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A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label.

Classification of number systems are:

Real numbers R, are all the rational and irrational numbers.


Natural numbers N, are positive integers starting with 1 until positive . (Examples: 1, 2, 3, .)
Whole numbers are also positive integers that start with 0 until positive . (Examples: 0, 1, 2, 3, ., .)
Rational numbers Q, are numbers that can be written as a fraction where the numerator and denominator are integers.
E.g: , , , , etc.
Irrational numbers are numbers that cannot be written as fractions. (Examples: = 3.14159., 2 = 1.414.)
A Complex Number C, is a combination of a Real Number R, and an Imaginary Number i:

The factorial of a positive integer Z+ n, is denoted by n!, is the product of all positive integers less than or equal to n.
E.g: 5! = 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1
PERMUTATIONS
To explain the concept of Permutations more clearly, consider this:
How many ways can we award a 1st, 2nd and 3rd place prize among eight contestants? (Gold / Silver / Bronze)

Were going to use permutations since the order we hand out these medals matters. Heres how it breaks down:

Gold medal: 8 choices: A B C D E F G H

Silver medal: 7 choices: B C D E F G H.

o
o

Lets say A wins the Gold.


Lets say B wins the Silver.

Bronze medal: 6 choices: C D E F G H.


o

Lets say C wins the Bronze.

We picked certain people to win, but the details dont matter: we had 8 choices at first, then 7, then 6. Therefore, the total number of options
was 8 7 6 = 336.

We know the factorial is:

Unfortunately, that does too much! We only want 8 7 6. How can we stop the factorial at 5?
So, if we do 8!/5! we get:

And why did we use the number 5?


Because it was left over after we picked 3 medals from 8. So, a better way to write this would be:

So, in general, the number of ways of obtaining an ordered subset of r elements from a set of n elements (provided n > r) is given by:

COMBINATIONS
To explain the concept of combinations more clearly, consider this:
Combinations are easy going. Order doesnt matter. You can mix it up and it looks the same. Lets say I cant afford separate Gold, Silver and
Bronze medals. In fact, I can only afford empty tin cans.
How many ways can I give 3 tin cans to 8 people?
Well, in this case, the order we pick people doesnt matter. If I give a can to A, B and then C, its the same as giving to C, A and then B. Either
way, theyre equally disappointed.
This raises an interesting point weve got some redundancies here. A B C = C B A. For a moment, lets just figure out how many ways we can
rearrange 3 people.
Well, we have 3 choices for the first person, 2 for the second, and only 1 for the last. So we have 3 2 1 ways to re-arrange 3 people.
So, if we have 3 tin cans to give away, there are 3! or 6 variations for every choice we pick. If we want to figure out how many combinations we
have, we just create all the permutations and divide by all the redundancies. In our case, we get 336 permutations (from above), and we divide
by the 6 redundancies for each permutation and get 336/6 = 56.
The general formula is

which means Find all the ways to pick k people from n, and divide by the k! variants. Writing this out, we get our combination formula, or the
number of ways to combine k items from a set of n:

The Binomial Theorem

According to the theorem, it is possible to expand any power of x + y into a sum of the form:

E.g:

So, in general for n = 2:

For n = 3,

(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3

(a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab +b2

(a - b)3 = a3 - 3a2b + 3ab2 - b3

Sum of Cubes:

Difference of Cubes:

a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 - ab + b2)

a3 - b3 = (a - b) (a2+ ab + b2)

Sum of a trinomial squared:


(a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
(a + b - c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab 2bc - 2ca
(a - b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 2ab 2bc + 2ca
(a - b - c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 2ab + 2bc 2ca

THE QUADRATIC FORMULA


Consider this quadratic equation:
ax2 + bx + c = 0
Where a, b and c are the leading coefficients.
The roots for this quadratic equation will be:

SOLVING A CUBIC EQUATION USING THE SYNTHETIC DIVISION METHOD


Lets take an example:
f(x)=x3+x2-10x+8
Step 1) Identify all possible x-intercepts (factors of constant)
Step 2) Use synthetic division to find first zero (factor that lets there be no remainder)
1 1 1 -10 8
0

2 -8

1 2 -8

(x-1)
(x2+2x-8)

