AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and Applications Presented by PetroSkills, LLC, OGCI Instructor: Dr. Mangat R. Thapar President International Geophysical Company, Inc.‘AVO Princples and Aoplcetons Parcs ay Chapter 1 : Introduction and Overview Chapter 1 : Introduction and Overview. Introduction and Overview... Factors Affecting AVO Reflecting Interfaces...... 7 Reflection and Transmission of P&S Waves ..... Plane Waves... Partition and Conversion of incident Eneng) Velocities and Reflection Coefficients... Liquid/Solid Interface .. Amplitude Variation with Offset Petrophysies and AVC ‘The Assumptions. ‘quations Are: Gas/Brine Sand Coefficient Separation. oe Empirical Formulae for P-Wave and S-Wave Velocities .... Pitfalls and Problems in AVO Data Analysis and Interpretati Acquisition... i Near Surface and Subsurface Factors Affecting Seismic Data Quaity: Processing...... i Complex Structures and Curvature of the Reflecting Horizon: Frequency Attenuation with Offset and Tuning. ‘Yo and Vs Distribution in the Overburden Layer Seismic Data Processing Techniques for AVO. Processing Flows... 7 Difficulties in the Application of Rock Physics Principles. Limitation of AVO Modeling... AVO Data Processing and Analysis, Weighted Stacks 7 ‘Weighted Stack Processing: . AVO Interpretation wun Gas Detection Using AVO Monitoring Enhanced Oll Recovery with AVO Oil Detection with AVO... Lithology Classification with AVO. Porosity Classification with AVO... Land and Marine AVO.... ‘Techniques for Interpretation of AVO Vp/Vs from Elastic Inversion of Seismi ‘Multi-Component AVO. AVO and Seismic Data Processing... Future Considerations for AVO. ‘AVO and Seismic Attibutes: Principles and Applications ParAVO Principles and Applcations Patt 12 Introduction and Overview This chapter presents an overview of AVO fundamentals, pitfalls and problems, AVO data processing, limitations and modeling, analysis and interpretation. Factors Affecting AVO Seismic amplitude variation with offset distance or angle of incidence is based on the variation of reflection ‘coefficient with angle of incidence. Knott (1899) and Zoeppritz (1919) developed the theoretical formulation for calculating the reflection coefficient as a function of angle of inoldence, P-wave and S-wave velocities, Poisson's Ratio, and Bulk Densities. The fundamental assumptions in this theory are: The normal and tangential stresses are continuous across the reflecting interface, ‘The normal and tangential displacements are continuous across the reflecting interface. ‘The above assumptions require that the interface moves as if the two media in contact are welded together, and there Is no slippage or pulling apart at the interface. The pattition of seismic energy and relative strength of the reflected and refracted P-waves depends on: (1) Incident angle of the incident energy 2) Partition and conversion of incident energy. Reflecting Interfaces (1) Acoustic impedance contrast (Velocity x Density) (2) Poisson's Ratio (or Vp/Vs ratio) Ses @) Dip angle or slope of the interface at the point of reflection (4) Curvature of the interface around the point of reflection. Reflection and Transmission of P&S Waves Reflection and transmission coefficients, in the case of two semi-infinite media in contact are described by Knott (1899) in terms of potential functions, where the displacements are obtained by differentiation. The corresponding equations in terms of amplitudes are given by Zooppritz (1919). AVO and Soismie Atributes: Principles and Applications Parti 42AVO Prinlples and Applications Part 1 mM @ @ @) 8) © ” @) @ 0) a) Maximum reflected amplitudes may occur at: © Normal incidence (First ertical angle (il) S.wave entical angle {v) Total internal reflection always occurs at 90 ~ degree incidence angle ‘At small angles of incidence, the relative change in reflection coefficient is small ‘The first critical angle is given by the following relation: Critical Angle: This is the angle beyond which all incident energy is reflected, and no transmission of energy takes place into the underiying formation, i.e., there is total reflection. The reflected P-wave energy decreases beyond the first critical angle due to conversion of P-wave energy into S-waves ‘Sewaves transmitted at all angles of incidence less than the critical angle. For Vp > Voz, there is no critical angle, and P-waves are always transmitted. ‘The second critical angle is given by the relation: h, if 5 ot Fa je, =i A ¥,, i, : sinO,, = At near normal incidence, P-wave reflection coefficient decreases with offset, and there is a wide range of incidence angles (16-60 deg) beyond which this reflection coefficient increases with increasing angle of incidence. Reflected and transmitted S-wave conversions are the strongest between the first critical angle and 90 deg angle of incidence, i.e., 30 ~ 70 deg. These angles of incidence are commonly encountered in seismic exploration, S-wave conversions can be very strong at offsets commonly used in seismic exploration, The reflection coefficient becomes complex beyond the critical angle, and a phase shift is introduced into the reflection. It is assumed that the reflection and transmission coefficients are frequency independent. in Practice, the reflection and transmission coefficients are dependent on frequency, i.e., different frequencies are reflected differently. The reflection coefficient for a down-going P-wave incident in the first medium is generally not equal and opposite to that of an up-going P-wave incident on the same interface in the second medium. ‘AVO and Seismic Attibutes: Principles and Applications Parts 48AVO Principles and Appfications Parts 4 Plane Waves Seismic waves are considered plane waves and not spherical waves. Theoretical calculations and Zoeppritz equations are based on this assumption. Partition and Conversion of incident Energy ‘A model showing the partitioning of seismic energy at a solid/solid interface is shown In Figure 1-1, ‘A model of partitioning of a beam of seismic energy of incident P-wave at a solid/solid interface is shown in Figure 1-2. According to Snel’s law, the relationship between the angle of incidence, the reflected and refracted rays: sind, _ sing, _ sing, Ve Vs, Vs, ‘Where, incident P-wave seismic energy is partitioned into: 1 Vp; = P-wave Velocity in Medium 1 —@ = P-wave Incidence Angle -wave Transmission Angle 2 Vp; = P-wave Velocity inMedium 28 3 Vs, = S-wave Velocity in Medium 1; = S-wave Reflection Angle 4 Ve2=S-wave Velocity inMedium 2 2 = S-wave Transmission Angle ‘The Incident Energy = Sum of Energies Reflected and Refracted waves (1+2+3+4). For normal incidence, there are no converted S-Waves for an incident P-wave. The P-wave reflection coefficier given by: In-Ip 1 AL ; a Me Dial Hg) QO voewad a Diack Rp Iptty, 2p ‘Where, Ip = Acoustic Impedance of medium 4, pi = Density of medium 1 Ip) = Acoustic impedance of medium 2, /p2 = Density of medium 2 Tp = Average Acoustic Impedance across the interface = (Ip) +I p2)/2 Alp = Ipx- Ipy ‘The P-wave Transmission Coefficient is given by: Tp = J-Re AVO and Seismic Atibutes: Principles and Applications Part 14AVO Principles and Applications a Medium1 | : Vp, Vs P1 vatociry waver | s000 Interface Neowe> Tuawouremanoee, 3 Medium 2 eg ee Figure 1-1 shows a model of partitioning of seismic energy at a solid/solid interface. — 2 Z z a i B resol. wctenreanane: 16 | fTeanewiresne "5 | Figure 1-2 shows the partitioning of seismic energy of a beam of incident P-wave at a solid/solid interface. AVO and Seismic Atrbutes: Princiles and Applications Part 15|AVO Principles and Applications Parti 16 Velocities and Reflection Coefficients: Some empirical observations presented by Koefoed (1955) and Shuey (1985) for moderate angles of incidence: (1) For bps ~ Fp, other elastic properties of the two media are equal. the P-wave reflection coefficient increases for large angles of incidence. This effect is enhanced when the velocity contrast is smaller Forty are equal, the P-wave reflection coefficient decreases for large angles of incidence @) interchanging the two media affects the shape of the reflection coefficient slightly Fp;, and Poisson's ratio of medium 1 increases or the Poisson's ratios of the two media Liquid/Solid Interface For Liquid/Solid interface. Incident P-wave seismic energy is partitioned into (1) Reflected P-wave (2) Refracted P.wave (3) Refracted S-wave ‘The incident Energy = Sum of Energies Reflected and Refracted waves (1+2+3) in with Offset Amplitude Varia ‘The following model in Figure 1-3 shows that the angle of incidence not only varies with offset, it is also atfected by the velocity contrasts and thickness of the reflecting layer. Parameters of first layer for six Zoeppritz models from Richards (1961) for Paleozoic limestone structures in Western Canada are shown in Table 1-1. These models correspond to reflection coefficient curves given in Figure 1-4 when the second layer parameters are: Vp = 20 000 fis (6096 m/s), Vz = 10 000 fs (3048 mis, p= 2.65 gm/cc. Note that Vp)’, = 2 for all layers. Tabie 1-1 gives the parameters of the first layer for six Zoeppritz models from Richards (1961) for Paleozoic limestone in Western Canada. These models correspond to reflection coefficient curves given in Figure 1-4 when the second layer has the parameters: Model Vpiftis) Vpim/s) vsiftis) Vs(mis) p(grwicc) A 6000 1829 3000 914 2.02 B 8270 2521 4135 1260 242 c 10000 3048 000 1524 2.20 E 14000 4267 7000 2133 2.38 F 16000 4877 8000 2438 2.47 s 18000 5486 9000 2743 2.58 ‘Second Layer 20000 6096 10000 3048 2.65 AVO and Seismic Att: Principles and Applications Parts 6AVO Principles and Appiicatons Parts 17 Figure 1-3 shows the reflection raypaths transmitted through flat layers, black color represents the weakest and red color represents the strongest reflection amplitude. A BC EF G = °o 0.5 Reflection Coefficient Angle of Incidence Figure 1-4 shows the reflection coefficients with angle of incidence for models A, B, C, E, F, G shown in Table 1-1 (See Appendix A for approximations to Knott and Zoeppritz equations) AVO and Seismic Atributos: Principles and Applications Part “7AVO Principles and Applications Pare +8 ‘The computed reflection coefficients for models in Table 1-2 are shown in Figure 1-5, and Figure 1-6. Table 1-2 Parameters for Zoeppritz models for Figure 1-5 and Figure 1-6 (Koefoed, 1955). Model alps Vp2/Vp1 oO Vpi/Vsi On Vp2Vsz A 1.0 1.25 28 1.73 * B 1.0 1.25 25 1,73 40 ‘248 c 1.0 1.25 25 41.73 30 1.87 ® 10 1.25 25 173 26 “ns = 1.0 1.25 25 173 20 F 10 1.25 25 1.73 3 436 3 4.0 145 28 173 40 2.46 H 10 1.15, 25 1.73 48 1.56 10 1.28 ae 2 : 19 1.25 2 ar3 28 1 F 1.0 1.25 56 6 36 fe 1.0 80 40 245 25 1.73 M 1.0 80 AS 1.56 25, 1.73 N 1.0 80 40 2.45 40 2.45 ° 1.0 80 AB 1.56 15 1.56 ° 9 1.28 25 1.73 38 244 a g é 25 1.73 36 2.14 R 1.0 1.25 18 1.56 25 1.73 10 1.25 40 2.45 25 1.73 AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and Appicatins Parti 18AVO Principles and Applications Part! 19 Reflection Costhicrent Reflection Coefficient 4 a vanyieg Poksons 3 ep aivin e z EZ Jers z § 8 J ecu . é 3 3 & € € 8 3 8 6 8 o § § § vary 3 z 3 Poise ato 8 3 3 Inthe Secon § 5 Medium é @ @ ee Oe wae oie eae ae ‘Angle of Incidence ‘Angle of incidance Angle of Incidence: ‘Angi of incidence Figure 1-5 shows the reflection coefficient vs. angle of incidence for models A-F, G-H, R-S, D, L-M. Varying Poisson's Ratios VpNsRatios Varying Poiscon's Ratio Equal in both Media Reflection Coefficient Reflection Coefficient ot tow ele 30 NE Angle of Incidence Angle of incidence Angle of Incidence Figure 1-8 shows the refle: (ion coefficient vs, angle of incidence for models I-K, N-O, P-Q. AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and Applications Parts 19AVO Principles and Applications Parts 10 Reflection coefficient as function of angle of incidence can be summarized as: Rye) ® RB.) + Ry (A) Where, Ry(@) is the shear factor which relates to offset reflecivty, and R,(@) is the fuid factor which corresponds to reflection from the interface between two fluid layers, The effect of shear factor is to reduce the reflectivity as shown in Figure 1-7, 0.4 Model 2 Reflection Coefficient Fluid Reflection Coefficient 0.3 Model 1 Reflection Coefficient Model 2 Shear Factor 0.2 Model 1 Shear Factor 0.1 0.0 Model 4 Model 2 Model 1 Shear V; 10,000 ftisec 0) 0.25 0.1 V, 12.500 fisec ©, 9.25 0.4 5 10 15° 26 28 306 38 40 Angle of Incidence Figure 1-7 shows the effect ofthe sear factor fr two models Reflection Coefficient ° a 9° iy For limited angles of incidence, the above equation can be expressed as: Rop(O,) ¥ Rp + Bsin? A, B= AR, +——— Rpp (0) ® Rp COS? 6, +2.25Aasin? 6, B= Rp—2Rs For small angles of incidence, Rp dominates, and 4a dominates for large angles of incidence. Rp is the normal incident reflection coefficient. Petrophysics and AVO The fundamental principles of direct hydrocarbon detection are discussed by Gassman (1951). According to Gassman's equations, for a small amount of gas in pore space of compressible brine-saturated sand, there is a large drop in the P-wave velocity, and small increase in S-wave velocity. These changes cause a bright or dim spot reflection, a decrease in the Vp/Vs ratio, which causes AVO anomalies. However, there is a ‘AVO and Selsmic Attributes: Principles and Applications Part 1-10AVO Principles and Applcatons Parts 41 isagreement between these theoretical predictions and laboratory measurements by Gregory (1976), and Domenico (1978). This difference is attributed to the ultrasonic frequencies used in laboratory measurements The low frequency measurements by Murphy (1882) show good agreement with Gassman's theory. The Assumptions in Gassman’s Equations Are: (1) The porous rock skeleton is isotropic and homogeneous 2) The skeleton, grains, fuids, and saturated rock follow Hook's lav, L.e., stress is proportional to strain (8) Pore space is interconnected. (4) Fluid pressure ts uniform. ©) Nocavitation occurs. Compressible lls with a high Gas/Oil ratio may be detectable using selsmic reflections, Factors affecting P- wave and S-wave velocity are Mineralogy, porosity, pore fuids, pore shape, degree of lthification, and depth of burial, pressure, and temperature, In general, these factors affect the Vp and Vs in the same way. For gas Sands the following empirical relation is used: Pgs = 0.19975, 41.53 Where, igs = Density of Gas Sand, Vigs = P-wave velocity in gas sand in km/s Gas/Brine Sand Coefficient Separation The following Figure 1-8 and Figure 1-9 show cross-plots of Rp vs, Re for a wide range of Vp from 0.5 to 5.5 kamis. Some key observations from the following reflection coefficient cross-plots (of Rp vs Rs) are (1) For a large negative P-wave reflection coefficient (Re <-0.1), or, tower shale velocity, there is Greater Separation between gas and brine sands as the -Rp. becomes larger or the shale velocity decreases, @) For near zero Rp (-0.] ~ 0. 1), and shale velocity less than 3.5 km/s, (@) For large positive reflection coefficient (Rp > 0.1), and shale velocity less than 2.5 kmis, The Separation decreases for increasing Rp. ‘AYO and Seismic Attibutes: Paneples and Applications Pont adAVO Principles and Applications Part 112 Empirical Formulae for P-Wave and S-Wave Velocities Empirical formulae for P-wave and S-wave velocities can be developed from well logs, and velocity analyses in an area, e.g. the following equations for shale and sandstone. Vp, = 0.3942 +1.73 Vp, =112V», ~ 0.24 Where, Vegi = shale P-wave velocity in knvs, Vps,= sandstone P-wave velocity in kms, Z = depth in km (1) Rp/Rs ratio is a good indicator of hydrocarbons at shallow depth, and its effectiveness decreases as the depth increases. @_ Forsmall Rs, the difference Rp- Rs can be used as an Indicator. @) Errors in the estimate of Rp and Rs should be considered before analyzing and interpreting petrophysical data, A distrib 1 of reflectivity for gas sand and brine sand is shown In Figure 1-8, and the reflectivity for shale ‘over gas sand and shale over brine sand is shown in Figure 1-8. P and S reflectivity for Gas Sand/Shale is shown in Figure 1-9. ‘The variation in reflectivity of shale over brine sand, and shale over gas sand with depth is shown in Figure 4-10. AVO and Selemic Attbutes: Principles and Applications Part wreVO Principles and Applications Parts 113 = 1.0. 5 3 Shale Velocity 2 0.5. SiS ay § B 0 3 é o0.5 —Shale/Gas Sand s —Shale /Brine Sand S 4 ° a of -0.5 oO 0.5 1.0 P_wave Reflection Coefficient Figure 1-8 shows a plot of P-wave reflectivity vs. S-wave reflectivity for shale velocities of 1 5 to 5.5 kmvsec. 