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The factorial of a positive integer Z+ n, is denoted by n!, is the product of all positive integers less than or equal to n.
E.g: 5! = 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1
PERMUTATIONS
To explain the concept of Permutations more clearly, consider this:
How many ways can we award a 1st, 2nd and 3rd place prize among eight contestants? (Gold / Silver / Bronze)
Were going to use permutations since the order we hand out these medals matters. Heres how it breaks down:
o
o
We picked certain people to win, but the details dont matter: we had 8 choices at first, then 7, then 6. Therefore, the total number of options
was 8 7 6 = 336.
Unfortunately, that does too much! We only want 8 7 6. How can we stop the factorial at 5?
So, if we do 8!/5! we get:
So, in general, the number of ways of obtaining an ordered subset of r elements from a set of n elements (provided n > r) is given by:
COMBINATIONS
To explain the concept of combinations more clearly, consider this:
Combinations are easy going. Order doesnt matter. You can mix it up and it looks the same. Lets say I cant afford separate Gold, Silver and
Bronze medals. In fact, I can only afford empty tin cans.
How many ways can I give 3 tin cans to 8 people?
Well, in this case, the order we pick people doesnt matter. If I give a can to A, B and then C, its the same as giving to C, A and then B. Either
way, theyre equally disappointed.
This raises an interesting point weve got some redundancies here. A B C = C B A. For a moment, lets just figure out how many ways we can
rearrange 3 people.
Well, we have 3 choices for the first person, 2 for the second, and only 1 for the last. So we have 3 2 1 ways to re-arrange 3 people.
So, if we have 3 tin cans to give away, there are 3! or 6 variations for every choice we pick. If we want to figure out how many combinations we
have, we just create all the permutations and divide by all the redundancies. In our case, we get 336 permutations (from above), and we divide
by the 6 redundancies for each permutation and get 336/6 = 56.
The general formula is
which means Find all the ways to pick k people from n, and divide by the k! variants. Writing this out, we get our combination formula, or the
number of ways to combine k items from a set of n:
According to the theorem, it is possible to expand any power of x + y into a sum of the form:
E.g:
For n = 3,
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
Sum of Cubes:
Difference of Cubes:
a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 - ab + b2)
a3 - b3 = (a - b) (a2+ ab + b2)
2 -8
1 2 -8
(x-1)
(x2+2x-8)
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION
Consider the following arithmetic progression:
a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + (a + 3d) + ...
Where:
a is the initial term
d is the common difference
Tn = a + (n - 1) d
Sum of the first n terms:
The sum of the first n terms of the arithmetic progression is:
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION
Consider the following geometric progression:
a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ...
Where:
a is the scale factor
r is the common ratio
Tn = ar
n-1
EXPONENTIATION
Raising b to the n-th power, where n is a natural number, is done by multiplying n factors of b. The n-th power of b is written bn, so
that:
LOGARITHM
The logarithm is the inverse operation to exponentiation. the logarithm counts repeated multiplication. For example, the
base 10 logarithm of 1000 is 3, as 10 to the power 3 is 1000 (1000 = 101010 = 103); the multiplication is repeated three
times.
LOGARITHMIC IDENTITIES
CHANGE OF BASE
The logarithm logb(x) can be computed from the logarithms of x and b with respect to an arbitrary base k using the following
formula:
Usually scientific calculators calculate the logarithms to bases 10 and e. Logarithms with respect to any base b can be determined
using either of these two logarithms by the previous formula:
Given a number x and its logarithm logb(x) to an unknown base b, the base is given by:
LAWS OF INDICES
SETS
A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects. We write sets inside curly brackets like:
SUBSET: If every member of set A is also a member of set B, then A is said to be a subset of B, written A B.
The empty set is a subset of every set and every set is a subset of itself:
A.
A A.
POWER SET: The power set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S.
For e.g: The power set of the set {1, 2, 3} is:
{{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1}, {2}, {3}, }.
UNION OF 2 SETS: The union of A and B, denoted by A B, is the set of all things that are members of either A or B.