Step 3) Re-write equation and factor the quadratic term:


f(x)=(x-1) (x2+2x-8)

Step 4) Final result is:


f(x)=(x-1) (x+4) (x-2)

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION
Consider the following arithmetic progression:
a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + (a + 3d) + ...
Where:
a is the initial term
d is the common difference

The nth term, Tn of the arithmetic progression is:

Tn = a + (n - 1) d
Sum of the first n terms:
The sum of the first n terms of the arithmetic progression is:

GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION
Consider the following geometric progression:
a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ...
Where:
a is the scale factor
r is the common ratio

The nth term


The nth term, Tn of the geometric progression is:

Tn = ar

n-1

Sum of the first n terms


The sum of the first n terms, Sn is:

The sum to infinity


If -1 < r < 1, the sum to infinity, S is:

SOME USEFUL SERIES

EXPONENTIATION
Raising b to the n-th power, where n is a natural number, is done by multiplying n factors of b. The n-th power of b is written bn, so
that:

LOGARITHM
The logarithm is the inverse operation to exponentiation. the logarithm counts repeated multiplication. For example, the
base 10 logarithm of 1000 is 3, as 10 to the power 3 is 1000 (1000 = 101010 = 103); the multiplication is repeated three
times.

LOGARITHMIC IDENTITIES

CHANGE OF BASE
The logarithm logb(x) can be computed from the logarithms of x and b with respect to an arbitrary base k using the following
formula:

Usually scientific calculators calculate the logarithms to bases 10 and e. Logarithms with respect to any base b can be determined
using either of these two logarithms by the previous formula:

Given a number x and its logarithm logb(x) to an unknown base b, the base is given by:

To calculate logarithm of manually using log-tables, do the following calculation:


For e.g:

LAWS OF INDICES

SETS
A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects. We write sets inside curly brackets like:

Set of whole numbers: {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}

Set of prime numbers: {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ...}

SUBSET: If every member of set A is also a member of set B, then A is said to be a subset of B, written A B.

E.g: {1, 3} {1, 2, 3, 4}.

{1, 2, 3, 4} {1, 2, 3, 4}.

The empty set is a subset of every set and every set is a subset of itself:

A.

A A.

POWER SET: The power set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S.
For e.g: The power set of the set {1, 2, 3} is:
{{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1}, {2}, {3}, }.
UNION OF 2 SETS: The union of A and B, denoted by A B, is the set of all things that are members of either A or B.

{1, 2} {1, 2} = {1, 2}.

{1, 2} {2, 3} = {1, 2, 3}.

{1, 2, 3} {3, 4, 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

(fig. Union of 2 sets)

Intersection of 2 sets: The intersection of A and B, denoted by A B, is the set of all things that are members of both A and B.
If A B = , then A and B are said to be disjoint.

For e.g: {1, 2} {1, 2} = {1, 2}.

{1, 2} {2, 3} = {2}.

(fig. Intersection of 2 sets)

CO ORDINATE GEOMETRY
Usually the Cartesian coordinate system is applied to manipulate equations for planes, straight lines, and squares,
often in two dimensions.
Cartesian coordinate system is a coordinate system that specifies each point uniquely in a plane by a pair of numerical
coordinates, which are the signed distances to the point from two fixed perpendicular directed lines, measured in the
same unit of length. Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis of the system, and the point where they
meet is its origin, usually at ordered pair (0, 0).

(fig. The Cartesian Co-Ordinate System showing the co ordinates marked by a pair)

EQUATION OF A LINE IN THE SLOPE INTERCEPT FORM

Where,

m is the slope of the line.


Slope of a line is a number that describes both the direction and the steepness of the line.

A line is increasing if it goes up from left to right. The slope is positive, (i.e. m > 0)

A line is decreasing if it goes down from left to right. The slope is negative, (i.e. m < 0)

If a line is horizontal the slope is zero. This is a constant function.

If a line is vertical the slope is undefined.

b is the y-intercept of the line. (y intercept is a point where the line touches the y axis and x intercept is a point where the
line touches the x axis)

x is the independent variable of the function y = f(x).

DISTANCE FORMULA
The distance between two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) in the Cartesian plane is defined by the Distance Formula.

The Distance Formula is obtained by


using the Pythagoras Theorem.

SECTION FORMULA

TRIGONOMETRY
Angle: Rotational Offset between two intersecting lines.
Angle is usually measured in degrees and radian.
10 = (1 / 360) * of a complete revolution of a circle.
The radian is the angle subtended by an arc of a circle that has the same length as the circle's radius.
2 radians equal 1 complete revolution of a circle or is equal to 3600.
1 radian =
The study of angles and of the angular relationships of planar and three-dimensional figures is known as trigonometry.
A right triangle has three sides, which can be uniquely identified as the hypotenuse, adjacent to a given angle and the opposite to .

TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES CHEAT SHEET:


Standard
Trigonometric
Identities
Angle Sum
and
Difference
Identities

and

Double Angle
Identities

and

Triple
Angle
Identities

and

Half
Angle
Identities

and

TRIGONOMETRY RATIOS OF STANDARD ANGLES

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS IN THE 4 QUADRANTS

All three of them are positive in Quadrant I

Sine only is positive in Quadrant II

Tangent only is positive in Quadrant III

Cosine only is positive in Quadrant IV

SHIFTS AND PERIODICITY OF TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS


Case 1) Difference of Angles:

Case 2) Addition of Angles:

Inverse Trigonometry
Inverse trigonometry is used to obtain an angle from any of the angle's trigonometric ratios. Specifically, they are the
inverses of the sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions.
Inverse Forward Identities

Forward Inverse Identities

Inverse Sum Identities

HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Hyperbolic functions are a set of six functions related, for a real or complex variable x, to the hyperbola in a manner
analogous to the relationship of the trigonometric functions to a circle.
Standard Identities

6 Hyperbolic Functions

LIMITS
The basic idea behind limits is to analyze what the function is "approaching" when x "approaches" a specific value.
A more precise way of phrasing the definition is that we can make f(x) be as close to L as we like by making x be sufficiently close to a.

lim

x a +

f (x )

= L

or f(x) L as x a+

CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
Simply we can say that,

a function is continuous when we can draw its graph without lifting the pencil .

The first condition for a function to be continuous is that at each point the one-sided limits must
be equal, that is:

The second condition for a function to be continuous is that whenever we have the one-sided limits
equal, we also have that they equal the "common" limit, that is:

DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIABILITY


Consider the following figures :

We define the derivative of the function f at the point x 0 as the limit of the above slopes as x
approaches zero:

Let's summarize the intuitive meaning of f'(x). The limit we calculated equals the slope of the
tangent line at point x. Being strict, curves don't have slope, so we use the slope of the tangent lin e
as a replacement.

The essential idea in differential calculus is to approximate non-linear objects by linear ones. It
happens that the tangent line at a point is the best linear approximation to the curve near that
point. But, intuitively, we can think of f'(x) as the slope of the graph of f(x) at the point x.

If y = f(x) is differentiable at a, then f must also be continuous at a.

LEIBNIZ NOTATION
A tiny change in

x is denoted by dx, and the derivative of y with respect to x is written as:

RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

Rule 1) The derivative of a constant is always 0


Rule 2) When a constant k is a co-efficient of a variable, its not differentiated

Rule 3) Addition and Subtraction:


Let u and v be 2 separate functions then the derivative of the sum or difference of both the
functions are given by:

Rule 4) Leibniz Product Rule:


The derivative of the product of two functions u and v is given by:

Rule 5) Leibniz Quotient Rule:


The derivative of two functions u and v represented as a fraction is given by:

Rule 6) Power of a polynomial:

PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION

INTEGRATION
Integration is the inverse process of differentiation. Instead of differentiating a function we are given the derivative of a function and asked to
find its primitive, i.e., the original function. Such a process is called integration or anti - differentiation.
Given a function f of a real variable x and an interval [a, b] of the real line, the definite integral.

is defined informally as the signed area of the region in the xy-plane that is bounded by the graph of f, the x-axis and the vertical
lines x = a and x = b. The area above the x-axis adds to the total and that below the x-axis subtracts from the total. Roughly speaking, the
operation of integration is the reverse of differentiation. For this reason, the term integral may also refer to the related notion of
the antiderivative, a function F whose derivative is the given function f. In this case, it is called an indefinite integral and is written:

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