1.0 ° a Gas Sand Velocity (0.5 -5.5 km/s) S-Wave Reflection Coefficient -1.0 -0.5 o 0.5 1.0 P-Wave Reflection Coefficient Figure 1-9 shows plot of P-wave reflectivity vs. S-wave reflectivity for gas sand velocities of 0.5 to 5.5 km/sec. ° 5 10 15 20 25 Depth (kft) Figure 1-10 shows the variation in reflectivity of brine sand and gas sand with depth, AVO and Seismic Attibutes: Principles and Applications Parti 143AVO Principtes and Applications Part Pitfalls and Problems in AVO Data Analysis and Interpretation ‘There are assumptions, problems, ambiguities, and difficuties in AVO data acquisition, processing, modeling, analysis and interpretation. All non-AVO factors that vary seismic amplitudes with offset can cause @ potential pitfall in AVO acquisition, processing, analysis and interpretation. Acquisition: (1) Near Surface and Subsurface Factors Affecting Setsmic Data for AVO (2) Seismic Data Quality Processing: (1) Loss Due to Geometrical Spreading or Spherical Divergence (2) Errors Due to Normal Moveout Correction ‘AVO Modeling: (1) Complex Structures and Curvature of the Reflecting Horizon (2) Frequency Attenuation with Offset and Tuning (8) Veand Vs Distribution in the Overburden Layers above the Target Horizon Acquisition (1) Random noise (2) _ Noise due to instrumentation (3) Source/Receiver coupling (4) Source/Receiver directional sensitivity (6) Multiples (Coherent event noise) Near Surface and Subsurface Factors Affecting Seismic Data for AVO: (1) Source strength, radiation pattem, and coupling to the subsurface. (2 Receiver coupling to the ground. (@) Source ~ Receiver Array pattems and responses. Most of the near surface effects and anomalies are corrected using surface consistent processes. AVO and Selemic Atibutes: Principles and Applications Parts‘AVO Principles and Applications Pars! 418 Seismic Data Quality: (1) Good signal to noise ratio (2) Wide band of frequencies in the source and reflected signal (8) High Fold to combat random noise, and enhance velocity analysis, and static solutions (4) Near to far traces to include long offsets for velocity analysis and multiple attenuation (S) Source generated coherent nolse, multiples and ground roll, can be attenuated with (¢4) filtering (6) Short period muttiples can be eliminated using predictive deconvolution. Processing (1) Tuning of refiections caused by NMO convergence at far offsets @) Complex reflections and muttiple reflections from mutiple interfaces, @) Amplitude loss due to spherical spreading (®) Processing: NMO stretching and errors (under comected or over corrected) (8) Attenuation and anisotropy (6) Reflection and iransmission coefficients, and scattering above the horizon for AVO analysis (7) Presence of complex faulting, folding, dips, and stratigraphic sequences (8) Source and Receiver Array response (8) Angles of emergence Loss Due to Geometrical Spreading or Spherical Divergence: ‘The equations for geometrical spreading are developed by Newman (1973) (See Appendix a): For normal incidence the spherical divergence Is of the form: 2 D,=V"t where, Dy = Geometric: divergence at normal incidence, = RMS Velocity, 1 = Two way time at zero offset, ‘AVO and Seiemic Attibues: Princoles and Applications Parti 148‘AVO Prinolples and Applications Parts 116 Errors Due to Normal Moveout Correction: Errors due to residual NMO, i.e., when the moveout is not completely hyperbolic, there is @ residual moveout that stil remains Figure 1-11 ). Seismic amplitudes for AVO analysis are computed on a sanple-by-sample basis. NMO errors also ocour due to over or under comection of seismic events. Distance —>- Uncorrecte: cpp 2 = Reflection Over Corrected Corrected CDP Reflection Figure 1-11 shows under corrected, over corrected and properly corrected move-out. AVO Modeling (1) Calculation of reflection coefficient with offset from a single interface is an over simplification of the real earth. (2) Seismic reflections are created by superposition of reflections from many thin layers. (@) Seismic reflections may not be from discrete interface, but from transition zone, (4) Reflection coefficients are assumed to be independent of froquenoy, but in the case of transition zone, the reflection coefficients are function of frequency. (6) . Amplitude variation due to the thickness of a thin bed varying from zero to the tuning thickness can lead to incorrect interpretation of AVO data (Figure 1-12) (®) Dipping reflectors cause serious errors in calculating incidence angles (Figure 1-13). (7) Conversion of P-waves to reflected and transmitted S-waves, i.., incorrect Poisson's ratio or Vp/Vs ratio. ‘AVO and Solemie Atributes: Panciples end Applications Parts 116AVO Principles and Appications THICKNESS (FEET) o oo y So = So Raypath for Incidence Angle and Offset for a Dipping Reflector Error in Angle of Incidence (deg) ie Angle of Incidence (deg) Figure 1-13 This graph shows the error in angle of incidence for dipping reflectors. AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and Applications Parts a7VO Principles and Applications Parts 118 Complex Structures and Curvature of the Reflecting Horizon: (1) Synolinal structures focus and antictinal structures, defocus seismic energy (2) The curvature effect is defined as the ratio of the reflection amplitude from a curved interface to the amplitude reflected from a flat interface, and for normal incidence (Hiterman, 1975) CF (3) Where, 4 is the radius of curvature of the bed, and Z is the Depth. Shuey (1984) derived the equation for curvature effect for oblique angle of incidence Where, d= Radius of curvature inthe x-direction, 4, = Radius of curvature in the y-direction Z = Depth of the crest of the anticline or trough of the syncline The effect of curvature on reflected amplitude, with angle of incidence, for a syncline and an anticline with curvature in the x, x and y directions is shown in Figure 1-14, Figure 1-15, Fiqure 1-16, and Figure 1-17 ‘The curvature effect on reflection amplitudes decrease with offset for antictines, and increases with offset for synclines. The radius of curvature is negative for buried focus synciines, Bemitsas (1990) derived the equation for the curvature effect for 3-0 curvature: 7 a va i cwe)-[1-2) Teese eee eee LA, A, 2(A,+Z) 2(4, +2) where, X, ¥, and Z are spatial coordinates. Curvature of the interfaces, such as sand lenses above the AVO-Horizon, can cause anomalous amplitude changes with offsets. These amplitude variations must be compensated for by migration before analyzing amplitude vs, offset data AVO and Seismic Atibutes: Principles and Applications Part! 118AVO Principles and Apolications Parts 119 Syncline Curvature (1-D) Effect on Amplitude | DepthRadius of Curvature {Depth > Row: | Depth increasing Radius of Curvature 4 Decreasing Depth < ROC: Depth Decreasing Radius of Curvature Increasing Amplitude o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Incidence Angle (deg) Figure 1-14 shows the effect of curvature on reflected amplitude, with angle of incidence, for a syncline with curvature in x direction " Syncline Curvature (2-D) Effect on Amplitude 1” peptivraitius of curvature i | —_— | I | Rdc: 0.60 st | Incrbasing J | depth incrbasing 0. | j | j Radius of ¢urvature | e 4 Decreasin 3 \< Figure 1-15 shows effect of curvature on reflected amplitude, with angle of incidence, for a syncline with curvature in the x and y directions. AVO and Seismic Atbutes: Principles and Applications Parts 1-19AVO Principles and Applications Parts 120 | 1.04 = 4 | | r DeptfRadius of Curvature ‘epth < ROC: Depth Decreasing Radius of Curvature Increasing 806 2 Ee a 04 Depth > Roc: Depth Increasing 0.2 | Radius of Curvature Decreasing 00 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Incidence Angle (deg) Figure 1-16 shows effect of curvature on reflected amplitude, with angle of incidence, for an anticline with curvature in x direction. " Anticline Curvature (2-D) Effect on Amplitude , oy | ' | ‘DepthiRadius of Curvature | | ! | j Dapth < ROC: | 08 3 { + - “‘Dépth Decteating--—— |. Radius of Curvature Ingreasing | curvaure pecreasing | | | | ae 4 0 10 20 30 40 60 70 80 90 hi Figure 1-17 shows effect of curvature on reflected amplitude, with angle of incidence, for an anticline with curvature in the x and y directions. |AVO and Selsmle Atrbutes: Principles and Applications Parts 120AVO Principles and Applications Part nat Frequency Attenuation with Offset and Tuning: Higher frequencies are lost in far offset traces due to attenuation. This change in frequency, from high frequency in near offsets to low trequency on far offsets, can result in higher amplitude due to tuning in some of the offsets. This type of phenomenon will result in a false AVO response. An illustration of this frequency change is shown in Figure 1-18 eet HNN Milt) Water - Sand Water - Gas - Sand Gas - Sand tf IH sel i WM i) Figure 1-18 shows an example of seismic response from brine sand, gas-brine sand, and gas sand, Vp and Vs Distribution in the Overburden Layers above the Target Horizon: ‘The P-wave and S-wave velocity distribution in the overlying layers is very important and will affect the AVO analysis of the target horizon. The following table and AVO show the effects of /p and Vs over a target zone: (1) Models A and B have the same Ip distribution, and different Ms distribution. ‘The reflection coefficients diverge at far offsets and are the same at near offsets (Figure 1-19). (2) Models A and C have the same Vs distribution, and different Vp distribution. The AVO is similar for both mode's, but of different magnitude (Figure 1-19). Variations in Vp “Vs distribution in the near surface can significantly affect the AVO for the target horizon (Figure 1-20), ‘AVO and Seismic Atbutes: Principles and Applications Parts 428AVO Prneiples and Applications Parti 122 ‘The seismic response from brine sand, gas-brine sand, and gas sand models is shown in Figure 1-18. The model parameters for the models used for Figure 1-19, Figure 1-20 (After Castaga, 1997) are given in Table 1-2. ‘Table 1-2 shows the model parameters for the models used for Figure 1-18. P.wave P-wave S-wave S-wave Lithology Velocity Velocity Velocity Velocity Density = VpiVs_—Thickness ft fis ms fus mis. gmice Model A Shale 100003048 5076 1547 2.08 197 GasSand 65001981 4037 1234 2.04 1.61 300 Shale 14500-4420 7360 2243 206 1.97 Model B Shale 10000 3048 5076 1547 2.08 197 GasSand 65001981 4037 4231 2.04 1.61 180 Brine Sand 115003505, 5959 1816 2.08 4.93 480 Shale 145000 4420 7360 2243 2.06 197 Model C Shale 10000-3048 5076 1547 2.06 1.97 Brine Sand 11500 3505 5959 1316 2.08 1.93 300 Shale 14500 4420 7360 2243 2.08 1.97 6 3 © Reflection © Amplitude Reflection S Am | 5000 10000 10000 Offset (ft) onvatin: Figure 1-19 shows reflection coefficient fr three models | Figure 1.29 shows the reflection coefficient vs offset for Usieesinest anc the Cverbaies fe visto 1 enen two models with the same target horizon, and different = overburden. | ‘AVO and Seismic Attributes: Princiles and Applications Parti 122AYO Principles and Applvations Depth ft Model A o 100 1000 1200 7000 $3000 (AVO) 9100 Model B o 400 4000 1200 7000 {9000 (AVO) 100 Model 0 100 1000 1200 7000 9000 (AVO} 9100 Depth ft Model A ° 100 1000 1200 7000 9000 9100 Model B 0 100 4000 1200 + 7000 9000 at00 Depth m 0 30 305 368 2133 2743 2774) ° 30 308 366 2193 2743 2774 ° 30 305 368 2138 2743, 2774 Depth m 0 30 305, 366 2133 2743 2774 0 30 308 366 2133 2743 2774 ‘Table 4-3 Mode! Parameters used for response in Figure 1-19 Density P-wave Pewave S-wave gmiec Velocity Us Velocity m/s Velocity ft’s 1.00 5000 1524 ° 2.02 8000 1829 1926 2.10 7000 2133, 2188 2.18 8000 2498 3050 2.30 10000 2048 arr 2.19, 7164 2183 art, 2.96 47000 3363, 5636 4.00 ‘5000 1624 o 2.02 6000 1829 1328 2.10 7000 2133 4607 218 8000 2438 3050 2.90 10000 2048 ar74 2.49 7164 2109 arta, 2.36 14000 3363) 5636, 4.00 5000 1524 ° 202 e000 1828 1326 2.40 3282 1000 2188 2.18 8000 2438 3050 2.30 10000 3048 ai74 2.19 7184 2183, arta 236 11000 3353) 5626 BY 4. Mode! Parameters used for response in Figure 4 Density P-wave P-wave S-wave gmice Velocity ft’s Velocity m/s Velocity ft/s 2.00 5000 1824 550 2.02 6000 1828 1326 2.40 7000 2133 2188 2.18 8000 2438 3050 2.30 140000 3048 4774 249 7184 2183 ata 2.36 41000 3363 5636 2.00 5000 1624 3400 2.02 6000 1829 1328 2.10 7000 2133 2188 248 8000 2438 3080 2.30 140000 3048 4774 2.19 7464 2183 arta 2.38 11000 3363 5636 AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and Appications S-wave Velocity m/s ° 404 667 930 1455 1455 1718 404 1422 930 1458 1458 1718 404 667 930 1485 1458 1718 S-wave Velocity mis 168 404 687 930 1455 1718 1036 404 667 930 1455 1455 1718 Pati 423 Vp/vs 452 3.20 2.82 2.09 4.50 1.98 482 41.80" 262 2.09 2.50. 1.95 452 1.50" 2.62 2.09 4.80 1.85 VpNs 9.09 452 3.20 2.62 2.09 1.50 1.98 1.47 452 3.20 2.62 2.08 4.50 1.98 128AYO Principles and Applications Parts 124 It is dificult to correct the effect of changes in overburden or shallow gas over the target horizon. The best procedure for removing the effect of the overburden Is to normalize the AVO of the target horizon with a reference horizon as given by: Alport 1 Aor AVO(X) Nom = WG) AF bp where, Horiz = Values for AVO at the target horizon, Ref = Values for AVO at the reference horizon, Norm = Normalized values for AVO. Raypaths are traced, angle of incidence and emergence calculated, by representing a complex overburden with a linear velocity function with depth, V, 20+ Ke nel Vj = Interval Velocity, Yo = Interval Velocity at the surface, z= Depth, K = Depth constant. ‘The incident angle 4 in the presence of a linear velocity gradient with depth is given by: 2x 4 LX. 6, = tan") ——__K 2, 2Wyz _ X* | Where, X= Offset Distance PR a ‘These calculations hold true only when there is no lateral variation in velocity. Any lateral velocity variation adversely affects the AVO calculations. Following Figure 1-21 shows an increasing angle of incidence with an increasing velocity gradient to the same depth Incident Angle (deg) Velocity at 2500 m Velocity at 2500 m | | 2FIncreasing as a Function | Increasing as a Function _Lof increasing Gradient | -—~ of Increasing Gradient * with Depth a{ With Depth Incident Angle (deg) # fia Depth «2500 m 7% Dept = 2500 m ry Offset = 2500 m / Offset = 5000 m | eta eeerane ene} Kiz) =0.1 - 1.0 of Kiz}=0.1- 1.0 | I | 7 5866 0 Aw a 2 vii Vek) avo. Figure 1-21 shows an increasing angle of Incidence with an increasing velocity gradient to the same depth and Seismic Attibutes: Pincioles and Avocalions Parti 28AVO Principles and Apgications Parti 428 Seismic Data Processing Techniques for AVO The following processing techniques are important for seismic data preparation for AVO analysis: a) @ @ @ 6 © m AGC ~ Automatic Gain Control PoP dn tans od Seismic Trace Amplitude Equalization Deconvolution Pre-stack Migration Vetocity fering to remove ground roll or surface waves interfering with the AVO reflection NMO-stretching at far offsets ‘Static corrections for proper alignment of AVO reflection AVO and Seismic Attributes: Princples and Appicatons Panel 4.28get 32SHO Puy oul, uj uoneLeA apnydury aBeseny 40.4 uopoeui09 Supoeis jemed vonoati09 OWN Puy sisfieuy ArpojeA Feq01D, uuoyoou109 souatianig jeourewoap uonnjoauoag peddes, SuiBeieny neds i9861 ‘ppol qwapuedeq uopoag, ssedpueg ung aoe. fenied wojveLI09 qua}s!suog eaeLng uon9e109 OWN vouMoauoseq uonesueduiog yes usp enowey uy ‘Osion 1ua!ayoo ssaiddng ‘ue renuauodeg Aida sa-Be 's96h TA ued ‘swemYs09 OAY 104 YI JEEUIT-UON JO Baur Buyoms reneds y8s110 uounog, Sunny leu SOYA OAY OL, ong SUS ooNOOU J0.1 paiomuow Aiinjaseo sonelg enpIsey JAD e1eq pueT Jo4 vonNIoAUodeR TWsISIsUOD eoBUNS, Buynowog Aypo1an quarsisuog AteoiGojoee puy Sudwieg. A019 autg Aion Susp panddy OWN srensay uoppaiiog uonenuony Aeuy eoeung [eNoads uonoe109 epmidusy asianu AION sy peppofoy suometNeg penjoseu puy alapony Ajueys}suog 'sapnyirdiuy 8SYO HEBAO “fynnysu0g sonteoey ‘inSuens sounog ut sue sisKjeuy uojssauBey Aq peuluwaieg suonpaiiog ojGuy eousbialug puy ‘uonenuelTy ‘eouEbieNd feoUeUdg 9864 ‘si@Byorgy pue 6107 Suonectddy pue serdiouue sainquny ousas pue CAY payjoows puy paddig sunsey Sunes ein siaqning 40 Supyidseg Sumi anung sazenbs. ‘Suwuing “Wsee7 pelpoows ea, eIUOZHOH ‘AjOATOBI9}U] PSYOkd Sopnydwy yeed — uoRezyenby aes, Bumuing soe jewuozuOH own quora, souar9}oy qua|sisuog uo Bumusnels —siskjeuy kipor9q uoneziienba —uoaeq Gupids 20811-210uM, eseud-UIW OWN Puy souabianig jeouayds yep jejuauodg uorsseiddng eouatianig a1dniN 4 PH weovouds yesh ‘sung 96) ‘sopuenso smo} Bulssoovig‘AVO Principles and Applications Parts 427 Difficulties in the Application of Rock Physics Principles Petrophysical principles and their limitations must be considered before application to AVO analysis and interpretation. a @ @ @) ® Gas-sand with 10% saturation of gas has the same V/Vs ratio as 90% saturation with gas. Therefore, an AVO anomaly cannot distinguish between 10% and 90% saturation of gas, Additional information, such as density, is needed for proper interpretation of AVO anomalies, According to Hilterman (1990), AVO response of a sand depends upon the shale content which is not well understood. The existing empirical relationships do not provide accurate estimates of S-wave velocity Hard carbonates and sands may mask the effect of gas saturation. ‘The effect of gas saturation decreases with increasing depth. Limitation of AVO Modeling Many rock parameters are difficult to model: 0) @ @ 4) 6) © Anisotropy in overlying shale is difficult to model Gas content of shele can significantly affect the anisotropy of shale, ‘Attenuation and anisotropy can cause changes in phase. Inelastic attenuation and dispersion are factors that can affect the seismic amplitude and difficult to compensate. Seismic amplitude is affected by the permeability of porous formations, but according to Biot's theory, there is no significant effect of permeability on frequencies. Plane wave assumptions, in computing reflection ampitude with offset is not valid for shallow reflections. AVO Data Processing and Analysis The main objective is to reduce the noise, enhance the signal, and preserve the natural AVO properties of seismic data, {n complex structures and dipping areas, the data can be improved using: a) 2 @) Pre-stack migration Radon transform Tau-P transform Weighted Stacks ‘Smith and Gridiow (1987) gave an approximation to Zoeppritz equations as follows: (See Appendix A for further information) R(0)= AVo yp Vs Ve, Ys, 4 AVO and Seismic Atrbutes: Principles and Applications Parti tar‘AVO Principles and Applications Parti 128 This above equation is fit to the seismic amplitudes of CDP gather at given time and for all offsets to obtain the Al, Av, Vn,’ Vs, weighted stacks representing: AV», end AV, represent the change in P and S wave velocities across the interface. V,, Vg, represent the average P and S wave velocities across the interface. Density and Poisson's ratio notations have the same meaning, ighted Stack Processing: (1) Develop a smooth velocity function model for the subsurface. (2) Using a linear relationship between Vp and Vs, estimate Vs for every sample. (8) Calculate Vs/vp ratio for each sample for calculating coefficients A, and B, as described in the Appendix A. (4) Using ray tracing, determine angle of incidence for each sample and comesponding offset. (5) The above equation Is fit to the seismic (CDP) amplitudes with offset at a constant time. Av, AV, © on 7 rn are calculated as functions of seismic amplitudes and weights calculated from A, and By. ns (7) Pseudo Poisson's ratio reflectivity is defined as: Ao _AV,_ AV, Fat TV , which Is difference between the P and S wave reflectivity. Va (8) Fluid factor AF is defined as: Ys, 7 the value obtained fom the model used in ray tracing. Fluid factor is close to zero for water saturated rocks, and it is negative at the top and positive at the base of the gas saturated sand. Examples of weighted stacks (Poisson's ratio, Vi/Vpa, and Vi/Vsq) are shown in Figure 1-22, Figure 1-23. (See Appenctx 4) Av A& Ao The following figure shows the outputs: aS and AF Vs, Oe AVO and Seismic Attbutos: Principles and Applications Pare! 128AVO Prncipies and Applications Parti 129 Advantages and Disadvantages of Weighted Stacking: Advantages: Disadvantages: @ Fast (i) Outputs Relative Parameters Oniy pussnnsant (2) No Local Minima (2) Wavelet Is Not Removed (3) Source Wavelet Not Required (3). Sensitive To NMO Errors (4) "Zeto Offset Stack" More Accurate (4) Output Density And Velocity Contrasts Ave Not Independent Than Conventional Stack (5) Vp Vs Contrasts And Fluid Factor Are Noisy Measurements Weighted Stack: Ya / Va, Figure 1-22 shows an example of weighted stacks wth y Vy and with Vy Vg (After Castagna, 1997) a Time (sec) * iN) Weighted Stack: Ao/o, Weighted Stack: Ay" Figure 1-23 shows examples of weighted stacks with change in Poisson's ratio, and fluid factor is a function of Vo/V pq, and V/V (After Castagna, 1997) AVO and Seismic Atributes: Principles and Appieations Patt 129AVO Principles and Appications Parti 190 AVO Interpretation Gas Detection Using AVO (a) 2) 3) oy Low ratio ot Vp /V/5. can be used to distinguish gas sands trom brine saturated sands or coals, Class 1 AVO anomalies occur when there is a strong positive normat incident reflection, strong amplitude decreases with offset, and a phase change at far offsets. Class 2 AVO anomalies, when small normal incident reflection shows a large change in amplitude at far offsets, and for a positive reflection coefficient, a phase change occurs at near to moderate offsets. Class 3 AVO anomalies have a large negative reflection coefficient at normal incidence. and the magnitude