Intersection of 2 sets: The intersection of A and B, denoted by A B, is the set of all things that are members of both A and B.
If A B = , then A and B are said to be disjoint.
CO ORDINATE GEOMETRY
Usually the Cartesian coordinate system is applied to manipulate equations for planes, straight lines, and squares,
often in two dimensions.
Cartesian coordinate system is a coordinate system that specifies each point uniquely in a plane by a pair of numerical
coordinates, which are the signed distances to the point from two fixed perpendicular directed lines, measured in the
same unit of length. Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis of the system, and the point where they
meet is its origin, usually at ordered pair (0, 0).
(fig. The Cartesian Co-Ordinate System showing the co ordinates marked by a pair)
Where,
A line is increasing if it goes up from left to right. The slope is positive, (i.e. m > 0)
A line is decreasing if it goes down from left to right. The slope is negative, (i.e. m < 0)
b is the y-intercept of the line. (y intercept is a point where the line touches the y axis and x intercept is a point where the
line touches the x axis)
DISTANCE FORMULA
The distance between two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) in the Cartesian plane is defined by the Distance Formula.
SECTION FORMULA
TRIGONOMETRY
Angle: Rotational Offset between two intersecting lines.
Angle is usually measured in degrees and radian.
10 = (1 / 360) * of a complete revolution of a circle.
The radian is the angle subtended by an arc of a circle that has the same length as the circle's radius.
2 radians equal 1 complete revolution of a circle or is equal to 3600.
1 radian =
The study of angles and of the angular relationships of planar and three-dimensional figures is known as trigonometry.
A right triangle has three sides, which can be uniquely identified as the hypotenuse, adjacent to a given angle and the opposite to .
and
Double Angle
Identities
and
Triple
Angle
Identities
and
Half
Angle
Identities
and
Inverse Trigonometry
Inverse trigonometry is used to obtain an angle from any of the angle's trigonometric ratios. Specifically, they are the
inverses of the sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions.
Inverse Forward Identities
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Hyperbolic functions are a set of six functions related, for a real or complex variable x, to the hyperbola in a manner
analogous to the relationship of the trigonometric functions to a circle.
Standard Identities
6 Hyperbolic Functions
LIMITS
The basic idea behind limits is to analyze what the function is "approaching" when x "approaches" a specific value.
A more precise way of phrasing the definition is that we can make f(x) be as close to L as we like by making x be sufficiently close to a.
lim
x a +
f (x )
= L
or f(x) L as x a+
CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
Simply we can say that,
a function is continuous when we can draw its graph without lifting the pencil .
The first condition for a function to be continuous is that at each point the one-sided limits must
be equal, that is:
The second condition for a function to be continuous is that whenever we have the one-sided limits
equal, we also have that they equal the "common" limit, that is:
We define the derivative of the function f at the point x 0 as the limit of the above slopes as x
approaches zero:
Let's summarize the intuitive meaning of f'(x). The limit we calculated equals the slope of the
tangent line at point x. Being strict, curves don't have slope, so we use the slope of the tangent lin e
as a replacement.
The essential idea in differential calculus is to approximate non-linear objects by linear ones. It
happens that the tangent line at a point is the best linear approximation to the curve near that
point. But, intuitively, we can think of f'(x) as the slope of the graph of f(x) at the point x.
LEIBNIZ NOTATION
A tiny change in
RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION
PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION
INTEGRATION
Integration is the inverse process of differentiation. Instead of differentiating a function we are given the derivative of a function and asked to
find its primitive, i.e., the original function. Such a process is called integration or anti - differentiation.
Given a function f of a real variable x and an interval [a, b] of the real line, the definite integral.
is defined informally as the signed area of the region in the xy-plane that is bounded by the graph of f, the x-axis and the vertical
lines x = a and x = b. The area above the x-axis adds to the total and that below the x-axis subtracts from the total. Roughly speaking, the
operation of integration is the reverse of differentiation. For this reason, the term integral may also refer to the related notion of
the antiderivative, a function F whose derivative is the given function f. In this case, it is called an indefinite integral and is written: