GSM Based Cellular Systems

(GSM/DCS1800/1900)

Introduction
Introduction &
& Background
Background Check
Check
n
n
n

Introduction
Backgrounds
Concerns& Interests

Outline
Outline
Part 1:
n Overview of GSM Protocol
GSM Channelization
Network Elements and Functionalities
Signaling Protocols and Networks

Part 2:
n Mobile Radio Channel Models
n Link Budget Analysis
n Radio Network Planning

Introduction:
Introduction: GSM
GSM History
History
n

Global System for Mobile (GSM) is a second generation cellular

system standard that was developed to solve the fragmentation
problems of the first cellular systems in Europe.
GSM is the world's first cellular system to specify digital modulation
and network level architectures and services. Before GSM, European
countries used different cellular standards throughout the continent,
and it was not possible for a customer to use a single subscriber unit
throughout Europe.

GSM
GSM in
in the
the World
World
n

GSM was originally developed to serve as the panEuropean cellular service and promised a wide range of
network services through the use of ISDN.
GSM's success has exceeded the expectations of virtually
everyone, and it is now the world's most popular
standard for new cellular radio and personal
communications equipment throughout the world.
It is predicted that by the year 2000, there will be
between 20 and 150 million GSM subscribers worldwide.
Recently, GSM has changed its name to the Global
System for Mobile Communications for marketing
reasons. The setting of standards for GSM is currently
under the aegis of the European Technical Standards
Institute (ETSI).
5

Some
Some of
of GSM
GSM System
System Features
Features
n

Some of the important features of GSM:

Good subjective speech quality
Message Security
Maximum flexibility to provide services that are
compatible with ISDN.
High data rate transfer, short bursts, slow frequency
hopping,
Open-network architecture.
Use of the SIM (Subscriber Identity module)
Support international roaming.
Low terminal and Service Costs.
6

GSM
GSM Services
Services
n

Services are defined as anything the end user

explicitly sees as worth paying for.
Services are classified into three groups:
Tele-services,
Bearer Services
Supplementary Services.

Tele
-Services
Tele-Services
n

Speech Services
Telephony (+Voice Mail)
Emergency Calls

Data Services
FAX group 3, alternate speech then fax
FAX group 3 automatic

Short Message Service (SMS)

SMS is similar to the paging service, but much more
comprehensive, allowing bi-directional messages,
store-and-forward delivery, and acknowledgment of
a successful delivery.
8

Additional
Additional Data
Data Services
Services
n

14.4 Circuit Switched

requires new channel coding
standardization
New Abis data framing

n
n

High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD)

General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)

SMS
SMS
n

Part of Tele-services described by GSM

provides a mean for the Mobile Subscriber to
send and receive short messages (<160
characters) via the Mobile unit.
These services are
SMS point to point services
SMS Mobile Originating SMS-MO/PP
SMS Mobile Terminating SMS-MT/PP

888888

SMS Cell Broadcast SMS-CB

n

These services are provided by the Short

Message Service Center (SM-SC).
10

Supplementary
Supplementary services
services
n

These services are provided by the MSC/VLR

but managed by the HLR

Call Forwarding Unconditional (CFU)

Call Forwarding Busy (CFB)
Barring of Outgoing call
Barring of incoming call
Call Waiting
Conference call
Call Transfer

11

Bearer
Bearer Services
Services
n

PAD , Asynchronous access to PAD

300 bps

Packet Data, Synchronous access to PSPDN

2.4,4.8 9.6 bps

n
n
n
n

Alternate Speech/Data
Unrestricted Digital Information (UDI)
Asynchronous 300,1.2,2.4,4.8,9.6 bps
Synchronous 1.2,2.4,4.8,9.6 bps

12

GSM
GSM Spectrum
Spectrum Allocation
Allocation
Reverse Link Spectrum
880
MHz

50 frequencies

890
MHz

124 frequencies

Forward Link Spectrum

925
MHz

960
MHz

935
MHz
50 frequencies

915
MHz

124 frequencies

13

Absolute
Absolute Radio
Radio Frequency
Frequency Channel
Channel

BTS TX

MS TX
200 kHz

200 kHz

45 MHz
(890+n x 0.2)MHz

(935+n x 0.2) MHz

ARFCN = Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number

MS Transmit Frequency (MHz) = 890.0 + [(ARFCN)x(.2)]
BTS Transmit Frequency (MHz) = 935.0 + [(ARFCN)x(.2)]
14

Physical
Physical vs.
vs. Logical
Logical Channels
Channels
RF
F5
Channels F4
F3
F2
F1
T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
Time Slots
n

The combination of a TS number and an ARFCN constitutes a

physical channel for both the forward and reverse link.
Channelization is accomplished by the notion of virtual circuits or
logical Channels.
Each physical channel in a GSM system can be mapped into
different logical channels at different times.
15

FDMA
-TDMA
FDMA-TDMA
n
n

The frame duration is 4.645 ms divided among eight time slots.