increases with offset ‘There are many examples of gas detection using AVO from many areas: a @) @) @ © © o ®) Sacramento Valley - (Ostrander, 1984; Gassaway, 1984; Soroka et al.. 1990; Gabay, 1990). Soroka et al (1990) claim a 90 percent success ratio with three dimensional (3-D) AVO in the Sacramento Valley Also, in the Sacramento Valley, Gassaway (1984) was successful in predicting hydrocarbons 13 out of 15 times, and in predicting no hydrocarbons 8 out of 12 times. North Sea - (Wrolstad, 1988; Snyder et al., 1989, Strudley, 1990) Gulf Coast - (Ziik, 1986; Hoopes and Aber, 1989; Bumett, 1989 and 1990; Rutherford and Wiliams, 1989) : Offshore Gulf of Mexico - (Ostrander, 1984; Rutherford and Wiliams, 1989, Zimmerman and Fahmy, 1990) ‘Arkoma Basin - (Rutherford and Williams, 1989) ‘Arabian Gulf - (Chiburis, 1984; 1987). Hydrocarbon detection in carbonates has also been reported (Chiburis, 1987). Alaska - Zimmerman and Fahmy, 1980) Italy - (Mazzotti, 1990). P-wave reflection coefficients (Zoeppritz) are divided into three classes for shale over gas sand horizon as shown in Figure 1-24 (from Rutherford and Williams, 1989 and Williams, 1989). The parameters for this model are shown in Table 1-5, Tabulation of the results of the application of AVO is in Table 1-8. ‘AO and Selsmic Atributes: Principles and Applications Patt 130AVO Principles and Applications Parts at ‘Table 1-5. Parameters for the model used for the responses Figure 1-24. Rock Type Poisson's ratio Density (gm/cc) Sand 38 24 Gas Sand 15 20 AVO is successful based on petrophysical arguments. We expect this to be possible when the carbonate rock frame is compressible for the Mud modulus to significantly influence the bulk modulus of the saturated rock. This would require significant amount of low aspect ratio porosity For porous high aspect ratio carbonates, it may be possible to exploit the effect of gas on bulk density Class 3 Class 2 Class 1 10 15 20 25 30 @ deg —> Figure 1-24 shows P-wave reflection coefficients (Zoeppritz) for shale over gas sand horizon (from Rutherford), Table 1-6. The following table shows the AVO track record in a particular Gulf Coast field (Burnett, 1990). AVO AVO Effect Cumulative Production Strong Moderate Weak 4 BCF 5 1 Less than 1 BCF ° 3 Less than 1 BCF abandoned ° 1 AVO and Seiemie Attributes: Principles and Applications Parts 194‘AVO Principles and Applications Part) 192 Monitoring Enhanced Oil Recovery with AVO ‘The effect of steam saturation on rock Vp/Vs is similar to the effect of gas saturation in rock (to et al, 1979) Seismic data is acquired at different stages of the EOR phase and AVO calculated for each set of seismic data for monitoring the advancing oil front. Oil Detection with AVO The effect of oil saturation on rock Vp/Vs ratio Is less pronounced than the effect of gas saturation in rock, and this ratio is half-way between the effect of brine sand and gas sand. Therefore, the effect of oil saturation on [AVO can be very subtle in many cases. Lithology Classification with AVO Vp 5 ratio and Ip vs F's plots are used to generate trend curves for sandstones. shales limestones and dolomites. Hp F's = (1.5 ~ 1.6) for sandstones, and (1 7 ~ 2.0) for other lithologies, Porosity Classification with AVO Vp: Vs ratio is not sensitive enough to porosity. Density is more suited for detection of porosity changes Land and Marine AVO (4) Signal strength and quality of seismic data is better in marine as compared to land data. (2) Multiples are a serious problem in marine data, (3) Ground roll and statics are problems in land data. (4) Overall quality of either land or marine data should be determined on a case by case basis, and depending upon the signal to noise ratio, and the severity multiples and statics. Techniques for Interpretation of AVO. AVO interpretation (after Wroistad, 1988; and Nelson, 1989) Raw CDP gathers P-wave reflection coefficient for Change in Poisson's ratio NMO corrected COP gathers normal incidence: Rp or "A" section (Ao) AVO processed CDP gathers s wave reflection coefficient for normal incidence; Rs i Envelope of Ao Crossplot of event amplitude erence between P and S reflection 7 ersus offset Color enveloped Jo or energy versus cout p= Ry olor enveloped 7 Fluid factor (AF) Common offset stack Gradient stack, also called "B” stack ) Partial stack or *AVO slope” Product of P-wave reflection Prestack difference gathers at coefficient and AVO slope (A.XB) line intersections Colorstack AVO and Selsmie Atbutas: Principles and Appications Patt 432AVO Principles anc Apotcations Parti 199 (1) Develop a model of the subsurface structure and lithology from seismic and well log data. (2) Calculate AVO gradient B with depth, and convoive B series with a wavelet (Figure 1-25). (3) Partial near, middle, and far offset stacks to show AVO variation. The quality of partial stack can be better than full CDP stack when noise is present on some of the offsets, which are excluded from the partial stack (Figure 1-26) (4) Color stack is produced by superimposing near, middle, and far offsets, each in a different color, where the amplitude is represented by the intensity of color. Vp/Vs from Elastic Inversion of Seismic Data ‘The ratio (Vp Va) of P-wave and S-wave veiocty can be obtained through the inversion of seismic data. The advantages are: (1) Wavelet is removed, (2) Tuning effects are minimized. (@) Subsurface Information from logs and subsurface models can be incorporated into the data, which can enhance SIN ratio. AVO and Seismie Atributos: Principles and Applications Part! 1-98VO Principles and Applications Figure 1-25 showing the AVO gradient and synthetic traces (After Johnson, 1988 Offset Distance (m) 14200 2400 3500 Time (sec) Figure 1-26 shows the variation of reflection quality with different offsets. (After Onstott, 1984) AVO and Seismic Attabutes: Principles and Applications Parts‘AVO Principles end Apptcatons Patti 138 Multi-Component AVO (1) Multi-component seismic data is suited for a complete AVO analysis of P, Sp, Sz components. (2) _ Inversion of Zoeppritz equations is unique for Siz component. (3) The slope of AVO for Sy, converted from P-wave is dependent on S-wave jpedance contrast. (4) S-waves are not affected as much as P-waves when transmitted through gas sands. (8) P to Sy Converted waves are represented by: +2 Ros ® Gsin” A, were, Resis he reflection coefficient, when P-wave Is the Incident wave, and Syis the reffected wave. Also, V, +2 ae Ryp © A+ Bsin? A, soy, V. x2 GrB-A s © The analysis is further complimented by additional S-wave information, such as normal incident amplitude ratios and S-Wave move-out. AVO Analysis - An Aid for Seismic Interpretation (1) Sandishale interface, in some instances may show no significant impedance contrast, which results in ‘weak reflections for near offsets. However, the reflections at far offsets are stronger, and the stack wit show a strong reflection (2) Synthetic traces created by stacking the results of offset modeling provide a much better correlation with the stack section as compared to conventional synthetic from a welt og, AVO and Seismic Data Processing (1) Amplitude and Phase variation with offset can adversely. affect the stacking of seismic data. (2) Extraction of “A” produces a zero-offset stack. (8) Better estimation of normal incidence reflection coefficient, (4) Broad bandwidth with higher frequency data. ©) Higher resolution, (6) _ Increase in reflection amplitude at critical angle can be used to identity polarity. This increase at critical angle does not occur for negative reflections. @) Large amplitudes at far offsets can also be used to estimate oritical angle, Future Considerations for AVO (1) Full integration of seismic, well logs, geology, petrophysies and reservoir engineering is essential for the advancement of AVO analysis and interpretation, @) Higher speed and high capacity computers will allow the use of 2-D and multicomponent AVO analysis and! interpretation. (3) Expert systems to assist in AVO modeling, analysis, and interpretation. (4) _AVO provides a great wealth of information for the interpreter in spite of the pitfalls, AVO and Selsmc atributes: Principles and Applications Part 195‘Fundemental Principles of AVO Parl 24 Chapter 2 : Fundamental Principles Chapter 2 : Fundamental Principles. Fundamental Pringiples.....-ec scene Reflectivity Variation with Incidence Angle. Normal Incidence, Approximations to Knott & Zoeppritz Equations. a interval Velocity and Angles of incidence Using improved Dix’s Method. ‘Amplitude Corrections for AVO aes ‘Surface Boundary ~ Reflected PP and PS Waves. 5 ‘Spherical Divergence. : : 5 Array Response and Source-Receiver Directivity ¥ Seismic Attenuation or Absorption pw R Biss Effects of Transmission Coefficient on Anisotropic Effects on AVO.. a Statistical or Data Derived Corrections for Seismic Amplitudes: Integrated AVO Analysis and Interpretation... Data Processing Flow... oe Noise Analysis and Removal 2-D Amplitude Display... : . ‘Amplitude Variations Due to Instrument Generated/Re Amplitude Variations Due to Wave Propagation Effects... Transmission Losses in the Overburden and Offset Synthetic Seismograin Waveform... : : AVO of a Gas Sand Exampie... Petrophysical Analysis.......... P-Wave and S-Wave Veloci ee Reflection Amplitudes are Dependent on the Following Key F ‘Sands-Shales: P-Wave Velocities and Densities... Velocity — Porosity ~ Shale Content of Sand. AVO Responses Dependent Upon Velocity and ‘S-Wave Velocity Control Pseudo ~ Shear Velocity Logs. Full Wave Sonic...... cae Vertical Seismic Profiling VSP for S-Waves. AVO and Sismic Attnbutes: Principles and Applications Part 24Fundemental Principles of AVO Part 22 Fundamental Principles This chapter covers the fundamental equations, which form the basis of AVO analysis and application, ‘amplitude corrections necessary for AVO analysis, and relationship between rock properties, P and S wave velocities. P wave energy converted into shear waves varies with offset, and this phenomenon is one of the ‘major factors causing AVO. (1) Variation of Reflectivity with Offset Based on Knott & Zoeppritz Equations (2) Approximations to Knott & Zoeppritz Equations (3) Interval Velocity and Angles of Incidence Using Improved Dix’s Method (4) Amplitude Corrections for AV (6) Integrated AVO Analysis and Interpretation: (6) _Petrophysical Analysis (7) Data Processing Flow Reflectivity Variation with Incidence Angle ‘Zoeppritz equations for amplitudes with angle of incidence are given in Appendix A ‘Normal Incidence For normal incidence, the above equations reduce to the following: A, + A, = Ay 2,4, 2,4, Z Ay ‘The solution to these equations is given in the form of reflection and transmission coefficients: 2Z, 4 2, +2, A The fractions of the incident energy, reflected and transmitted, are also called reflection and transmission coefficients. T= Where, R+T=/ ere, (54) (Z, 4Z,y Reflection coefficient and reflection energy for a subsurface model with linear increase in velocity is shown in Figure 2-1, and transmission coefficient and transmission energy for a subsurface model with linear increase in velocity is shown in Figure 2-2. No S-waves are generated at normal incidence. AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and Applizations Parts 22Fundementel Principles of AVO Poet 2 Approximations to Knott & Zoeppritz Equations ‘At normal incidence, the Ry or Rs are given by (See Appendix A): Ny For 10% change in P-wave velocity, there 1s 1% change in P-wave reflection coefficient. Akt ana Richards (1980} presented the following P-wave reflectivity relation’ The following empirical relation is for the density and P-wave velocity in rocks pees Where 718 a scale factor depending upon the units for ») and Fp and differentiating ana dividing, we obtain the following AP 9.958% * e v, AVO and Seismic Atiibutes: Principles and Appleations Parti 23Fundamental Princiles of AVO Reflection Coefficient & Energy 0.05 ret amp — Ret Energy < 0.04 £0.03 E J Bo 02 001 000 ° 1000 2000 3000 4000 Depth (m) Figure 2-1 shows the reflection coefficient and reflection energy for a subsurface mode! with linear increase 1” velocity Transmission Coefficient & Energy 1.00 0.99 c £0.98 e £ G0: 4 0.96 aaa et —— a | —Tran Energy | 0.95 + - ap ne a | 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 | Depth (m) Figure 2-2 shows the transmission coefficient and transmission energy for a subsurface model with linear increase in velocity. AVO and Seismic Atrioutes: Principles and Applications Parti 24Fordamental Principles of AVO. Part 26 Interval Velocity and Angles of Incidence Using Improved Dix’s Method Velocities calculated using Dix's equation varies rapidly depending upon the type of RMS velocity function used for calculating interval velocities A better method is to allow a linear increase of velocity with time. (See Appendix A) Viel ta (t-t) Velocity at the top of the layer. at, = Velocity acceleration ‘= Interval velocity within the layer Amplitude Corrections for AVO Surface Boundary ~ Reflected PP and PS Waves PP = incident P-wave. Reflect P-wave 6) = Angle of incidence PS = Incident P-wave. Reflect S-wave There is P to S conversion 3 r] sin’ 6, ps = 4| <= |sin 0, a pret The reflection amplitude vs incidence angle for a reflected P when the incident is also P. is shown in Figure 2-3, . The reflection amplitude vs incidence angle for a reflected S$ when the incident is P, is shown in Figure 2-4 Spherical Divergence For a spherical wavefront, the energy density or intensity decrease is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source Newman (1973) presented the spherical divergence correction for non-normal incident wave. (X) +2K> z, tan 8? a tan 4, Where, X= Offset distance, Z;= Thickness of i layer, 8, = Angle of incidence in the ith layer. The calculated array response vs incidence angle for different velocities ranging from 1800 to 4000 m/sec is shown in Figure 2-5, and the array response vs incidence angle for different array lengths ranging from 10 to 35 m is shown in Figure 2-6. The array response vs incidence angle for different frequencies ranging from 10 to 60 Hz is shown in Figure 2-7. AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and Applications Parti 25 ’Fundamental Principles of AVO Part 26 Surface Boundary PP Reflection 03 Vs/Vp Ratio ° x —po? eo 6 6 LT a a | Reflection Amplitude 5 & — 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Incidence Angle (deg) Figure 2-3 shows the reflection amplitude vs incidence angle for a reflected P when the incident is also P. Surface Boundary PS Reflection Vsivp Ratio 0.4 —so7 806 ars ei 6 = Reflection Amplitude 6 a osc 06 [eae | 07 on 0 10 Incidence Angle (deg) Figure 2-4 shows the reflection amplitude vs incidence angle for a reflected S when the incident is also P. AVO end Seismic Atbutes: Prinples end Applications Part 26Fundamentai Pincipies of AVO. Pans 27 Array Response and Source-Receiver Directivity if source and receiver arrays are designed of positioned to enhance the response in a selected direction, then the AVO or the amplitude with offset are affected Some of the offsets may show higher amplitudes due to the directional effect of the source-receiver response and not due to the natural AVO response from the reflecting horizon The array response is designed to attenuate selected trequencies, which makes the array to be trequency dependent and affect the amplitude with offset variation The response of a linear array / 1s given as vin sin oe Where 4 = wavelength Expanding the above equation to the sin? RW) second order of sin we get Rust 5 ina Or substituting frequency and velocity relationship for wavelength ROV=1 aime sin’ @ Where Mi, = fA Seismic Attenuation or Absorption AVO analysis and interpretation is affected by the presence of anomalous attenuation above the target horizon. The amplitude decay, for a constant Q-factor is. Where, 4, = Amplitude at the source 4, = Amplitude at a distance. R, of from the source Q = Quality Factor ‘An example of amplitude attenuation with offset distance at depths ranging from 600 to 3000 m is shown in Figure 2-8 A linear velocity function with depth used for this calculation is shown in Figure 2-9, and linear function with depth is shown in Figure 2-10. Effects of Transmission Coefficient on AVO Like reflection coefficient, the transmission coefficients also vary with offset. If the layer above the AVO horizon has a transmission coefficient with an amplitude variation with offset, then a correction must be applied before AVO analysis, However, this correction is small because each reflection transmits through the shallow layer twice, once for the down-going wave, and second for the up-going wave. The transmission coefficient for PP is given {first order approximation) as. AVO and Seismic Atrtutes: Prieiples and Applications Part arFundamental Principles of AVO Part 28 Array Response with Velocity (m/sec) 1.00 4000 mis - 3000 mre . ee 2500 mis a Vetoeny mis <> 1500 mis 080 070 ° 10 20 0 70 80. 90 0, 40. 