency will always be less than
100% because fuel is added and the fuel vapour will
displace incoming air.
The earlier the fuel is added in the intake system
the lower the volumetric efficiency because more of
the fuel evaporates before entering the cylinder.
In Diesels fuel is added directly into the cylinder so
get a higher efficiency.

17

Factors affecting v
Residual gas
As (Pe/Pi) increases, or r decreases the fraction of
cylinder volume occupied by residual gas increases
and thus volumetric efficiency decreases.

Opening intake valve before TC (valve overlap):

The longer the valve overlap more exhaust gases
are pushed into the intake port.
Greatest problem at lower engine speeds when
there is more time for exhaust gases to back up.
18

Factors affecting v
Heat transfer:
All intake systems are hotter than ambient
air, so the density of the air entering the
cylinder is lower than ambient air density.
Injection system and throttle bodies are
purposely
heated
to
enhance
fuel
evaporation.
Greatest problem at lower engine speeds
more time for air to be heated.
19

Factors affecting v
Fluid friction:
The air flows through a duct through an air
filter, throttle and intake valve.
Air moving through any flow passage or
past a flow restriction undergoes a pressure
drop.
The pressure at the cylinder is thus lower
than atmospheric pressure.
Greatest problem at higher engine speeds
when the air flow velocity is high.
20

Pressure losses over the length of the intake system

P

Po = atmospheric pressure

Air cleaner

Pair = pressure losses in air cleaner

Pu = intake losses upstream of throttle
Pthr = loss across throttle
Pvalve = loss across intake valve

WOT
Part throttle
Cylinder

Muffler

Extreme case of flow restriction is when the flow chokes at the intake valve
as engine speed increases flow velocity remains the same have less fill time.
21

Factors affecting v
Closing the intake valve after BC (air backflow):
1.

When the piston reaches BC there is still a pressure

difference across the intake valve and the mixture
continues to flow into the cylinder, therefore close the
intake valve after TC.

2.

As the piston approaches TC the pressure in the

cylinder increases.

3.

As the piston changes direction the air is compressed,

when the pressure equals the intake manifold pressure
the air flow into the cylinder stops.

4.

Best time to close the intake valve is when the

manifold and cylinder pressures are equal, close the
valve too early and dont get full load, too late and air
flows back into the intake port.
22

Factors affecting v
Closing the intake valve after BC (air backflow):

5. At high engine speeds larger pressure drop

across intake valve because of higher flow
velocity, so ideally want to close valve later
after BC (60o aBC).
6. At low engine speeds smaller pressure drop
across the intake valve so ideally want to close
the intake valve earlier after BC (40o aBC).

23

Factors affecting v
The crank angle where the intake valve closes is

fixed by the camshaft and cannot change with

engine speed.

As a result the volumetric efficiency is reduced

at the low and high engine speeds.
As the intake valve closes at higher engine
speeds, the inertia of the air in the intake system
increases the pressure in the intake port, called
the ram effect.
This effect becomes progressively
important at higher engine speeds.

more

To take advantage of ram effect, close intake

valve later after BC.
24

Factors affecting v
Intake and exhaust tuning:
When

the intake valve opens the air

suddenly rushes into the cylinder and an
expansion wave propagates back to the
intake manifold at the local speed of sound
relative to the flow velocity.
When the expansion wave reaches the
manifold it reflects back towards to intake
valve as a compression wave.
The time it takes for the round trip depends
on the length of the runner and the flow
velocity.
25

Factors affecting v
Intake and exhaust tuning-contd.
If the timing is appropriate the compression wave
arrives at the inlet at the end of the intake process
raising the pressure above the nominal inlet
pressure allowing more air to be injected.
For fixed runner length the intake is tuned for one
engine speed (flow velocity).
Similarly the exhaust system can be tuned to get
a lower pressure at the exhaust valve increasing
the exhaust flow velocity.
26

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