Each of these timeslots is a physical channel occupied by an
individual user. Each timeslot, or physical channel, carries
control and traffic data in a burst form.
The time duration of an individual channel is 3/5200 sec(=0.577
ms).

RF Channels

200KHz

4.615msec Frame

Frequency

Time

T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7

Time Slot:
156.25bits
576.92
s

16

Staggering
Staggering TDMA
TDMA Frames
Frames
n

At the BTS, TDMA frames on all radio frequency channels, in the

downlink as well as on the uplink, are aligned.
However, the start of an uplink TDMA frame is delayed with
respect to downlink by a fixed period of three timeslots.
Staggering TDMA frames allows the same time slot number (TN)
to he used in both the down and uplinks while avoiding the
requirement for mobile to transmit and receive simultaneously.
The TN within a frame is numbered from 0 to 7, and each TN can
he referenced by a unique TN.

T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7

T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
17

GSM
GSM Burst
Burst Types
Types
1 TDMA frame =8 time slots (4.615 msec)
n

Each user transmits a

burst of data during the
time slot assigned to it.

Each TDMA time slot may

carry one of five possible
These data bursts may
bursts.
have one of five specific
formats used for various
Normal Burst
control
and
traffic
Frequency Correction Burst
bursts.
Synchronization Burst
Random Access Burst
Dummy Burst
18

Logical
Logical Channels
Channels
n

In a GSM system no RF carrier and no slot is dedicated

a priori to an exclusive logical use.
Channelization is accomplished by the data
communications notion of virtual circuits or logical
channels.
According to the functions performed the channels are
divided into two Logical Channels.
Traffic Channels (TCH)
Control Channels (CCH)

19

GSM
GSM Traffic
Traffic Channels
Channels
n

Full Rate
Full-Rate Speech Channel(TCH/FS)
Full-Rate Data Channel

Traffic
Channels
2 half-rate channel users
would share the same time
slot, but would alternately
transmit during every
other frame.

There are two types of TCHs that

are differentiated by their traffic
rates and are defined as follows.

9.6kbps (TCH/F9.6)
4.8kbps (TCH/F4.8)
2.4kbps (TCH/F2.4)
n

Half Rate
Half-Rate Speech Channel(TCH/HS)
Half-Rate Data Channel
4.8kbps (TCH/H4.8)
2.4kbps (TCH/H2.4)

20

GSM
GSM Control
Control Channels
Channels
n

Broadcast CHannel (BCH)

Broadcast Control CHannel (BCCH)
Frequency Correction CHannel(FCCH)
Synchronization CHannel(SCH)

Common Control CHannel (CCCH)

Paging CHannel(PCH)
Random Access CHannel(RACH)
Access Grant CHannel(AGCH)

Dedicated Control CHannel (DCCH)

Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel(SDCCH)
Slow Associated Control CHannel(SACCH)
Fast Associated Control CHannel(FACCH)
21

Broadcast
Broadcast Control
Control CHannel
CHannel
n

The BCCH carrier broadcasts continuously for

the MS to measure and average the signal
strengths from a site, to identify the BTS with
the best serving potential.
At any base station, only one RF channel or
carrier transmits the BCCH data: this RF
channel is called the BCH carrier.
The BTS will never reduce the power
transmitting the BCH carrier because the MSs
need to measure the signal strengths from this
frequency broadcasting at its maximum power
or highest potential.
The BTS must fill every timeslot on the BCCH
carrier with a burst and if it has no real data
to send to the MSs, the BTS will send a
dummy burst.

22

FCCH
FCCH and
and SCH
SCH
n

Frequency Correction Channel:

This logical channel is used for initial carrier
acquisition or synchronization of the base station
for the mobile unit

Synchronization Channel:
The Frequency correction channel helps the mobile
unit to get an estimate of the carrier frequency. For
further tuning, and proper frame synchronization,
the SCH is used.

23

Common
Common Control
Control CHannel
CHannel
n

CCCHs are the most commonly used control channels

and are used to page specific subscribers, assign
signaling channels to specific users, and receive
mobile requests for service.
Common Control Channel: The CCCH logical channel
consists of:
Random Access Channel (RACH) in the Reverse direction.
The RACH is a reverse link channel used by MS to
acknowledge a page from the PCH, and is also used by mobiles to
originate a call.