50 6 Incidence Angle (deg) Figure 2- shows array response vs incidence angle for different velocities ranging from 100 to 4000 m/sec Array Response with Length (m) 100 0.90 080 070 ° 10 20 Figure 2-6 shows array response vs incidence angle for different array lengths ranging from 10 to 35 m Array Response with Frequency (Hz) 0.90 0.80 + 0.70 0.60 arse ° 10 20 30 40 50, t Incidence Angie (deg) Figure 2-7 shows an array response vs incidence angle for different frequencies ranging from 10 to 60 Hz. AVO and Seismis Atributes: Principles and Applications Parts 28Fundemonts!Frincipes of AVO Pott 29 Depth (m) 2 a z & — < ° z 5 3 “ z re 90030000 2000 OBS ano ad Offset (m} Figure 2-8 shows the amplitude attenuation with offset distance at depths ranging from 600 to 2000 m, 1500 ———— ~ —— Velocity (m/sec) pies 5 00 900 —Tooo Taco Tans 000 reso a Depth (m) ‘and Bald 5655 Saco Figure 2-9 shows the velocity variation with depth for calculating the above attenuation, 290 200 150 100 “as 0s aa 1068 asa ast sa aes as a a, Depth (m) Figure 2-10 shows the @ variation with depth for calculating the above attenuation AVO and Seismic Attrbutes: Principles end! Applications Parts 29Fundamental Principles of AVO Parts 2.10 Anisotropic Effects on AVO For anisotropic media, there can be velocity variation in different directions. This velocity veriation necessitates ‘a correction for anisotropy: : oe sn? 9 PP pnsotopt ¢ = PP tsomopic + Statistical or Data Derived Corrections for Seismic Amplitudes: (1) Shot energy normalization Traces amplitude balancing within a gather (8) Trace scaling with time to recover losses due to spherical divergence, reflection and transmission, and attenuation. Integrated AVO Analysis and Interpretation: (1) Replacement of brine with gas, decreases the P-wave velocity, but does not change the S-wave velocity or dénsity of the rock significantly. Therefore, the V/V ratio changes from water saturated sand to gas saturated sand, (2) Extracting S-wave velocity information from seismic data becomes important to distinguish between ‘AVO anomalies due to gas saturation or ithiogic changes, Velocity and density values for different lithologies are shown in Table 2-1, and plots of reflection coefficient vs angle of incidence are shown in Figure 2-11 Data Processing Flow Relative amplitude should be preserved at all offsets for proper AVO analysis and Interpretation. Any factors or processes that affect this relative amplitude with offset, other than the AVO itself, should be eliminated. it is important to define, detect, and destroy noise whenever and wherever possible. Following factors are Important for AVO processing: (1) Noise Analysis and Removal (2) 2-D Amplitude Display (3) Amplitude Variations Due to Instrument Generated/Related Noise (4) Amplitude Variations Due to Wave Propagation Effects (6) Transmission Losses in the Overburden and Offset Synthetic Seismogram Noise Analysis and Removal (1) Source generated noise 2) Muttiples (3) Surface consistent amplitude variations due to source-receiver factors (4) Source wavelet variation with distance AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and Applications Part 240Fundamental Prmeplos of AVO Panes zat Analyze the Ground roll, Air waves multiple events, variation in source-receiver response and source wavelet using F-K transforms, attenuate i not eliminate, using F-K filter The following velocity analyses in Figure 2-12 (After Dey-Sarkar & Svatek, 1997) show the effect of multiple attenuation using F-K filter 2.0 Amplitude Display RME ampiituae computes over 8 nme window 's plotted in CDP and Offset domain in F gu tude trends in such displays are described as 3) Common source variations are along linear trends from left te night 6) Common recerver vanations are along linear tends trom right to left Common offser yanations are oaralie! ‘ene ODE Seta Hor S$ SelcuIaTes ant aphed YC Ne ya vanations inteady a during data acquisition proces: Amplitude Variations Due to instrument Generated/Related Noise + Aign Frequency Noise (2) Low Frequency Noise Dnling Noise 4) Channel imbalance An example of unbalanced amplitudes at different offsets 1s shawn in Figure 2-14 The amplitudes must be balanced for proper AVO analysis The high frequency noise can be fitered out using bandpass filters, and low frequency noise is a more serious Problem, which 1s dificult to resolve Low frequency noise could overiap the seismic signal spectia, and it can also saturate the recording channeis, Driling noise can generate doth the low and the high frequency noise Channel imbalance is created by bad cable, geophones, or coupling to the ground. and surface conditions. AVO and Sesme a 9s Princioies ane Apeteations ParsFundameatal Principles of AVO Ports 22 Table 2-1 shows P & S Wave velocities & densities for different lithologies (After Dey-Sarkar & Svatek, 1997) P & S Wave Velocities & Densities For Different Lithologies Velocity (mis) Lithology P-Wave S-Wave Density (gmsice) Shales set 2263 2.40 Limestone 5335 2987 2.85 sand sett 225 salt 473 2.05 Coal 2652 1.27 Gas Sand 3453 2302 2.10 Limestone (Gas) 5043 2987 2.49 Shale/Limestone(Gas) e o 2 € Shale/Limestone 8 Oo < 2 — 3S . 9 Shale/Sand(Gas) Vetoeny anes 5 PeWave © Wave Densiy tomers a sess vies sus 2572.65, sry 2129 152 1200 Seay 2051 4 42 20 28 36 44 62 60 68 76 Angle of Incidence in deg Figure 2-11 shows the reflection coefficient vs angle of incidence for different combinations of lithologies. AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and Applications : Pari 22Fundamental Principles of AVO 7 Port! 243 2 es e e 2 e es 8 3 RMSS Vel B(ft/s) 3 & RMSS& vel B (tvs) & 3 3 Sof 3 = 4 8 2 2 = 3 Pentea| a Velocity Analysie without FK Filter Velocity Analyele with FK Filter Figure 2-12 shows the effect of multiple attenuation using F-K filter (After Dey-Sarkar & Svatek, 1997) Amplitude after Correction Shows AVO Trends Far 2 SB vo 5 Teens Near CoP NO. Figure 2-13. Computed RMS amplitudes are displayed in CDP-Offset Domain for a selected time window (After Dey-Sarkar & Svatek, 1997). AVO and Seismic Attibutes: Principles and Appsications Parti 213Fundamental Pncples of AV Unbalanced Figure 2-14 shows an example of unbalanced, balanced amplitudes. The figure on the right shows the effect of offset on amplitude scaling oO 3520 7040) 10560 Offset Distance (ft) ing Frequency Attenuation Source- Receiver Array Figure 2-15 shows the frequency attenuation of 50% at 30 Hz, 40 Hz, and 60Hz frequencies (After Dey-Sarkar & ‘Svatek, 1997) AVO and Seiemic Atributes: Prinples and Applecations Part! 244Fundamental Privejples of AVO Port! Bo Amplitude Variations Due to Wave Propagation Effects (1) Spherical Divergence (2-0) (2) Amplitude loss due to thin beds (3) Source/Receiver array attenuation of selected wavelengths 4; Absorption or inelastic attenuation (5) Focusing, defocusing. scatienng due lo curvature of iayersiboungaries inthe supsurtace (6) Amplitude and frequency losses in the overburden These corrections are normalized to the zero offset, |e the corrections are relative to the zero offset Figure 2.15 \After Dey Sarkar & Svatek 1997) shows the frequency attenuation ai 30 Hz. 40 Hz and 80H frequencies in this Figure 2.15, tor tne event at 0.8 sec 60 Hz 1s attenuated by 6 dB ai an offset af 3520 ft ne 60 Hz is attenuated by 646 at B00 ft Foran avent at 18 sF ‘An interval velocity modei 1s constructed for the subsurface Figure 2-16 ‘After Dey Sarkar & Svatek. 1997) to compute transmission and absorption losses. These amplitudes are plotted as a function of angle of emergence There 1s reduction of amplitude with offset The effect of amplitude correction 1s demonstrated in Figure 2-17, AVO (red) is enfianced and the AVO (blue) is reversed after amplitude correction For smoothly varying velocity function with depth, the predicted reflection amplitude curve is not distorted When there is a strong velocity contrast present, the reflection coefficient curve is distorted The effect of absorption are calculated when estimated values of Q ate available for the subsurface velocity model. Also, knowing the curvature of the refiecting boundaries, the focusing and defocusing effects are computed 2s part of the transmission losses. it is important to know these parameters, and it is dificult to account for later in-homogeneity in these parameters, To summarize, remove or attenuate the noise, apply an offset dependent regional amplitude correction, computed statistically from the seismic data. ‘Transmission Losses in the Overburden and Offset Synthetic Seismogram ‘A technique using impedance iog is summarized here: (1) Impedance of sonic log is blocked (Figure 2-18) into different number of layers to test and determine the sensitivity of number of layers in computing offset synthetic seismograms, (2) Synthetic gathers are computed for selected number of layer models. These synthetic gathers include the effect of transmission losses in the over burden. (3) Compare real seismic data gather with a synthetic gather which includes primaries and multiples. Calculate the AVO responses (synthetic gathers) for six different models (Figure 2-19). The data given n Table 2-2 is used for calculating the AVO response from the six models. AVO and Seismic Attributes: Princbles and Applications Ports 2sFundamental Principles of AVO Part 216 Velocity (ft/sec) 2000 6000 10000 Reflection Coefficient Transmission Loss — Low Velocity Layer — Water & Low Velocity Layer Amplitude Depth (ft) 5000 Angle (deg) Amplitude Attenuation Due to Transmission Factors 10000 Velocity - Dopth Model for Transmission Loss Calculation Figure 2-16 shows the computed transmission losses for a layered model generated from a blocked log (After Dey Sarkar & Svatek, 1997) AVO Enhanced after Correction 9 B 3 = i AVO Reversed after Correction Far Near Far Near Amplitude with Offset Before Amplitude with Offset After Correction Correction Figure 2-17 shows a comparison of amplitude variation before and after amplitude correction. AVO and Solsmic Attbutes: Principles and Applications Pat 216Fundamental Principles of AVO Parts 2a Blocked Log Synthetic Trace Figure 2-18 a synthetic seismic trace 1s generated from a layered model obtained by blocking a log Table 2-2 gives six models used for AVO response shown in Figure 2-19 (After Dey-Sarkar & Svatek, 1997) Model No. A 8 {A-AO\/Ao (%) (B-B0) /B0(%) Waveform 1 0.447 0.907 ° ° 2 0.443 o.9tt 09 od same 3 0.585 0.985 30.9 64 similar 4 0.883 1.081 975 170 similar 5 1.032 1.275 130.9 40.6 different 6 0.543 0.862 215 5.0 Different Offest Distance — Figure 2-19 Data in Table 2-2 are for the AVO responses in Figure (After Dey-Sarkar & Svatek, 1997) AVO and Seismic tributes: Princiles and Applications Part! aurFundamental Principles of AVO Part 218 AVO of a Gas Sand Example This is an example of a modeling study for shallow Gulf Coast gas sand Figure 2-20 shows a synthetic and real data gather of a CDP point close to the well The gas sand is 30.5 m thick. is embedded in shale There is a good match between the real and the synthetic seismogram An example of the AVO responses of the real and synthetic data 1s shown in Figure 2-20 The shaded area 1s the ms ampitude of the individual traces calculated over 3 ime window the soli ine is the best: fil AVO function The smali differences al the large incidence angle may be due to the overburden factors not properly accounted for 2 @ RMS Amplitude Real Data — AVO Fit to Real Data —— AVO Fit to Synthetic Data RMS Amplitude ° @ 0.8 oO 12 24 36 Incidence Angle (deg) Figure 2-20 shows the comparison of the real and synthetic seismic data. The ims amplitude calculated over a time window for individual traces, and the solid line is the best fit, AVO function (After Dey-Sarkar & Svatek, 1997) Petrophysical Analysis Petrophysical analysis provides information of velocity and density of P and S waves: (4) (2) (3) (4) (5) P-Wave and S-Wave Velocities and Densities Reflection Amplitudes are Dependent on the Following Key Factors Sand-Shale: P-Wave Velocities and Densities Velocity ~ Porosity ~ Shale Content of Sand VO Responses Dependent upon Velocity And Density Relationship AVO and Seismic Atributes: Principles and Applications Parts 218Fundamental Principles of AVO Partt 249 P.Wave and S-Wave Velocities and Densities (ay (2) @) (a) 6) 6) a” cy P-wave velocity in sand can be slower, faster, or equal to velocity in shale at the same depth, This defines three classes of sand S-wave velocity is linearly related to P-wave velocity in sand and shale. itis common for sands to have lower density than shale at the same depth. P-wave veloaty in sands has a linear relationship with porosity and clay content S-wave velocity in sands has @ linear relationship with porosity and clay content Presence of gas in sand lowers the P-wave velocity and density, and S-wave velocity is not affected Lithologic changes, increase or decrease density. P and S-wave velosity in the same direction Based on modefing of study of three different classes of sands Dey-Sarkar & Svatek 1997 presented the following conclusions (a) Gas sands are clearly recognized, when P-wave velocity in brine sands slightly faster than the P. wave velocity in shale at the same depth (b) Reflection coefficient at zero offset and the rate of change of reflection coefficient with offset can also provide some distinction (©) Dim spots occur when P-wave velocity in sand is much faster than in shale, (d) Magnitude and the polarity at zero offset are important for AVO analysis, (@) Lithotogic changes cause rapid decrease in amplitude with offset starting with zero offset. (f) Gas sands and brine sands are distinguished by using the sand/shale velocity information, and zero offset reflection coefficient along with the gradient of the reflection coefficient Reflection Amplitudes are Dependent on the Following Key Factors P and S-wave velocity and density variation with depth ‘Sands-Shales: P-Wave Velocities and Densities a) (2) (3) (4) (6) Density increases with depth for sand and normally pressured shale, Density of porous sands is lower than shale density at the same depth. Density difference in sands and shale decreases with depth. Velocity increases with depth for sands and shale In over pressure zones, sands may be faster, slower or equal to the shale at the same depth. AVO and Seismic Atirbutes: Princoles and Applications Part 249Fundamental Panciples of AVO 220 Velocity ~ Porosity ~ Shale Content of Sand a 2) (3) 4) (5) (61 7 (8) Density Porosity % Neutron porosity and density porosity are determined from well logs in the area ‘A cross-plot of the neutron porosity and density porosity 's shown in Figure 2-24 Select a clay point porosity for 100% clay and zero porosity, higher than neutron porosity and lower than density porosity ‘Sand with zero clay content will fall on the 45 deg Line For known clay point neutron porosity density porosity true porosity and clay content of sand can be determined Clay content is plotted vs P-wavelS.wave rato For fixed porosity increasing the clay content dacreases the velocity Imearly For fixed clay content increasing the porosity decreases the velocity linearly oko et ke ke? TK Gin KA Os @; = true Porosity C= Clay content or Shaliness @,, = Density Porosity 6, = Neutron Porosity Pps = Density Porosity of Clay Point @yse° = Neutron Porosity of Clay Point Soke T preeone T ° 10 20 30 40 50 60 Neutron Porosity % Figure 2-21 shows a cross plot of density -porosity vs neutron-porosity. AVO and Seismic Atributes: Principles and Applications Port) 2.20Fundamental Principles of AVO Parts 22 AVO Responses Dependent Upon Velocity and Density Relationship Schematic AVO responses for three different classes of sands with different P-wave and S.wave velocity relationships, and density relationships for the two media in contact are shown in Figure 2:22 (After Dey. Sarkar & Svatek, 1997) VPs, VS1, P1 are the P-wave velocity, S-wave velocity, and density of layer above the interface Vp2, VS2, P2 are the P-wave velocity. S-wave velocity and density of layer below the interface AVS: Decreases Vp, Vs; Ps Vp, VS, Po opeme Pp < Py VS272V5; gate VP2 >> Vp, Reflection Coofficient Reflection Coefficient S 10 gate PoVP2 < PAV, % [Sand py < Py Vs,>Vs, ¥°"" : Vp2>Vp, § So 3 i 5 3 : é 2 $ 5 etc eae ace os Brine Po i P2< Vp, | sas 5 2 8 P2<< 4 VP2 << Vp, a3 é 10 digh Velocity Shale +1 ow Velocity Shale Vs, <€ Vs, gE Py << Py Vp, << Vp, a a Angle man» Figure 2-22 shows the schematic AVO responses for several different models (After Dey-Sarkar & Svatek, 1997) AVO and Seiemie Atroutes: Principles and Applications Part 221Fundamental Principlos of AVO Port 2.22 ‘$-Wave Velocity Control ‘S-wave velocity data is limited, and empirical relations between P & S wave velocities are used. P & S waves have a linear relationship in sands and shale. Sources of S-wave velocity are: (1) S-Wave Velocity Control (2) Pseudo ~ Shear Velocity Logs (3) Full Wave Sonic (4) Vertical Seismic Profiting VSP for S-Waves The linear relationship between P and S waves can be written as Vv, ott ev s where, My = aae2tisec C= 116 The data on S-wave velocities are limited Some of the common sources of S-wave velocity information are Pseudo — Shear Velocity Logs the Vp-Vs tends can be expressed as. Vs, = aVy + dV, +o, Vp = Measures Powave velocity Vsi redicted S-wave velocity a, bj, crate global constants for lithology. Ven = XM i where, 2 = no. of porous end-member lithology X= Volume fraction of lithology Von = oe ‘A pseudo-shear velocity logs calculated from lithologies, S-wave sonic log, and a conventional full-wave sonic is shown in Figure 2-23, -wave velocly for mixed lithology 1 Full Wave Sonic S-wave velocity can also be obtained from full wave sonic, Quality of full wave sonic recorded data is important for reliable velocity estimates, The following Figure 2-24 shows the effect of poorly bonded casing on full wave sonic as compared to that of properly bonded casing, |AVO and Selamie Atibutes: Prinles ond Applications Path 222Fundamental Principles of AVO ‘ Part 229 e700 = Depth ft 8800 Comparison of pseudo shear velocity calculation inqimived Mthology with mencured velocity Figure 2-23 shows S-wave velocity !ogs calculated from lithologies, full-wave sonic (After Castagna et al. 1997) Full wave sonic in well bonded casing Offset Distance (ft) octet a onso ° 41.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 Time (ms) Figure 2-24 shows poorly bonded casing on full wave sonic as compared to that of properly bonded casing. AVO and Seismic Attrbutes: Principles and Apphcstions Port) 223Fundamenta Principles of AVO Par! 226 Vertical Seismic Profiling VSP for S-Waves ‘S-wave velocity can also be obtained from multi-component VSP data, using the horizontal components, and separating P-wave energy from horizontal components (Figure 2-26) Interval Velocity (fveec) 7000) 2000 treoo 13000 Depth (fi) +4000. 5000, 7080, 80000 Figure 2-25 shows the comparison of S-wave velocities obtained from sonic and VSP data processing and analysis (After Castagna et al, 1997) The following Figure 2-26 shows slowness from VSP and log data, and VSP and predicted slowness of S-waves ‘Above 3168 ft S-wave slowness is predicted for both fully brine-saturated sands and partially gas-saturatad sands, ‘S-wave velocity as a function of tube-wave VSP and log P-wave slowness and VSP and velocity predicted S-wave slowness git [7 iJ Predicted Brine $12 z e 510 2. 3 os 3 g > Predicted Gas 2 068 = S-wave boa Tube Weve ; § oz By ce 0 02 04 06 08 1 12 14 1650 2650 3650 4650 Tube Wave Velocity (km/sec) Depth (ft) Figure 2-26 shows the comparison of S-wave velocities obtained from sonic and VSP data processing and analysis (After Castagna et al, 1997), AVO and Seismic Atibutes: Principles and Applications Par 224Apolcation of Petrophysles to AVO Analysis ot Chapter 3 : Application of Petrophysics Chapter 3 : Application of Petrophysics Application of Petrophysics to AVO Analysis Introduction... : Elastic Wave Propagation Parameters. Effect of Temperature and Pressure on V,/ Vs... Vp VS Vs Relations in Different Rocks... Velocity and Density Relationships in Different Rocks Velocity in Mixed Rock Types Effect of Pressure on Velocity and Density of 310 Elastic Parameters of Pore Fluids...... att oll ‘ 314 Brin oe i g cea 344 Gassmann's Equations for Velocities in Porous Media 312 Attenuation or Absorption... : a se B43 Vp and Vs Anisotropy in Rocks 18h Vp and V8 in COA asses 15 AVO and Seismic Atibutes: Prices and Applications Ports aApplication of Petrophysies to AVO Analysis Part 32 Application of Petrophysics to AVO Analysis This chapter covers elastic wave propagation parameters, velocity and density relationships for different rock types, properties of pore fluids, Gassman’s equations for acoustic velocities in porous media, attenuation, and Vp and Vs for Coal. Introduction ‘The amplitude variation with offset or angle of incidence is directly related to the elastic and inelastic wave propagation properties of racks. These properties are controlled by the rock parameters of P-wave velocity, S- wave velocity, density, porosity, type of pore fluid, and lithologic properties of rocks. ‘Some of the petrophysical concepts used in AVO analysis are: (1) Obtain P-wave velocity, S-wave Velocity, and density data, (2) Develop trends for V, vs V or Vp vs p for sand and shale. (3) P, T, and composition dependence of p and & of pore fluids. (4) Using Biot-Gassmann equations, derive the skeleton properties, and effect of fluid substitution, (6) Obtain attenuation meesurements from various sources including attenuation from VSP. Elastic Wave Propagation Parameters P and S wave velocities are given in terms of elastic moduli et4/3u_ [A+2u ; Pp p v= [# (2) Where, Vp= P-wave velocity, V,= S-wave velocity, = Density, k= Bulk modulus or Incompressibility, /¢ = Shear modulus or Rigidity modulus 2 = Lame's constant From equation (2), we can write: B= pV? @) From equations (1) and (3), we get: A= pV>-2" = A= p(V} -2V}) (4) = pV, -4/3 yu «= p(V} - 4/3?) @) Figure 3-1 shows Vp ard Vs velocities and Figure 3-2 shows densities and Vp/Vs ratios. Figure 33 shows calculated 4 1 k; and Figure 3-4 shows Jp, put, pk. AVO and Seismic Atnoutes: Prnepies and Aplications Past 22ieee rans a The above equations provide a fundamental link between seismic wave propagation and rock properties (1) Bulk modulus is dependent on pore fluid bulk modulus. (2) Shear modulus is unaffected by pore fluids (3) Saturation of pore spaces with compressible gas will decrease the P-wave velocity, and S.wave velocity wil increase due to decrease in rock density (4) V/V, ratio serves as a good indicator of the presence of gas For fudds, Poisson's ratio. The Poisson s ratio is given by ny Effect of Temperature and Pressure on Vol Vs U1) Ata given temperature and pressure, P-wave and S-wave veloaty in rock depends on porosity. lithology pore fluid content, and texture (2) Powave and S-wave velocities are also dependent on the effective or differential pressure. which is the difference between the confining pressure and the pore pressure (3) Increase in pressure with depth causes pores or cracks te close. which increases the bulk modulus, density, P-wave and S-wave veiocities. (4) The temperature ranges encountered in oil and gas exploration, do not have a significant effect, Vp vs Vs Relations in Different Rocks When rock content approaches a single mineral, then the velocity in the rock approaches the velocity in the mineral. Also, when rock becomes more fluid, then the P-wave velocity approaches the velocity in water, and the S-wave velocity becomes zero. The following tabies give density, V, and V, velocities in different minerals, and Vand V, velocities in clay (Tabies 3-1, 3-2) Table 3-1 Mineral velocities are averaged to represent zero-porosity (Castagna & Backus, 1997) Minerat {Density gm/cc) Vp (km/s) V5 (km/s) Vp/Vs Calcite 2.74 6.53 3.36 1.94 Calcite 274 6.28 324 1.92 Dolomite 2.87 7.05 4.16 1.70 Halite 2.16 450 2.59 174 ‘Muscovite 279 5.78 3.33 174 Quartz 2.65 6.06 4.15 1.46 Quartz, 2.65 6.05 4.09 1.48 Anhydrite 2.96 6.01 3.37 1.78 AVO and Seismic Atributes: Princbles and Applications Port 33Application of Petrophysies to AVO Analysis Part 34 ‘Table 3-2 The clay velocities are extrapolations to 100 percent clay from lithologic mixtures. Description Vp (kins) Vg (kmis) VpVs Mixed clays 3.40 160 213 Mixed clays 341 163 209 Montmorillonite! illite mixture 3.60 185 195 ite 432 254 170 P&S ¥an Velocity Voi & Densay “~ ota = Figure 3-1 shows a plot of Vp and Vs velocities for 7 Figure 3-2 shows a plot of densities and Vp/Vs ratios different models. for 7 different models. pewory Vins Figure 3-3 shows a plot of calculated 2 w K for7 diferent igure 3-4 shows a plot of caleuated Jp, pyp, kp for7 models. different models. Note the velocity units are in km/sec. 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Figure 3-6 Vp and Vs Cross-plots for different rocks, and a plot of Vp/Vs ratio vs Vp for different lithologies are given in this figure (After Castagna et al, 1997). AVO and Salsmic Atrios: Principles and Applications Part‘Applicaton of Pelrophysis to AVO Analysis Part 38 Table 3-4 shows commonly used values of densities of minerals found in sedimentary rocks. Mineral Density Kaolinite 2.504 Montmorillonite 2.608 Chiorite 2.800 Ite 2.660 Glauconite 23 Musoovite 2.831 Biotite 2.900 Quartz 2.648 Feldspar 2,562.57, 2.62, 2.76 Calcite 2710 Dolomite 2.888 Siderite 3.944 Pyrite 5.011 Gypsum 2.305 Anhydrite 2.963 Halite 2.163 Table 3-5 Matrix densities for well log interpretation (Schlumberger Log Interpretation Charts, 1986). Density (gmicc) Kaolinite 244 Chlorite 276 tite 2.52 Montmorillonite 242 ‘A comparison of velocity-density relationships based on several different studies is presented in Figure 3-7. ‘An empirical vetocity-density retationship for different rocks is given by Gardner (1974). py, =1.741V,°% where V, is expressed in km/sec p, =0.23V,"% where Vp is expressed in ft/sec The coefficients in Table 3-6 are for a second order polynomial fit to Gardner (1974) data. The density units are in gmicc. The necessary coefficients for the exponential relationship between velocity and density as given by the following equation, are given in Table 3-7. pad! ‘Table 3-6 gives the coefficients for equation of the form: 2 p=aV, +bV,+0 AYO and Seismic Attbutes: Principles and Applications Par) a8Applicaton of Petroptysies to AVO Analysis Patt ‘Table 3-6 gives the coefficients for the quadratic equation for velocity density retationship. Lithotogy a b c Vp kinvsec Shale 0261373 1.458 1.55.0 ‘Sandstone -0115 261 1.518 156.0 Limestone -0296 464 963 35-84 Dolomite +0235 390 1.242 A574 Anhydrite -0203 321 1.732 46-74 Table 3-7 Coefficients for the equation p = dV,’ Lithotogy a f Vp km/sec Shale 175 265 15:50 Sandstone 1.68 264 15-60 Limestone 1.50 225 35-64 Dolomite 174 262 ABTA Anhydrite 2.49 160 46-74 Velocity in Mixed Rock Types 39 {In seismic exploration, mixed rock types are commonly encountered, and time-average equations are used to derive velocity and density data for mixed lithologies. Following is @ modified Wyllie's time average equation (Castagna, 1997) V/V, = Xp (Vay + X oy Vig + OV, Where, Xz. = Sandstone volume, V5 = Sandstone velocity, X-1= Clay volume, Voy = Clay velocity Castagna (1985) presented linear relations for fractional porosity based on ultrasonic measurements similar to Kowallis(1984). V, =5.81-9.429 -2.21%, V, = 3.89 - 7.076 ~2.04X,, Where, Vp -wave velocity, V; = S-wave velocity, ® = Fractional porosity, = Fractional Clay volume AVO end Seismic Atributes: Princes and Applications Pati 39‘Application of Petrophysics to AVO Analysis 6 {Gardner ot ai, 1974) + Velocity kmvsec Velocity kmisee ‘Shale 18 20 22 24 °° 26 Density grvcc 26 Anhydrite 28 Parti 340 & Velocity knvsec 18 20 22 24 26 Density gmice (Caatagna & Backus. 1997) s] Shale te» gata 3 4 Raymer et al 2 a 9 3] Gardner et a 3 "9 — N — Wood-like Log Data 1820 22 24 26 Density ynvce Velocity and Density Crossplots for Different Rock Types Figure 3-7 shows velocity and density relationships based on the work of Gardner, Raymer, Wood, and measurements in the lab and from sonic logs. Effect of Pressure on Velocity and Density of Different Lithologies: (1) Pressure dependence of P-wave velocity is independent of lithology. (2) Pressure dependence of S-wave velocity is dependent of lithology. (@) P-wave porosity dependence is the same for clay and quartz. For the equations given here, there are a number of potential problems: (1) The coefficients used in these equations describe specific type of data, (2) The linear best fit equations may apply in some cases and not in other. (3) The equations are based on laboratory measurements, and in-situ conditions cannot be duplicated Well log information should be used to supplement this data (4) Variations in clay are ignored (5) _ Variations in lithifcation, texture, and pore geometry are not considered (6) The pressure dependence is difficult to account for. (7) The effect of pressure may be erroneous due to measurements in the lab. AYO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and Appications Part) 340‘Aopicaton of Petrophy sks ta AVO Analyse Port) ot Elastic Parameters of Pore Fluids ‘The pore fluids vary significantly in their composition:Gas to condensate, Light to heavy crude, Oil & Gas mixture to brine and gas mixture Oil Wang et af (1988), presented the acoustic velocity in oll as: V = 215 +50700(77.1+ API)" ~ 6.727 + (0.1096 ~ 0.00166 4P/"?)P — (1.44 x 10~* ~ 5.18 x 104 API?) TP Where, T: ha P= psi, V = ttisec, API = AP| degree of oll The estimated density is given by Pg = Pg(0.972 + 0.000147 F) Where, pa= density of gas saturated oll, a= density of dead oil, G=Gas Gravity 12 G Fe ae] +75 R= Gas/(0ii Ratio Po AS a function of temperature and pressure, Velocity in oll varies between 1.1 km/sec to 1.6 km/sec, Brine Brines can range from pure water to saline solution saturated with salt. As a function of temperature and pressure, density of brine solution varies between 0.7 to 1.2 gice AVO and Seismic Atributos: Principles and Appications Parts! satApplication of Petrophysios fo AVO Analysis Port 312 Gassmann’s Equations for Velocities in Porous Media Gassmann’s equations are valid only at low frequencies, ie., at zero frequency: ky +(1- 8?) k = 1-6-5 and My = Ha (-9-b) , o- na ky Where, K,)= Bulk modulus of fiuid filled rock, Kq= Bulk modulus of rock skeleton, Kya = Bulk modulus of matrix grains, _Ky= Bulk modulus of pore fluid, Hy = Shear modulus of fluid filed rock, #44 = Shear modulus of rock skeleton, and b=Ka/Kna The fluid filed modull for 100% saturation: 4 Pinal = $n) 2 Hse = Proves Now calculate the bulk modulus for the skeleton: ky = dking Frcow i X+Y-2 Knowing the skeleton bulk modulus, Itis possible to calculate the bulk modulus for a fluid filled skeleton for a mixture of fluids, Le, for @ mixture of gas and brine: K syine F, ky = brine © gas Kas Sirine + Bovine S gas Where, Kgas = Bulk modulus of gas, Kring = Bulk modulus of brine, S\gap = Fractional saturation of X=Kyay/Kyy Y=14+6(Kigg Kp 1) gas=]~-Sbrine Sirine = Fractional saturation of brine ‘The remaining parameter bulk density for gas-brine saturation: Po = (1-9) Pna + Strine GP trine +5 gos OP gas The following Figure 3-8 shows an example of velocity as function of water saturation for gas/oil saturation, a ‘small amount of gas causes a large drop in Vp. AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and Appications Parti 212Application of Petrophysics to AVO Analysis: Port 319 11000: 10750: 10500 —pe, = 10250, Gas 10000 97250 ° 0.2 0.4 0.6 O.8 4.0 Sw Calculated Velocity vs Water Saturated Consolidated Sandstone Figure 3-8 shows velocity as function of water saturation, a small amount of gas causes a large drop in Vp. Attenuation or Absorption ‘Attenuation constants measured in different regions are given in Table 3-8 (From Castagna and Backus, 1997). ‘Attenuation of seismic waves plays an important role in AVO analysis. Attenuation due to the following factors can adversely affect the AVO: (1) Anomalous attenuation in the overburden 2) Attenuation in OivGas saturated zones abovesat the target horizon (8) Attenuation with increasing offset (4) Attenuation in unconsolidated sands ‘The attenuation of the plane waves can be expressed as: A(z) = d(0)e™™ Where, 4(0) = Amplitude at the source, A(z) = Amplitude at distance z from the source, @ = Attenuation constant which is a function of frequency. ‘The attenuation constant, a, is given by Quality Factor Q: af ov Two measurements of amplitudes, at two different locations, are required to calculate the attenuation constant aa MlA)/AG,)] (2, -2) AVO end Seismis Atvibutes: Prinslles and Applications Ports! 318, Where, f = Frequency, V’= Velocity,‘Application of Petrophysics to AVO Anaysie Paced ot Vp and Vs Anisotropy in Rocks Anisotropy in velocity and density is another important factor that can influence the AVO data and analysis. Table 3-8 gives the measured values for the attenuation constant a and the Quality Factor Q are given in the following table from Castagna and Backus, 1997. Location Depth = Hz Q t/a, Method Rock Type Reference m Offshore Louisiana 2070-2850 -<125 3 032 VSP Sand & Clay Hauge (1981) Pleistocene Southeast Texas 680-1920 15.40 34 027 VSP Sand 45% & ch Southeast Texas 18002100. <8 a7 or sp Sandan a Gi Southeast Texas 600-1560 -<80 46 0722 vs Sond 20% & Clay Offshore Louisiana 1170-1770 -< 125 7 018 VSP Glay/Sand Pleistocene SoutheastTexas => 1020» 40.70 e 0108 VSP Sand 24% & Clay East Texas 317-402 200 38 0263 VSP Sandishale Kan etal interbed (1983) East Texas 402-610 ~<200 ~ 004581635 VSP Shale East Texas 205-371 -<200 ooar4 VSP Shale East Texas 152.235 © -<200 = osit4 VsP Shale Limon (Colorado) 0-228.——50-460 2 0313 VSP Pierre Shale Donel etal 1958) utrcoast soso) 18 ss_ VSP Sante Shales Tuto 190 km south 0-400 75 0133 VSP Sandy Clay Reid of Houston 50-400 136 ora VSP Clay/Sand_—_(1969) ‘San Diego Shalow — 14KHz 31-32 Transducer Sand Clay/Sit Hamilton Probes (1972) take 111-497 SendisitiCiay 25 Kee “4 Fine Sand 25 KHz 54 Sandy Sit 25 Ke 118 Clayey sit 400 KHz __23-104 Sand/SivOiay Beaufort Sea 549-1199. 125 43 023 vsP Ganley (Canade) Kanasewich (1980) Beaufort Soa oa5131t 425 or 018 vsP (Canada) ‘Sarawak Basin 700 700 ‘Sonobuoys Marine ‘Sto & Houtz 116-870 Sediments (1883) ‘South China Sea 1800137524 Diving Wave AVO and Selemic Atributos: Panciles and Applications Pert! on‘Applicaton of Petrophysies to AVO Analysis: Parti 3.48 Vp and Vs in Coal The following Figure 3-9 shows the Vp and Vs relationships for coal (After Castagna and Backus, 1997). 3.1 29 27 25 23 Vp kmisec 24 1.9 1.7 0.75 085 095 1.05 1145 1.25 1.35 Vs kmisec Vp and Vs Plot for Coal (Castagna & Backus, 1997 Figure 3-9 shows a cross-plot of Vp vs Vs for Coal. ‘AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and ApplicationsSeismic Processing for AVO Analysis Patt “4 Chapter 4 : Seismic Processing for AVO Chapter 4 : Seismic Processing for AVO... Seismic Processing Processing Steps. eee Geometric Spreading Correction. FAK FiMETING nner ‘Surface Consistent Deconvoi Surface Consistent Statics. Dip Moveout (DMO) Correction... NMO Correction... Amplitude Smoothing... ee Amplitude with Offset Display (AVO)...... ‘Amplitude with Angle Display (AV/ Data Processing and AVO Analysis... Q-Compensation for AVO Siope ... Review Fundamentals of AVO AVO and Seismic Modeling: eee Example of AVO: Producing and Non-Producing Bright Spot Pitfalls, Precautions in AVO Processing and Analysis... Data Processing. : : Data Acquisition AVO Modeling AAVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles end Applications Parts 4‘Soiamic Processing for AVO Analysis Patt 42 Seismic Processing This chapter covers the data processing sequences, procedures, amplitude correction, surface consistent deconvolution and statics, NMO, amplituds correction and smoothing, amplitude with offset, amplitude with angle, seismic modeling, and pitfalls and precautions, The extraction and analysis of petrophysical properties from seismic records is achieved through the use of AVO, Seismic reflection amplitudes represent the net result of many different factors along with AVO variation described in earlier chapter, Some of the key points relative to this issue are: (1) Identify, or calculate, and compensate for the effect of all factors (except AVO) affecting seismic refiection amplitude, (2) Remove unwanted noise and multiples. (8) _ Display techniques for AVO. Processing Steps A processing scheme is shown in the following flow chart in Figure 4-1. Solomio Records eee eee Cee Cee " ‘Surface Consstent Staies Inia Processing, demutiplaing, |= Coneeten shot tecoiver elevation sates | Ee Tae Tae eaE! ‘ x ee ‘Ammpitude Correction for Geomettio |: ‘Spreading q “Amplitude Smoothing (Running Average) ED ‘Ampltude with Offset Display “Amplitude with Angle Dispisy ‘Surface Consistent Amplitude Conection Figure 4-1 shows a processing flow for AVO analysis and display. AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles end Applications Parts 42‘Seismic Processing for AVO Analysis Part 43 Geometric Spreading Correction ‘This correction compensates for the loss of amplitude due to geometric spreading with distance from the Source. This correction due to divergence is accomplished by multiplying by a factor ofthe type: vt Where, V = Velocty, t= Two-way travel time F-K Filtering Most of source related noises aro in two dimensions, therefore, itis necessary to use 2-D filtering techniques to Temove or altenuate the source related or other 2-D noise from the data. Some ofthe side effects of 2-0 filters include the following: (1) 2-D mixing of seismic data can mask AVO, (2) _ Reflection amplitudes may also be attenuated or enhanced at some. offsets, (3) Amplitudes of the low velocity reflection events may be attenuated. In spite of these drawbacks, F-K filter remains a powerful tool to attenuate 2-D noise. Surface Consistent Deconvolution Seismic traces shaw different degree of vatiations in source wavelet with offset, Surface consistent deconvolution is used to equalize these variations in source wavelet with offset Surface Consistent Statics ‘The surface consistent static corrections are celeulated by correlating each trace within a gather with the model (average) trace, Dip Moveout (DMO) Correction Dip’ moveout correction is important for AVO analysis to remove the effect of dip on the moveout curve of seismic reflections. DMO is also called partial pre-stack migration, NMO Correction Normal moveout correction makes the AVO reflection event fat, and easier to analyze Amplitude Smoothing ‘Smoothing AVO amplitudes using running average will remove residual amplitude errors. -mplitude with Offset Display (AVO) Final AVO is displayed as a time window aver the seismic traces from the near to the far offset. AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and Applications Part.) 43‘Seismic Processing for AVO Analysis Ports) “4 Amplitude with Angle Display (AVA) ‘Some of the offset traces in a CDP are summed together to produce a trace for the reflection angle. (1) Estimate the reflection angle as a function of time and offset. Ving X Venoots VW? + (Vnoon fo)? Where, x = offset, Vsmoain = A smoothed spatially varying velocity function, Vin: = Interval velocity obtained from Sin 6 = the smoothed velocity function using Dix's equation at f, fy= Zero Offset 2.way travel time, (2) Calculate the angle-mute pattems for a reflection angle with 4-degree window on either side (Castagna and Backus, 1997) as shown in Figure 4-2, Figure 4-3, Figure 4-4, Figure 4-5, and Figure 4-6. The average velocity and interval velocity (Figure 4-4) functions used for calculating the incidence angle mute patterns shown at 2° steps in Figure 4-5. Angle Gathers and CDP Gathers ‘The panels in Figure 4-6 show how to generale angle-mute gathers from a CDP, Angle gathers are obtained by calculating a muting window, which is a function of the time and traces or distance, and then summing the amplitudes from traces within this window (Figure 4-8). This muting window represents reflection amplitudes arriving within a narrow range of angles (5 deg). A 3-D cube plot of showing the amplitude variation in CDP — Time domain, and in the CDP ~ Angle domain is shown in Figure 4-9 (After Castagna and Backus, 1997). Common Offset and Angle Stacks Using common offset stacks and angle stacks can enhance the AVO attribute for easy viewing and analysis. Data Processing and AVO Analysis It is important to know the effect of different processing techniques on reflection amplitude, and reflection amplitude variation with offset, e.9., AGC can modify the relative amplitudes and should be used with great caution. Also, the effect of deconvolution, 1-D and 2-D filtering, should be properly analyzed before application and before AVO analysis. Q-Compensation for AVO Slope ‘AVO slope change (s/c) due to the overburden can be estimated using: Sle = f,7/Q, Where, _f)= dominant frequency of wavelet, 7 = Zero offset reflection time of target, Q.= Average Quality Factor along the path. AVO and Seismic Atriputes: Principles and Applications Pert “4Seis Processing for AVO Analysis @ Panes 45 Figure 4-10 shows the effect of Q and AVO slope: (1) shows zero offset reflectivity without any Q-compensation, (2) shows zero offset reflectivity with Q- ‘compensation, (3) shows zero offset reflectivity multiplied with AVO slope, and without any Q- compensation, (4) shows zero offset reflectivity multiplied with AVO slope, and with Q-compensation Offsets for Angle Mute Figute 4-2 For each incidence angle there is an offset distance, and a window of offsets is selected for calculating a range of angle of incidence, ‘Mute Pattern for a Range of Angles to | TI 7 q X| AN VA Offsets X=81Ri Xp=82Re Figure 4-3 For each incidence angle there is an offset distance, and a window of offsets is selected for calculating a range of angle of incidence. A schematic of calculating the mute window is shown in this figure. AVO and Seismic Atributes: Principles and Applications Part 48‘Seismic Processing for AVO Analysis: Partl ee Average & Interval Velocity vs v.03) —w 8 s Velocity (nsec) 3 8 8 oo Os 10 15 20 25 Time (sec) Figure 4-4 shows the average velocity ang interval velocity used for calculating the incidence angle mute patterns shown at 2° steps in Figure 4-5 Trace Number ° a2 24 36 4s 0.0. Figure 4-5 shows the calculated mute pattems at 2° steps. AVO end Seismic Atibutes: Principles and Appcations Port 46‘Seismic Processing for AVO Analysis Panel “7 Angle-Mute Patterns in 5 dog Increment with Plus & Minus 4 deg Overlap. coP 1.7 wT Marth een Wh Time (sec) Figure 4-6 For each incidence angle there is an offset distance. and a window of offsets is selected for calculating 2 range of angle of incidence as illustrated in Figure 4-3. (@)0-10 Degree Stack (2) 10-20 Degree Stack (f) 20-80 Degree Stack —_ Figure 4-7 shows common offset stacks and angle stacks (After Allen and Peddy, 1994). |AVO and Salamis Atributes: Principles and Applications Part) “7Seismic Processing or AVO Analysis Parl +8 5 Angle (deg) 30 ©6400 Offset (ft) 11300 {a) {b) Angle (deg) Offset (ft) 5 25 5 25 2642 8340 2642 8340 (c) Angle Gathers (d) COP Gathers Figure 4-8 shows angle gathers and CDP gathers (After Allen and Peddy, 1994) Time (sec Figure 4-9 A 3-D cube plot of showing the amplitude variation in CDP - Time domain, and in the CDP ~ Angie domain is shown in Figure 4-9 (After Castagna and Backus, 1997), AVO and Selsme Attributes: Prnciples and Applications Part) +8Seismic Processing for AVO Analysis Parte 49 5 @) Ao x AVO Slope No Q- Compensation Time (sec) & (4) Ae x AVO Slope. Q- Compensation Time (sec) = Zero Offset Reflectivity Figure 4-10 shows: (1) Zero offset reflectivity without any Q-compensation, (2) Zero offset reflectivity with Q- compensation. (3) Zero offset reflectivity multiplied with AVO slope, and without any C-compensetion, (4) Zero offset reflectivity multiplied with AVO slope, and with Q-compensation, Review Fundamentals of AVO ‘The following Figure 4-11 shows the relationships between Poisson's ratio and ¥p/V5 ratio; and the effect of Variation in /p, density, and Poisson's ratio across the interface on the AVO response, The Figure 4-12 shows @ comparison Zoeppritz solution and Shuey's approximation for water-sand and gas-sand models (After Allen and Peddy, 1994). The reflection coefficients are absolute values. Ao _]2,, LAY, . RO) XR, +l 4%, Tay sin? 0+ zp ban? 0-sin? 0) ee ? Where, Ro = Normal incidence reflection coefficient, Ag = Normal incidence amplitude, = Poisson's ratio, Ac = Change in Poisson's ratio, Vp = average Velocity of P-waves, AV >p = Change in P velocity, @ = Angle of incidence. AVO and Salemin Srihstaes Dena‘Seismic Processing for AVO Anaiysis Ports 410 AVO and Seismic Modelin, (1) Seismic amplitudes are affected by many wave propagation factors along the propagation path. (2) Reflection coefficients are functions of rock properties across the reflecting interface. (3) The objective is to compensate or correct the amplitudes for all of the known factors for AVO. {4) Processing techniques must preserve relative true amplitude information. (8) AVO study should include CDP gathers over known production, dry holes, and know stratigraphy. (8). AVO behavior observed on seismic data must be verified using synthetic AVO from models. (7) P-wave, and S-wave velocities along with density information is necessary to solve the AVO equations for obtaining Amplitude vs Offset information. P-waves are recorded as sonic logs, density of the formation is obtained from density logs, and S-wave velocity information is obtained from full wave sonic logs or other logs specifically recorded for measuring S-wave velocity. (8) Synthetic AVO responses are obtained by Zoeppritz equations, or Shuey's approximation. Elastic wave ‘modeling techniques calculate amplitudes at the surface as a solution of the wave equation. (9) Subsurface models are created from suite logs, each log is blocked to create distinct layers in the ‘model and stil preserve the basic character of the log. ‘A data processing and modeling flow is given in Figure 4-13. Example of AVO: Producing and Non-Producing Bright Spot: Figure 4-14 shows relative amplitude stacked section across a Gulf Coast bright spot, and AVO analysis was Used fo evaluate this bright spot. The bright spot reflection increases in amplitude with offset, which indicated that the reflection may be due to gas. A 50 ft (16 m) gas sand was discovered by the well. Figure 4-14 shows a faise bright spot at 1.2 s on @ migrated section, This bright spot does not show anomalous AVO behavior, indicating that It is not due to gas, This reflection was found to be from wet sand after drilling. Figure 4-18 shows a clear bright spot from clean wet sand. AVO and Seismic Atibutas: incites and Applications Part 410Seismic Processing for AVO Analysis 95 | 2 oF 2 3 fos = 8 o2 2S & on 00 1s 20 vpivs 25 O14 2 § 0.08 € Vp. Density, increase. 3 8 2-97 and Poisson's Ratio A Decreases Across the 20.054 Interface 2 3 & on ° 10 Angle of Incidence 20 Parts g 20.05 3 2 iS 3-017) vp, Density 3 Poisson's Ratio Decrease Across the $05: hterface = 2 0.2 7 30 oo 20 3040 Angle of Incidence on & Vp. Density € 0.05-] Decrease, and 3 Poisson's Ratio 8 oy] Remains Constant 5 the Interface ee 3 @ $ 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 Angle of incidence Figure 4-11 shows the relationships between Poisson's ratio and Ip I's ratio. and the affect of variation in Hp, density, and Poisson's ratio across the interface on the AVO response 0.100 2 ° 5 a ° 9 a 3 Absolute Reflection Coefficient ° 9 8 a 9.000 ° 10 eppritz s Shuey s 20 Angle of inciaence 30 40 Figure 4-12: Zoeppritz solution and Shuey’s approx. for water & gas-sand models (After Allen & Peddy, 1994). AVO and Seismic Atirbutes: Prinples and Appleations Parts an‘Seiemie Processing for AVO Anaysis: Parts ana 2000 (@) Bright spot due to 50 ft of Gas Sand (e) False Bright Spot reflection from Wet Sand (@) No Significanct AVO Response Figure 4-14 shows a stacked section across bright spol at 1 65 s Increasing AVO response for this bright spot was Interpreted to be due to gas. Dry hole encountered thick, clean. wet sand (After Allen and Peddy, 1994) s000 onset (ry, e680 ee vere, wae ‘ oD te me ‘The above Bright Spot has an Increasing AVO response (righ} as predicted for a gas sand This Bright Spotis due to a thick clean water sand. Figure 4-15 A bright spot from clean wet sand penetrated by the dry hole (After Allen and Peddy, 1994) AVO and Solsmic Atributes: Principles and Apptcatons Parts anaSeismic Processing for AVO Analysis Part 412 Flow Chart for Seismic Data Processing and Modeling (Si Sates) Data Few Pere eee ere ae eee eee feces i Saame Sar [Wigs or | | oer Subeurtace ee infomation eo | Carat ‘AiFacws ‘Mtcing seis Amptudes : Patoohvacs ee i feck Popores and | Eiete Ware | | Paancos | — 1 ‘Selamicintrpataton Tie Wal information t> | Seta oae te {Geologie Neds | taper Thishnesses tre Rate No Math ‘Examine COP Gathers for ‘Amptuse Varaton ‘with set, inate Piso (AVO) Arpltude veORsot ftom COP J ‘Salsmle Modeling Obtain AVO eieHerer ead ‘compare Observed AVO sr Model VO. a itor ea Maton Figure 4-13 shows a data processing and modeling flowchart. AVO and Setemic Attoutos: Principles and Applications Patt 412‘Seismic Processing fr AVO Analysis Part 44 Pitfalls, Precautions in AVO Processing and Analysis Data Processing (1) (2) 3) (4) (8) (6) 7) (8) (9) (10) (41) (12) Do not use trace-by-trace amplitude scaling such as automatic gain control (AGC) NMO Stretch can create a false appearance of increasing AVO on far traces (Figure 4-16 a & b). Figure 4-18 (After Allen and Peddy, 1994) shows high amplitudes for the reflection at 1.75 sec, which corresponds to the mute window, The whole trace equalization increases the amplitude of deeper reflection amplitudes on traces where the shallow strong amplitude events are missing or muted. This artificial AVO anomaly was drilled to discover 8 ft thick coal over wet sand Effect of AGC Window: Following Figure 4-19(a) shows CDP gathers across amplitude anomaly at 1.35 sec, which was drilled as an AVO anomaly AVO response using basic processing shows an ambiguous AVO anomaly. AGC of 2 sec window causes an increasing AVO of at 1.36 s. Strong reflection horizons as markers to validate the AVO anomalies free of correction effects. Surface consistent amplitude balancing after one pass, amplitude decreases with offset, and after second pass, amplitude increases with offset as shown in Figure 4-17 Analyze AVO and AVA plots to avoid data problems appearing as AVO anomalies. Determine the phase of the data using a reflection with a known impedance contrast. Wavelet Phase: A zero phase wavelet shows an increase in acoustic impedance. The side lobe of the zero-phase wavelet is the small trough above the main peak (Figure 4-19 b). The zero phase wavelet, after a 60°-phase rotation, shows a dominant trough, which implies a decrease in impedance as seen with a gas sand in the Gulf Coast. Figure 4-20 shows a whole range of phase shifts from 0” to 180° for reflections from several horizons, which show change in amplitude at all horizons with changing phase. ‘When there is a seismic response from gas sand in CDP gathers within a Fresnel zone (Figure 4-21) from the boundaries of the gas sand, prestack migration will decrease the contribution of the gas sand downdip of the gas-water contact, decreasing the chance of driling on an AVO anomaly downdip of production (Lindsey, 1980). All seismic sections with any amount of dip or faults or truncations, contain 2 significant amount of. Diffractions appear on the CDP gathers as noise that can interfere with the amplitudes of the target reflection, masking the correct AVO. Pre-stack migration to move reflections to correct location. Data to eliminate out-of-plane effects. DMO and post-stack migration over an amplitude anomaly that extends down-dip of the producing well. if dipping amplitude enomaly is not migrated correctly then the down-dip limits cannot be properly defined. Pre-stack migration helps identify the down-dip limits of the AVO anomaly. OMO and migration techniques affect seismic amplitudes. AVO and Seismic Atibutes: Principles and Applications Parts 14Soismie Processing for AVO Analysis Patel 415 Figure 4-22 (a) shows an un-migrated gather, which has a slightly increasing AVO. (b) Migrated gather ‘shows a slightly decreasing AVO. The shatlow amplitudes, muting, and scaling are also playing a role in these amplitude changes (After Allen and Peddy, 1994). (13) Deconvolution Figure 4-23 shows the effect of different types of deconvolution on preserving relative amplitudes, (a) Spiking deconvolution is a trace-by-trace calculation and amplitudes are not preserved {b) Surface-consistent deconvolution preserves amplitudes and may not attenuate the multiples (6) Surface-consistent wavelet processing algorithm gives results intermediate between spiking deconvolution and the surface-consistent deconvolution result Data Acquisition (1) Attenuating effect of source receiver arrays on amplitudes of reflection events on far offsets. A synthetic CDP gather is shown in Figure 4-24, for a model with a S0-layer with Vp, Poisson's ratio and density lower than the surrounding layers. The reflection increases in amplitude with offset (2) The gather and AVO attributes with the effect of an 82 ft array (Figure 4-24 (a), (3) An array 330 ft in length causes more attenuation at the far offsets, reducing the gradient and Normal incidence * delta sigma, or the change in Poisson's ratio (Figure 4-24 (b). (4) An array 660 ft in length changes the response of the reflection from an increase to a decrease in amplitude with offset (Figure 4-24 (c). (8) CDP Binning and summing, and Coherency Filtering can enhance AVO anomalies for proper evaluation. AVO anomalies, on raw CDP gathers, are enhanced by binning and summing for 3-D data and crooked lines. Amplitude anomalies are aiso enhanced by improving the signal to noise ratio using coherency filtering. AVO Modeling (1) _ Incorrect S-wave velocity will result in incorrect AVO modeling and prediction. (2) Clean, highly porous sandstones and gas sands with less porosity can cause an increase in AVO. (3) Changes in the transverse isotropy in surrounding rack can cause changes in AVO response. (4) Tuning in thin beds can also cause increasing AVO response. (5) Anomalies that do not correlate with logs, and are likely to be out of the plane reflections, (8) Color Display of AVO Attributes Color dispiay of gradient of a straight line fit to the amplitude vs incidence angle (Figure 4-26). All of the attributes that apply to AVO analysis of seismic data also apply to color displays of AVO Attributes. The corrected CDP gathers for this data show increasing AVO with offset AVO and Seiemie Atibutes: Prneples and Applications Parts 418‘Seismic Processing for AVO Analysis Port! 416 INPUT d e A SN ei (a) Uncorrected Gather (b) Corrected Gathers Showing Apparent Amplitude increase on Far Traces due toNMO Stretch Figure 4-16 (a). An uncorrected record showing a seismic event with amplitude decreasing with offset Figure 4-16 (b) NMO corrected record shows an apparent amplitude increase with offset Offset > Mute Pattorn, Shallow Strang Ampiitucs, Whe 28 Equalization Caused AVO O Surface Consistent Amp. Scaling Surface Consistent Amp. Soaling Pass! Pass Il Figure 4-17. Decreasing AVO after first pass, and increasing AVO Figure 4-18. AVO anomaly at 1.75 sec due to after the second pass (After Allen and Peddy, 1994) mute, trace scaling (After Allen & Peddy, 1994) AVO and Seismic Atributes. Principles and Applications Part) 416‘Saiemvc Processing for AVO Analysis Pat 417 . PELE Vee TES PODDDE PDD, Offset — > Offset —> < @ icrease in Acoustic Impedance with Offset ‘Becrease in Acoustic Impedance with Offset Figure 4-19 (a) and (b) show AVO anomaly. which shows increasing amplitude with offset after AGC scaling with a window of 2.0 sec This apparent AVO anomaly is caused by AGC. Apparent increase or decrease in acoustic impedance due to phase difference of 60-degree as shown in Figure 4-19 (c) and (d). AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and Applications Port “17‘Solsmie Processing for AVO Analysis Part 448 _poase shitt 0° "Phase Shift 45° Phase Shift 9 Phase Shift 140° AN ti A beeicreererererenentbe HELL >Ddprsbodoo>yd>>>. eee . my a PTTITSEFTSHEST OAT fae | NOTE Nyy eirtietien ° Phase Shift 20° Phase Shit! 60. Phase Shift 400 Phase Shift 160 biyisecoetcasectert dil AU Ue ete Ree ARS Nahe eccceceeeeceteceee ‘sii a Haan ie eeeied — SSI SSSRSSS oSDH SONS SN oUt Ue ae ail ia: il severe — seeeeteenssencntent — eso SIMS NNNNNNNNIOT_INPNPODDDDDIINIDDODD yee cervsraysceqessyti sy —= Phase shit 80 Phase Shift 420 Phase shin 180. stall — dai — aa — Sm Sn — Pee " Ue NREETROGEETEG (EUCUCCEREEE CETTE auc HELLS SES LLICERS "55s uy ynapapaammnasne Se SS TNT = SER ML ee fedeueretiesteeu tty Figure 4-20 shows reflections from several horizons rotated from 0° to 180°. Post-Migration Zone Pre-Migration Fresnel Zone Fresnel Zone Before and After Pres-Stack Migration.Pre-stack ‘Migration Moves the AVO Anomalies to the Carract Location. Figure 4-21 shows the Fresnel zone before and after migration AVO end Seismic Atributes: Principles and Applications Part a8Parti +19 ‘Sefemie Processing or AVO Analysis Offset > Offset ammmj> Offset emmip> (2) Unmgeated COP Shows an increase in VO {b Migrated GOP Shows a Decrease m AVO Figure 4-22 (a) shows an un-migrated gather, which has a slightly increasing AVO. (b) Migrated gather shows a slightly decreasing AVO (After Allen and Peddy, 1994), () Surface Consistent econ Preserves Relative Amplitude, and Mulbples are not eC Figure 4-23 (a) Shows an example of spiking deconvolution, which is a trace-by-trace calculation and relative amplitude may not be preserved. (b) Surface-consistant deconvolution preserves relative amplitudes but may not attenuate the multiples. (c) Surface-consistent wavelet processing algorithm gives results intermediate between ‘spiking deconvolution and the surface-consistent deconvolution result (After Allen and Peddy, 1994). AVO and Seismic Atributes: Principles and Applications Patt 419‘Seismic Provessing for AVO Analysis Parl 420 Offset Stack NI Ao NAc Grad sdshbibabehrrs (b) 330 ft Array. i Li MD i Figure 4-24 shows (a) Synthetic record with short array shows increase amplitude with offset, (b) Synthetic record with longer array. there 1s a slight attenuation of amplitudes. stil shows increase amplitude with offset (c) Synthetic record with a much longer array. there is attenuation of amplitudes. now shows amplitude decreasing with offset {After Allen and Peddy. 1994) 2 $ 3 Q % N x v . oa Sessa sé . o Figure 4-25 shows a color attribute plot of the AVO gradient calculated using a best fit ine AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and Applications Pare 420Interpretation ard Analysis of AVO Data Parti ot Chapter 5 : Analysis and Interpretation of AVO Chapter 5 : Analysis and Interpretation of AVO...... ‘Analysis and Interpretation of AVO Data. Introduction, Procedures in AV PROCESSING oan Seismic Modeling .... Develop 1-D Seismic Models for P and S Waves. 2-D Modeling. : ‘VO Medoing of Gas OilBine Salraied Rocks Viscoelastic Modeling... Interpreted Seismic Events. Amplitude Ratio between Target and Reference Layer. AVO RESUS nen z Observations and Conclusions... Interpretation and Displays of AVO Analy AVO Maps, Bright Spots - AVO. ‘Crossplotting Normal inci AVO Procedure Nivs PR... Rotating NI* PR Attribute to Change Class 2 to Cia Gulf Coast Example of NI vs PR Crossplotting... Crossplotting AVO Intercept A and Gradient 8. AVO Crosspiotting and Fiuid F'actor Calculation. Statistical Correlation or AVO Background Trend. Crossplotting A*p, utp and kp Grossploting AN(O2 1) vs AA 2 B) 158 3 AVO Anomaly aa AVO and Seismic Atributes: Principles and Applications Part) BtInterpretation and Analysis of AVO Data Parti 52 Analysis and Interpretation of AVO Data Introduction This chapter covers s ic processing techniques for AVO analysis and interpretation, seismic modefing, AVO maps and cross-plotting techniques for AVO. The property of seismic amplitude variation with offset due to the reflectivity variation with offset is the fundamental basis of AVO analysis and interpretation. Itis very important to note that seismic amplitude variation with offset is also caused by many other factors. Therefore, seismic amplitudes must be corrected or compensated for all other known factors except variation of reflectivity with offset. The factors affecting amplitudes with offset are listed below and should be accounted for before proceeding to interpret AVO results: a @ @) (4) 6) ©) a ‘Source — Receiver Array Response Source recelver arrays are designed to attenuate certain frequencies, and this process will also atfect amplitudes by partial removal of some of the frequencies, Source — Receiver Coupling Source receiver coupling to ground surface is essential for good signal to noise ratio for reflected seismic events. Instrument Response It is important to know the instrument phase response al all frequencies. The seismic data should be corrected for the instrument phase response whenever possible. Source Generated Noise Ground roll and air waves have a serious impact on most seismic reflections and especially for amplitude with offset studies. Spherical Divergence The outgoing wave-front loses seismic energy due to geometric spreading. This Loss of s amplitudes is inversely proportional to the square of the distance for a spherical source, and inversely proportion to the distance for a cylindrical source. The correction factor is approximated by f", where, nis determined by statistical analysis of the recorded seismic data. Surface and Near Surface Condition Near surface conditions affect the seismic amplitudes due to absorption or due to multiples in the near surface layers. Attenuation Attenuatic or absorption of seismic energy is a key factor that affects amplitude with distance. AVO and Selemic Atvibutes: Principles and Applications Pat 52Interpretation and Anstysis of AVO Date Parl oa (8) _ Reflection — Transmission Reflection and transmission effects remove eneray from the advancing wave front at each reflection. (9) Partition of Seismic Energy into P & S Waves Partitioning of Seismic Energy into P & S Waves, removes energy from the advancing wave front at each reflection. (10) Thin-Bed Tuning Effects Tuning effects of reflections from thin beds will create lateral amplitude variation due to thickness changes. (11) Focusing and defocusing Focusing and defocusing of seismic energy by the geometric shapes of the reflectors (geologic boundaries) tend to increase and decrease seismic reflection amplitudes. (12) Seismic Processing Techniques to Compensate for Amplitude Losses Seismic data processing techniques used for amplitude correction may introduce amplitude variation due to over correction or under correction, and over processing (13) _P & S Wave Anisotropy Variations in P & S wave velocities in different direction need to be compensated in AVO (14) Dipping Reflectors Dipping reflectors cause serious errors in calculating incidence angles. Procedures in AVO Analysis Processing (1) As a rule, minimum amount of processing, and necessary procedures should be carried out to isolate AVO and improve signal to noise ratio. (2) Common-depth-point (CDP) gather (8) Deconvolution (4) Elevation to datum statics, and residual statics. (5) Normal moveout (NMO) to flatten the event to make it easier to view and analyze amplitudes. (®) Using AVO ratios from reference and target horizons neutralizes the effect of factors other than AVO on reflection amplitude. (7) Multiples should be attenuated. AVO and AVA processing flow proposed by Hong (1997) is shown in Figure 5-1, and a processing flow given by Estill and Wrolstad is given in Figure 5-2. ‘AVO and Seismic Atributes: Principles and Applications Parti 53Interprotaton and Analysis of AVO Data Pest Flowchart for AVO and AVA, (C__ Rew Seiomic Data). Processing seaabussareian Selemic Field Data Elevation to Datum Statice : ee Groundrell, Surface Waves, & ‘Air waves Supression Gain Recovery Geometric Spreading or ‘Spherical Dwerganes” | TERT Instrument Response & Phase Gorrection “= a oo Sa i “Sosonvortion GDP Gather " Mating Y Remows > L ce ‘Retractione. Multiple Attenuation a ATOR Tee Maigration Before Steck | ‘Correction for Geometric ‘Sprescing, er WMO or Fiatening Iz Using State oni Compensation for Absarption | Surface Consistent improve S/n Ratio Deconvolution aE ~ a Trace Bslansing rr: Wavelet Processing 7 NMO Gorrection Sarrect fer Receiver 7 WEE 7 a a Amplitude Anomalion e a EASED BVOTATE : In Traee/Grupn plots, [tL Lentoutate theoretical AVS Convert Offsets into Incidence Angle = Extract AVO and AVA Values |» trom Seismic Data If No Maton SSE Revise Modet Figure 5-1 shows an AVO and AVA processing flow Figure 5-2 shows seismic data processing flow proposed proposed by Hong (1897). by Estill and Wrolstad, AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and Applications Patt baInterpretation and Anaiyais of AVO Osta Pati 55 Seismic Modeling Develop 1-D Seismic Models for P and S Waves: Hong (1997) presented the 1-D synthetic for P and S wave as shown in Figure 5-3. The synthetic P and S wave traces are used to pick and validate target reflections P-Wave 1-D Synthetic. S-Wave 1-D Synthetic me Figure 5-3 shows the P and S wave synthetic seismograms obtained from P-wave and S-wave sonic logs 2-D Modeling 2D Seismic Modeling for P and S Waves Reflection Coefficient with Incidence Angle Using Generate 2-0 seismic response from a depth model and correlate with seismic data, (Figure 5-4, after Hong, 1997) () 2-0 Synthetic Figure 5-4 gives a comparison of 2-D synthetic gathers with seismic data, (a) 2-D synthetic data with muitiples, (b) Recorded seismic gather, (c) 2-D synthetic without multiples, and primaries only (After Hong, 1997), AVO and Seismic Atributes: Principles and Applications Part 55Interpretation and Analysis of AVO Data Part 56 AVO Modeling of Gas-Oil-Brine Saturated Rocks. ‘The following table shows the parameters for the 2-D model for the synthetic AVO shown in Table 5-1 {tis common procedure to develop a model of the subsurface and calculate a synthetic AVO (Figure 6-6) for the purpose of interpretation of the AVO derived from seismic data. Table 5-1, Sonic and density model for Arabian Guif including the target horizon (After Chiburis, 1987) Thicknessm Vpmis Vsmls_ Density g/cc. Poisson's Ratio 50 1500 0 4.00 0.50 210 1830 915 2.20 0.33 280 2290 1145 2.25 0.33 195 3050 1526 2.27 0.33 180 3960 1980 2.50 0.33 325 3810 1905 2.46 0.33 300 4870 2435 2.40 0.33 90 3810 1905 2.36 0.33 75 2440 1220 2.35 0.33 120 4270 2136 2.60 0.33 140 3475 1732 2.20 0.33 90 3700, 1850 2.40 0.33 108 75 240 O48 Gas 100 2392 2028 240 0.22. Oil 100 3450 1950 2.40 0.27 Brine Viscoelastic Modeling Viscoelastic modeling is considered by many to be a complete solution of the wave equation. The data in Table 5:2 are for viscoelastic modeling (Figure 5-5, After Wrolstad, 1997). Table 5-2 gives the elastic constants for synthetic modeling (After Wrolstad, 1997). Poisson's Ratio | Well A(Oil) Well B(Water) Chert 34 3 Dolomite 0 30 i Limeston 3t1 att i | Coal 40 40 | Bulk Moduli (GPa) Hydrocarbons, 1.014 (api.49) | .024 (as) Water 2.39 2.39 Quartz grains 40.0 40.0 Calcite mineral | 70.0 0.0 Dolomite mineral 80.0 80.0 | Clay (Brent) 23.4 24.0 | Density (am/ce) Hydrocarbons(am/ce) | 825 (API 40) 412 (gas) Water 4,04 4.04 Quartz grains, 2.6: 2.65. [tay (Brent 2.76 AVO and Seismis Attributes: Principles and Applications Panel 56Interorataton and Analysis of AVO Data Parts sr 1.2 = a 1.0 Normalized Amplitude ° © 08 ° 400 800 1200 1600 2000 Offset Distance (m) Figure 5-8 shows calculated and normalized AVO for the Arabian Gulf model in Table §-1 (After Chiburis, 1997) ‘ NMO Corrected CDP Slockes Plane Layer Elastic Formation | Gather <) Synthetic Response eee Offset (ft) ws aN PH yan fy 8 em Figure 5-6 shows 2-D seismic response on the right, with seismic data on the left, and the formations left. AVO and Seismic Atributes: Pricoles and Applications Pat! orInterpretation and Analysis of AVO Data Parts 56 P & S wave velocities and density date along with discrete layers for the subsurface mode! are derived from the blocked logs, and used for ray-trace or viscoelastic modeling. A comparison elastic synthetic model data with real seismic data processed for AVO analysis is shown in Figure 5-6 (After Wrolstad, 1997) Interpreted Seismic Events (1) Seismic reflection events are interpreted and tied to well log information relating to geologic horizons and 1-D eynthetic, (2) Estimate target layer thickness, variations in stratigraphy, lithology, porosity, and structure of the target and reference (for ratios). (3) Top / bottom of the target layer can be picked for AVO analysis. (4) Generate 2-D response gathers to compare with seismic gathers. (8) Generate synthetic AVO response from horizons or targets of interest. (8) Distinguish AVO from a known reflection, such as from coal or other bright-spot generating lithologies (Figure 5-7) (After Regueito, 1997) at is er =u AGH Ct Time (sec) i an eae fi alae aie ta pie aM Coal and Gas Bright Spots (After, Regueiro, 1997) Figure 5-7 shows bright-spots from Coal and Gas. AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and AppBicatione Pert 58Interpretation and Analyse of AVO Date Patel 50 Amplitude Ratio between Target and Reference Layer (1) Measure peak amplitudes of target AVOr(xz) and reference AVOg () events at offsets x, within a gather Errors in NMO, selection of time windows, will cause serious problems in AVO analysis. (2) Normalize the target amplitude to reference amplitude for each trace using: AVO, (2)! AVO yg x)= AVO,(7AVO,,, R(&) = is the amplitude ratio at offset distance x, AVOrayg. average amplitudes of target reflection events within the gather over a time window, AVOvayg = average amplitudes of reference reflection events within the gather over a time window. The use of ratios of a target and a reference event normalizes the effect of most of the factors affecting ‘seismic amplitudes. These ratios also include the nomalizatian of AVO of the target horizon with the AVO of the reference horizon. (3) Edit and remove extraneous data, and apply data smoothing filters to the data. (4) Least square parabolic curve fit to the ratios. f(x) =a4bx? Where, x 1, and 71 is the number of traces in the gather. Normalizing the AVO Difference from the near offset AVO value: AVO gy (n) = [AVO(n)~ AVO(0)]/ AVO (0) =(a+bn’-a)/a =(b/a)n? (8) Normalize amplitudes of target and reference horizons (8) Normalize AVO ratio to zero-oftset (7) Comparison of normalized AVO differences along a line. Following Figure 5-8 shows the similarity in the reflection paths from the reference and target horizons. Therefore, ratios of the target AVO with the reference AVO will normalize many of the factors common to both paths. ‘An example (Chiburis, 1997) of the flow for the above procedures is shown in Figure §-9, and this example is located over a carbonate oil field. The plot (a) shows the measured target AVOriyg and reference AVOkavg, normalized amplitudes versus offset, The plot (b) shows the raw ratios R(x). The piot (c) shows the edited and smoothed ratios in blue; and the final least-squares curve fit as the smooth curve in red, Regueito (1997), Presented an empirical relationship for observed travel times through Gas-sands (Figure 5-10), and this relationship can be used as a too! to estimate thickness of gas sand for generating amplitude vs thickness plots. AVO end Seismic Attioutes: Princes and Appications Part 59Interpretation and Analysis of AVO Data Part 5:10 Reference Horizon Target Horizon AVOQOX) Where, AVOn() = ——— xs Offset AYO, 0) AO, (x) = AVO for Reference Horizon AVOt (x) = AVO for Target Horizon AVOn (x) = Normalized AVO Normalizing Target AVO with a Reference Horizon Figure 5-8 shows the use of target and reference horizons for normalizing target AVO with reference AVO 2 3 2 3 = =z 2 (b) 5 ae pe Nes (©) g a $ =< Offset ==> Figure 5-9 (a) Normalized amplitudes versus offset. (b) Raw ratios R(X). (c) Edited ratios in blue; curve fit in red. AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and Applications # Part 510Interpretation end Analysis of AVO Data Past en 7 6 €@s5 goa Bos & 2 4 pace 7 + —r 100 120 140 160 180 200 vst Pseudo Sonic Travel Times vs Gas Thickness Figure 6-10 shows observed relationship for travel times with thickness of Gas-sand (After Regueiro, 1997). AVO Results The following seismic example in Figure 5-11 shows CDP gathers over a carbonate oilfield in Saudi Arabia, This figure shows with corrected gathers where the target and reference reflections are marked for AVO enalysis, AVO of CDP gathers, over the producing field show increasing AVO (Figure 5-12), and the AVO results over the non-producing area show decreasing AVO (Figure 6-13, Alter Chiburis, 1997). Offset (M) CDP Gathers used (After Chiburis, 1997) Figure 6-11 shows CDP gathers over a carbonate oilfield in Saudi Arabia. The target and reference horizons are shown in this figure, AVO and Seismic Attributes: Prineples and Applications Pert easInterpretation and Analysis of AVO Dat Pare! 52 copa cops 2 g1 ° 0 5 7 1% 20 2 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 a_ ODP7 cops $4 z ° 0 8 1 15 2 2 3 5 10 15 20 25 30 2y oDP10 cop 141 g4 z ° 0 5 0 15 20 2 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 ‘Trace No. Trace No. Figure 5-12 shows AVO extracted from CDP gathers, over the producing field, show an increasing AVO ratios. 2— CDP 16 cpp 47 o 5 10 15 20 25 800 5 10 156 20 25 30 2@ ODP 22 cpp 23 ep owienca, [Ve 0 5 10 15 20 25 300 5 10 15 20 25 30 Trace No. Trace No. Figure 6-13, CDP gathers, from non-producing area, show decreasing AVO ratios (After Chiburis, 1997). AVO end Soismls Attributes: Principles and Applications Pett 542Interpretation and Analysis of AVO Data Parts o13 The following example presented by Regueiro (1997), shows the differences in AVO results for Coal, Gas-sand and Water-sand related bright spots. The AVO from Gas sand is increasing and other AVO results from Coal and Water sand are decreasing (Figure 5-14) Observations and Conclusions. (1) Shallow, high porosity reservoirs: (2) _Correspond to “true” or producing bright spots, and the seismic response is affected by changes in both porosity and thickness. For the deeper reservoir, the impedance contrast is small therefore difficult to evaluate. (b)_AVO studies show an increase in amplitude as a function of angle of incidence (2) Deeper, lower porosity reservoir (a) Bright spots on conventional seismic sections correspond to tuning due to thickness. (b)_ AVO shows a decrease in amplitude as a function of angle of incidence. After correiating gas thickness with seismic amplitudes, develop a quality map of the reservorr. Use calibrated thickness curves and the regional trends for porosity to develop porosity thickness maps. Interpretation and Displays of AVO Analysis AVO Maps AVO results are presented in a map format for maximum interpretive benefits (Figure 5-18) Bright Spots - AVO The following Figure 5-16 shows the true gas bright spots along with the AVO results. ‘AVO ana Seismic Atributes: Principles and Applications Patel 513Interpretation and Analysis of AVO Data Port 548 COP Gather Offset From Center — > Figure 5-14 shows a companson of AVO from Coal Gas sand, and water sand (After Reguevto. 1997) AVO and Limits of Ol / Water Contact Figure 5-15. AVO map showing the oil/water contact presented by Chiburis (1997) eeeeee SERGE Di eee RR DSi Bright Spots and AVO Reaults Using Chiburla Nermatizing Method Figure 5-16. Bright spot reflections and AVO results for different thickness of gas sand (After Hong, 1997) AVO and Seismic Attibutes: Principles and Applications Part! oaInterpretation and Analysis of AVO Data Part 545 Crossplotting Normal Incidence Reflectivity vs Far Offset Reflectivity Using Shuey's approximation of Zoeppritz's equation(1986), we obtain the following (After Hillerman, 1995}. RCO =ateot 94| Ae ]unt ool LA ” Where, — RC(@) = Reflectivity at incident angle 0, N= P-Wave Normal Incidence reflectivity, PR = Far offset reflectivity, a = Average P-wave velocity, 8 = Average S-wave velocity, @ = Average Poisson's ratio, ® = Average of the incident and transmitted angle, Aaa and Ao are changes in P-wave velocity, and Poisson's ratio across the interface, Bla =0.5,0= B <30 deg, RC(O) = NI cos” 0 + PRsin? @ 2 r= 222% Where, @p, + Hp, AVO Procedure NI vs PR (1) Fit equation (2) to the CDP amplitudes. (2) _ Using RMS velocities convert offset distances into incident angles. (8) Use equation (2) for AVO inversion only. s=a+bsin?@ (4) Comparing to the commonly used AVO equation: RC(O Where, @ is equal to the VJ term, and D is associated with the second and third term in equation. (5) _IfP and S-wave velocities are known, then equation (2) can be used for inversion. (6) A similar AVO inversion technique is presented by Gridlow et al (1982): 2 RC(O) = NI,(1_+ tan? o-(2) MI, sin? @ - Afda_ap]_if_Ao 2 The difference NI > — NTs 1% Agee ail The right side of the above relation is obtained by differentiation of Shuey's equation, AVO aid Seismic Aitebutes: Princptes anc Applications Part 545Interpretation and Analysis of AVO Data Parti 16 For B/a = 0.5, NIp ~ NIg = (a+6)=2.25A0 = PR o (8) (9) (10) ay (12) (13) (14) Plot corresponding samples from N/ and PR traces Figure 5-18 (e) on NI vs PR crossplot. Assign a color to the crossplot bins based on the model NI vs PR for lithologies Figure 5-18 (b).. Assign a color for the crossplot for a sample to same sample of a seismic trace on a stack section, Shale/Shale data Figure 5-18 () are along a ~45" line, from upper left to lower right (green). ‘Shale/water saturated sand data in Figure 5-18 (c) are paralfel to the shale ine (yellow). Shale/gas saturated data in Figure 5-18 (c) are along PR axis (pink). There is an overlap of lithologies along the NT axis. There is a separation between lithologies on the PR axis. Rotating NI* PR Attribute to Change Class 2 to Class 3 AVO Anomaly Transform NI*PR data to rotate by 45° to enhance Class 2 anomalies by displaying as Class 3 anomalies as shown in following Figure 5-19 (a-d). a (2) 3) 4) Figure 5-19 (a) shows the synthetic CDP for the water-saturated sand, and gas saturated sand, Figure 5-19 (b) shows rotation by 45° changes Class 2 to Class 3 anomaly of NJ*PR piot. There is no separation between different lithologies along NI axis, and some separation along PR ais Figure 5-19 (c) shows a plot of the NI*PR, and does not correlate to lithology. Figure 5-19 (d) shows a plot of the NI*PR where NI and PR traces were rotated, and does correlate with lithology. AVO and Seismic Atiibutes: Principles and Applications Part 5168Interpretation and Analysis of AVO Data . Pat 57 Fe Class1 — > Fe Class 2 —> -_- Class 3 —> ted Sand terface, and Shale/Gas Saturated face Figure 5-17 classification of AVO based on crassplot of NV vy PR reflectivities (Rutherford et al 1989) NI PR NI Attribute NI ll Gas Sands 1 Wet Sands PR (a) Crossplotting NI vs PR and Attribute Traces (0) Crossplotting NI vs PR for Gas Saturated Modet si De oe (c) Stack Data for Water and Gas Saturated (a) Color Coded Lithology from Model NI vs PR Crossplot Figure 5-18 (a) Shows the NV and PR traces, and a crossplot of each sample of N/ vs corresponding sample of PR (b) Shows crossplot of N/ and PR for gas sand, water sand, and shale. (c) Stack response from water sand and gas sand model. (d) Seismic response with lithology from NI vs PR crossplot (After Hilterman, 1995). AVO and Seismic Atrbutos: Principles and Applications Pat a7Intorretation and Analysis of AVO Data Pare! 518 Near CDP Traces Model: Gas Sand - Wet Sand - Shale vvoceemmeeseces emanates eect a = .-.. seers ee Sarr mealies (a) Synthetic CDP for Water/Sand {c) NFPR Display without Rotation and Gas/Sand Model ° 45 Rotation reece Me oN h eter 4 aor a PR —— a lm Gas Sand § WetSand m™ Shales (d) NF*PR Display with Rotation (b) 48 Rotation to Change Class 2 to Class 3 AVO Anomaly Figure 5-19 (a) Shows the synthetic CDP response for the water-saturated sand, and gas saturated sand. (b) Shows how rotations by 45° changes Class 2 to Class 3 AVO anomaly for a NI*PR plot. (c) Shows a plot of the N/*PR, and does not correlate to lithology. (d) Shows a plot of the N/*PR where NJ and PR traces were rotated, and does correlate with lithology (After Hilterman, 1995). Gulf Coast Example of NI vs PR Crossplotting The following Gulf Coast example (Hilterman, 1995) in Figure 6-20 shows that best methods of utilizing N/ and PR information are: (1) Crossplotting NIvs PR and color-coding seismic section with the color from the crossplot. Q) Plot rotated NI * PR AVO and Seismic Atrbutes: Principles and Applications Part 518Interpretation and Analysis of AVO Data Part! 319 - ~ (b) NF'PR does not Show Gas Zone (d) NI*PR Rotated Display Indicates Gas Figure 5-20 (a) shows a migrated stack seismic section showing a gas well. (b) Seismic attribute plot of NI*PR, (c) Lithologic section using N/vs PR cross plot. (d) N/*PR rotated to enhance Class 2 to Class 3 anomalies AVO and Seiamic Attutes: Principles and Applications Pat! 519Interpretation and Analysis of AVO Data Part 520 Crossplotting AVO Intercept A and Gradient B AVO gradient (B) is plotted against the AVI intercept (A) to distinguish between different lithologies anc hydrocarbon saturated rocks. Figure 6-21 shows such a crossplot and relative locations of four different classes of sands, The fluid line shown in Figure 6-21 can also be interpreted as the line described by the equation A+ B=0 The intercept A represents the reflection coefficient at normal incidence or zero offset, and therefore ranges between «1 to 1, The gradient Bis the slope of the AVO curve at normal incidence or zero offset Other linear trends described by equations, 6.g., 5A + B = 0 can be used to identify diferent itholoday. Foster et al, (1997) describe the slope of the background trend to be related to Vp/Vs ratio by the relation Slope =1~-8y? | fi-Slope “ 8 Figure 5-22 shows four different classes of sands in relationship to Reflection coefficient with angle of incidence. Where y = Vs/Vp, and for a Vp/Vs ratio of 2, the background trend follows the fluid line, and this trend is not accurate for Vp/Vs ratio is not equal to 2. By measuring the slope of the fluid line, the VpiVs ratio and Poisson’s ratio can be calculated. Positive and negative slope trend lines along with positive and negative intercepts are shown in Figure 6-23 ) Different tithologies will align along different trends on the B vs A plots. Figure 5-24 shows the relationship between AB AVO trends and Vp/Vs ratios. AVO and Seismic Atrioues: Prineplos and Appicetions Part 620Interpretation and Analysis of AVO Data . Parts 521 AVO Gradient (B) Classill uw 05 0 0.5 1 ud. AVO Intercept (A) b 5 15 30 Incidence angle (deg) Figure 5-22 shows four classes of sands relatve to AVA Figure 5-21 shows background or fluid line along with classes of AVO -5A+B=-0.6 Gradient (B) Gradient (B) 06 4 02 Q 02 04 06 06 G4 02 a 12 o4 O86 Intercept (A) Intercept (A) Figure 5-23 shows trend lines for positive and negative slopes with different intercepts AVO and Seismic Atributas: Principles and Applications Parti 521Interprtation and Analysis of AVO Data Parts 522 AVO Grossplotting and Fluid Factor Calculation Intercept and gradient calculated on brine-filed shales and sands have opposite values (Castagna and Smith, 1994). Sands and shales map to a negative trend along the fluid line or the wetdine in an intercept versus gradient crossplot. However, gas-filled sands are located away from this trend and their position in the crossplot relates to the depositional environment. The fluid factor can be estimated by the sum of intercept and gradient, which is nearty zero for brine-filed shales, ‘and has large velues for hydrocarbon saturated sands. The scales for the gradient and the intercept should be matched before summing. The gradient (B) has much targer value than the intercept, and a sum of the two would simply be a value of the gradient. This type of difference in scales for B and A is attributed to processing of seismic data. Differences in amplitude scaling between traces can result in such differences in the gradient and the intercept values. Also, improper compensation for amplitude losses due to spherical divergence, attenuation, and other offset related decay factors Statistical Correlation or AVO Background Trend Cambois, 1998, shows that AVO inversion on noise can produce a trend (Figure 5-25) similar to background trend, AVO gradient and intercept are calculated by linear regression of seismic data as a function of angle of incidence. The gradient and the intercept show a high correlation coefficient (Cambois, 1986), which implies that some of the background trend may be statistical and not be lithologic (Figure 5-26). Cambois, 1998 proposed that crossplotting gradient and stack, whieh are not correlated, will show no background if it is statistical as in Figure 6-27, and this result is further confirmed by using noise data for crossplotting (Figure 5-25) to show a background trend. AVO stack is calculated by using a different parameter than P-wave refiectivity in the AVO inversion process. Fluid factor calculation results in a mere far-offset stack. Far offset can discriminate shales from sands. Stack versus gradient crossplots can be used as unbiased hydrocarbon indicators because these two attributes are not correlated, and help isolate the effect of noise on AVO analysis. The scale difference between the gradient and intercept should be accounted for and corrected to extract meaningful inversion from AVO. AYO and Selsmie Atvibutes: Principles and Applications Part! 522Interpratation and Analysis of AVO Data 7 Patt 523 ‘AVO Gradient (B) 7 AVO Gradient (B) a 7 a os | 0.8 0 0.6 AVO Intercept (A) AVO Intercept (A) | | Figure 5-24 shows increasing Vp/Vs ratios for different AB | Figure 5-25 shows noise trend (Alter Cambors, 1998). The | trends two slopes represent minimizing errors relative to the | | intercept and the gradient 2.0 AVO Gradient (B) AVO Gradient (B) 0.2 . AVO Intercept (A) Stack Figure 5-27 shows the noise trend disappears, but gas sand trend still exists, (After Cambols, 1998) 0.2 Figure 5-26 shows backgroundinoise trend along with gas sand trend, (After Cambois, 1998) AVO and Solsmie Attributes: Principles and Applications Part} 5.23Interpretation and Analysis of AVO Data Ports 524 Crossplotting A‘p, u*p and k*p ‘The following equations were derived in chapter 3. ue pv} up = p'¥ A p¥j ~*) w= pV 4? Ap ph Wy Kp od WY After the P and S wave velocities are determined through AVO inversion, the above moduli can be calculated and used for crossplots for different combinations of these moduli as ilustrated in the examples beiow It ts important {0 note that poor quality noisy data does not improve AVO analysis by crosspiotting diflerent combinations of these elastic moduli Table 6-3 Different rocks used for elasit | moduli examples: Goal | Mixed clays | Mixed clays | Gas Sand Montmoritonte/ | iite miture | shales Sand “ite | Helte | sat Limestone (as) Limestone Muscovite Anhyarite Quartz | Quartz | calcite Calote Dolomite } Figure 5-28 shows a plot of P and S wave velocities for different rocks listed in Table 5-2 and Figure 5.29 shows a plot of Vp/Vs ratios and densities for these rocks fo establish the relative variations in the fundamental parameters for wave propagation Figure 5-30 shows the calculated A, #, k values for these rocks using the above fotmulae, and this plot shows that the variations between rock 1s magnified as compared to P and $ wave velocities plot in Figure 6-28. Therefore, on benefit of using A, M, k values will be fo enhance cntical differences between hydrocarbon saturated rocks. wel and dry rocks. It is a common practice to use a product of density p with a selected modulus (Ap, yp, kp). Figure §-31 shows a plot of Ap, yp, kp for different rock, which changes the magnitude and modifies the difference slightly. A crosspiot of Ap vs yp is shown in Figure 5-32, which shows that a separation exists between ges sand, sand, and coal. This separation between gas saturated and dry rocks is enhanced by plotting Ay vs Ap as shown in Figure §-33. Figure 6-34 shows a plot of, kp vs up for different rocks, and displays a similar separation between gas sand and sand as Ap vs yp. Figure 5-35 shows a plot qf, Ap vs kp for different rocks, and displays mostly a linear relationship between the two moduli for most of the rocks. Figure 6-36 shows a plot of, Ak vs Ap for different rock, Figure 5-37 shows a plot of, Au vs yp for different rock, these figures are similar to Ay vs Ap in Figure §-33, Using the ratio of the two moduli shows a greater separation between coal and gas sand, and enhances the separation between gas-saturated rocks and dry rocks. Figure 5-38 and Figure 5-39 show yp vs Ap and Wy vs Ap piots for different lithologies, AVO and Seismic Atibules: Principles and Applications Parts 524Interpretation and Analysis of AVO Date Part 5.25 P&S Ware Velocity -Rocks Vs & Density Rocks “Eee we Figure 5-29 shows VplVs ratios and densities for P and S Ap-pp-tp Rooks = Figure 5-30 shows a plot of A, p, k for different rocks, Figure 5-31 shows a plot of Ap, pp, Kp for different rock. Dp vs up -Rocks Ms Ap Rocks ee ee) ‘y(6Pa) % Figure 5-32 shows a plot of, 140 vs Ap for different rocks Figure 5-33 shows a plot of Au, vs Ap for different rocks AVO and Solemic Attributes: Principles and Applications Patt 525Interpretation and Analysis of AVO Data sors) akvsay oO 20 “rp? Figure 5-38 shows a plot of, yp vs Ap for different lithologies. 80 100 AYO and Seiemic Attabutes: Principles and Applications pai icra, Figure 5-35 shows a plot of, Ap vs kp for different ocks._ ‘Ni vs up (metric Units} Minrals ' ie . | oF ‘wistyGe5) . oe om | ? i | f | ‘weIGPa) 1 Figure 5-37 shows a plot of, Ap vs yp for different rocks. a tly, 0 20 40, 60 AP Figure 5-39 shows a plot of, My, vs Aptor diferent lithologies. 80 PartiInterpretation and Analysis of AVO Data Part Crossplotting AA(A+2 y) vs AA /(A+2 py) Examining the quantities AM/(A+2 1) vs Au (+2 qt) further we get: Ad _ AA ee aed pa? A+2m pa Therefore, crossplotting these quantities amounts to plotting AA vs 2. across the interface. AVO and Ssismis Atributes: Princoles and Applications Pert! 527 527Case Studies of AVO Analysis Pare ot Chapter 6 : Case Studies of AVO Analysis Chapter 6 : Case Studies of AVO Analysis . Case Studies of AVO.... z Failures and Pitfalls of AVO .. Case History #4 Conclusions: Case History #2. Conclusions: Case History #3. Conclusions: Case History #4. ‘Conclusions: Case History #8 Conclusions: Successful Case Studi Case History #1... Case History #2... Major Observations and Conclusions. Case History #8... Conclusions and Observation: Case History #4. Conclusions and Case History #5. Practical Lessons jis AVO Application Geologic Setting and Prospecting Strategy AVO MOE ene oe Application of AVO Modeling in Expiration Case History #8. AVO and Petrophysical Seismic Data Processing for AVO VSP on Interpretation: Case History #7... Case History #8... Case History #9. ‘ANO and Seismie Attributes: Princoles and Applications Part ot‘Case Studies of AVO Analysis Pert! 2 Case Studies of AVO This chapter covers case studies relating to failures and pitfalls of AVO interpretation, and case studies involving the successful application of AVO Failures and Pitfalls of AVO It is important to learn from unsuccessful wells drilled based on AVO analysis. These studies of failure and pitfalls of AVO interpretation are presented by Allen et al (1893). Many of the wells had gas shows, and are considered failures. Foliowing Table 6-1 is a list of the unsuccessful wells: Table 5-1 Summary of unsuccessful wells reported. Thick Clean Sands With Shows 4wells Thiok Clean Sands With No Shows 10 wells, Thin Clean Sands With Shows T wells Tight Sands With Shows 6 wells Tight Sands With No Shows 4wells No Sands wells Hard Streaks Or Limey Section wells 4 well Case History #4 (1) Well #1 was drilled to test an AVO anomaly (Yegua amplitude), and this well was drilled as an offset to an older dry well Figure 6-1. (2) Typical AVO characteristics across the seismic line are shown in Figure 6-1 (8) The well #1 was drilled about 200 ft off the seismic line. The sand was interpreted to be structurally higher than the older well, butt is flat, and itis a clean wet sand, 60 ft thick 33% porosity. Conclusions: The failure of AVO can be due to: (1) Extors in modeling to identify AVO response as due to gas. (2) Improper amplitude scaling and compensation, (3) Well dried, 200 ft off the seismic line. Case History #2 (1) Asseismic (strike direction) line with a bright spot was tested unsuccessfully. AVO and Selec Attrbutes: Principles and Applications Pare 62Case Studies of AVO Analysis Past es (2) This AVO anomaly is caused by thick, clean, wet sand, (3) CDP gathers at the bright spot location are shown in Figure 6-2. (4) Synthetic (1-D) modeling has shown that the anomaly at 1.85 seconds ties clean wet sand, 40 ft thick, with density porosity about 33 percent. (5) _AVO modeling using Zoeppritz equations, demonstrate that significant differences in AVO response can be due to differences in Vp/Vs ratios for sands and shales, Conclusions: The failure of AVO can be due to incorrect estimates of Vp and Vs values (Vp/Vs ratios) Case History #3 (1) Velocity inversion of a seismic line across a Yegua prospect. (2) Velocity inversion is similar to that ofa field at the same geologic interval on the same seismic line. (3) The AVO gathers at the gas producing well and dry hoie locations are similar. (4) COP gathers from the Wedge mocel response demonstrated that AVO anomaly can occur due to tuning thickness effect at far offsets. Conclusions: The failure of AVO can be due to: (1) Outofthe-plane effects, @) Residual gas, (8) Fresnel zone effects (4) Improper amplitude scaling and compensation. (©) Tuning effects due to thickness changes. Case History #4 (1) AVO response of a single-interface model with an increase of both acoustic impedance and Poisson's Ratio across the interface, (2) Same model with the phase rotated -60", is shown in Figure 6-3. Conclusions: Correct phase in seismic data is essential for AVO analysis; otherwise the phase changes may present an apparent AVO, AVO end Seismic Attributes: Pricoles and Applications Parts 83Case Studlos of AVO Analysis Part 4 TET DT Oe PoE L THD 2H sere seen) 2 Sees Se bbepbs nt Shh beaEee AVO Response Similar for Dry and Gas Wells Figure 8-1 shows simitar response from a dry hole and a gas producing well (After Allen et al, 1993) eee Offset CDP Gathers Across Amplitude Anomaly over Dry Hole Figure 6-2 shows increasing AVO over the bright-spot anomaly (AVter Allen and Peddy, 1993). RR iii Synthetic Response with Synthetic Response with Zero Phase Wavelet 60 deg Phase Rotation Figure 6-3 shows a comparison of O-dagree phase wavelet with a 60-degree phase wavelet, where the onset of the wavelet can be interpreted as decrease or increase in impedance. AVO ard Seismic Attributes: Principles and Applications Part 4(case Studies of AVO Analysis Port! a Case History #5 (1) This bright spot tested by a dry hole, (2) Gathers with an AVO anomaly shown in Figure 6-4, (8) Synthetic seismogram and the AVO model and using the sonic and density logs from the dry hole show no reflection at the brightspot Conclusions: (1) AVO in Figure 6-4 may be due to anisotropic changes in P and S velocity and deneity 2) Spurious reflection from out of the plane. CDP Gather at Well Location Figure 6-4 shows an increasing AVO at the dry hole location, Successful Case Studies of AVO Analysis and Interpretation Case History #1 (1) Area is Brazil, high Porosity sandstone embedded in marine shales. (2) ~ Studies on the effect of processing techniques on AVO response. (3) P and S wave sonic, density, and Poisson's Ratio Logs used for modeling and correlation. (4) 2:D non-normal modeling response for intercept * Gradient vs Angle of Incidence Figure 6-5, and the elastic constants for the model used are given in Table 6-2, AVO and Seismic Attributes: Principles and Applcations Part 6sCaso Studios of AVO Analysis Partd 6) P-wave Reflection Coefficient -0.08 0.10 0.42 2 30400 Incidence Angle (degrees) Non-normal Reflectivity Model for Product of the Intercept* Gradient vs Angle of Incidence (After Ramos, 1998) Figure 6-6 shows P-wave reflectivity from the top and bottom of the reservoir (After Ramos, 1998). Table 6-2, Elastic parameters used for the model response in Figure 6-5. Layer Rock Vp(mis) Vs(mls) Vp/Vs — P (gicm3) o 4 shale 36102180 1.77 251 027 2 sand 37172282, 1.65 231 o.2t 3 shale 38102150 4.77 251 027 65 Seismic Processing Schemes used in this study to determine the impact of processing factors on AVO response (Figure 6-6). The following table Is a list of abbreviations and their meaning. 1 GEOSP Geometrical Spreading Correction 2 Scac Surface Consistent Amplitude Correction 3 RAC Residual Amplitude Compensation 4 SCDEC Surface Consistent Deconvolution 5 sw Spectral Whitening 6 RADON Parabolic Radon Filter 7 WEBM Wave Equation Based Methods 8 SCBNE Surface Consistent Noise Burst or Spikes Elimination AYO and Solsmic Attibutes: Principles and Appications Parl os