Paging Channel (PCH) or the Access Grant Channel (ACGH)

in the Forward direction.

24

Dedicated
Dedicated Control
Control CHannels
CHannels
n

Dedicated Control CHannel (DCCH)

Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel(SDCCH)
Slow Associated Control CHannel(SACCH)
Fast Associated Control CHannel(FACCH)

Like traffic channels

they are bi-directional and
have the same format and function on both the
forward and reverse links.
may exist in any time slot and on any ARFCN
except TS0 of the BCH ARFCN.
25

Stand
Stand Alone
Alone Dedicated
Dedicated CCH
CCH
n

SDCCH carries signaling data following the

connection of the mobile with the base station,
and just before a TCH assignment is issued by
the base station.
The SDCCH ensures that the mobile station
and the base station remain connected while
the base station and MSC verify the subscriber
unit and allocate resources for the mobile.
SDCCHs may be assigned their own physical
channel or may occupy TS0 of the BCH if there
is low demand for BCH or CCCH traffic.
26

Slow
Slow Associated
Associated CCH
CCH
n
n

SACCH is always associated with a traffic channel or a

SDCCH and maps onto the same physical channel.
On the forward link, the SACCH is used to send slow
but regularly changing control information to each
mobile on that ARFCN, such as
power control instructions
specific timing advance instructions

The reverse SACCH carries information about the

received signal strength and quality of the TCH, as
well as BCH measurement results from neighboring
cells.
27

Fast
Fast Associated
Associated CCH
CCH
n

FACCH carries urgent messages, and contains

essentially the same type of information as the
SDCCH.
A FACCH is assigned whenever a SDCCH has not
been dedicated for a particular user and there is an
urgent message (such as a handoff request).
The FACCH gains access to a time slot by stealing
frames from the traffic channel to which it is assigned.
This is done by setting two special bits, called
stealing bits, in a TCH forward channel burst. If the
stealing bits are set, the time slot is known to contain
FACCH data, not a TCH, for that frame.
Speech Frames FACCH Frames

Speech Frames
28

Signaling
Signaling Outside
Outside aa Call
Call (TCH/8)
(TCH/8)
n

In order to increase system efficiency when it comes to

signaling transactions, an additional type of channel
has been introduced. Its rate is very low and only has
specified usage for signaling and short message
transmission.
This channel is referred as TCH/8. If a TCH/H is
considered as half a TCH/F, then this is one-eighth of a
TCH/F.
A TCH/8 message is sent over one time slot for every
other 8 frames.

29

Cell
Cell Broadcast
Broadcast Channel
Channel
n

Cell Broadcast Short message requires the means to

transmit around one 80 octet message every two
seconds from the network toward the mobile stations
in idle mode.
This corresponds to half the capacity of a downlink
TCH/8. In each cell where this service is supported. a
special channel a CBCH (Cell Broadcast Channel ) is
used (or broadcasting messages.
A CBCH is derived from a TCH/8. Some special
constraints exist for the design of this channel. because
of the requirement that it can be listened to in parallel
with the BCCH information and the paging messages
30

Higher
Higher Order
Order Frame
Frame
n

Higher order frames called multiframe, consist of 26 frames and

have a duration of 120 ms (26 x 4.615 ms).
This multiframe consists (of 26 TDMA) frames and carries a traffic
channel TCH SACCH and FACCH. Similarly, a 51 -frame multi
frame has a duration of 235.363 ms (51 x 4.615 ms).
One superframe consists of 51 traffic multiframes or 26 control
multiframes and consists of 51 x 26 TDMA frames with a total
duration of 6.12 sec (51 x 120 ms).
A 26 TDMA frame multiframe supports traffic and associated
control channels, and a 51 TDMA frame multiframe supports
Broadcast Control (BCC) and Stand Alone Dedicated Control
Channels.
The highest order frame is called a hyperframe and consists of
2,048 superframes, or 2,715,648 frames (2048 x 51 x 26).
31

Frame
Frame Structure
Structure Hierarchy
Hierarchy
1 hyperframe = 2048 superframe = 2,715,648 frames (3hr, 28 min, 53 sec, 760 msec)

0 1

.........

50

25

25

1 superframe = 26 multiframes (6.12 sec)

1 26-frame multiframes (120 msec)

OR

1 superframe = 51 multiframes (6.12 sec)

0 1

2047

50

1 51-frame multiframes (235.4 msec)

1 TDMA frame = 8 time slots (4.615 msec)

32

Structure
Structure of
of Control
Control Multiframes
Multiframes
235 ms = 51 FRAMES
R R R R R R R R ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... R
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ................................................................ 50
Uplink Direction --- All Frames/Slots Belong to the Rach

235 ms = 51 FRAMES
F S B B B B C C C C F S C C C C C C C C F S C ... ... ..I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ................................................................ 50
Down Link Direction Frame/Slot Usage Is As Shown

33

Inter
-BTS Synchronization
Inter-BTS
Synchronization
n

Intercell-Synchronization impacts the quality of service

in the area of handover performances.
This notion of Synchronization includes also the desynchronization of the cells as we will see that full
synchronization can be very detrimental to some aspects
of system performance.
Best performance is obtained when time bases in
neighbor cells are synchronized so that burst emissions
are synchronous, but de-synchronized so that in
particular multiframes are not synchronous.

34

Inter
-BTS Synchronization
Inter-BTS
Synchronization
n

Synchronization between cells, if limited to bursts. can

also be useful for pre-synchronization. It improves the
search time for neighbor cells, though not in an
obvious way.
In fact all-clock phasing is the worst possible case
for pre-synchronization performance.
The best scheme for pre-synchronization is when cell
clocks are organized to minimize the probability of
simultaneity between FCCH. SCH or BCCH bursts in
two adjacent cells.. This kind of "offset"
synchronization is of course more complex to
implement than an all-clock phasing synchronization.
35

GSM
GSM Physical
Physical Channels
Channels
Mobile Frequency (MHz)
Total Spectrum (MHz)
Number of Carriers
Peak Power (mobile)
Mean Power (mobile)
n

GSM
DCS-1800
PCS-1900
Rx: 935-960 Rx: 1805-1880 Rx: 1930-1990
Tx: 890-915 Tx: 1710-1785 Tx: 1850-1910
2 x 25
2 x 75
2 x 60
124
372
300
8 ch./carrier
8 ch./carrier
8 ch./carrier
.8-20 W
.25-1 W
.25-1 W
.1-2.5 W
.03-0.25 W
.03-0.25 W

The most important difference between the DCS and

GSM system is the frequency of operation and number
of voice channels.
DCS is restricted and optimized to two hand portable
mobile power classes of the 1 Watt and .25 Watt peak
power where as GSM mobile power is much higher..

36

GSM
GSM Physical
Physical Layer
Layer Parameters
Parameters
Multiple Access Method
Duplex Method
Carrier Spacing
Modulation
Modulation Rate
Speech Codec
Data Rate
after Channel Coding
Data Rate
after Speech Coding
Total Channel Bit Rate

GSM/DCS
TDMA/FDM
FDD
200 khz
GMSK
271 kbps
RPE-LTP
22.8 kbps
13 kps
270.833kbs

37

Review of Functionalities
Information Destination
Source
Source
Decoder
Decoder
Secure, Reliable, Digital
Memoryless Channel
Insecure, Unreliable Digital
Memoryless Channel
Insecure, Unreliable Digital
Fading Channel

Channel
ChannelDecoder
Decoder
Decryption
Decryption
Deinterleaver
Deinterleaver
Demodulator
Demodulator

Insecure Analog
Fading Channel

38

GSM
GSM Speech
Speech Coding
Coding
n

The GSM speech coder is based on the Residually

Excited Linear Predictive Coder (RELP)
The coder provides 260 bits for each 20 ms blocks of
speech, which yields a bit rate of 13 kbps.
GSM voice coder uses
Voice Activity Detector (VAD)
Discontinuous Transmission (DTX)
Comforting Noise Subsystem (CNS)

Provisions for incorporating half-rate coders are

included in the specifications.

39

CELP
CELP based
based Vocoders
Vocoders

LPC filter Coef.

Speech
Analysis

M
Pitch Parameters (Gain and Lag)
U
X
Excitation Parameters (Index and Gain)

Channel
Coder

Code Excited Linear Predictive (CELP) Coder

Speech
Synthesis

Excitation
Pitch
Try to imitate
Vocal Cords

Vocal Tract
Filter

Synthesized
Speech

Tries to imitate
Vocal Tract
40

Channel
Channel Coding
Coding

Speech
Coder

Channel
Encoder

Interleaver

CRC

Traffic
Blocks

Convolutional
Traffic
Encoder

Frames
Tail Bits

41

Selective
Selective Channel
Channel Coding
Coding
n

Not all 260 bits at the output of speech coder have the
same importance as far as voice quality is concerned, In
the order of their significance:
Class 1a: 50 bits
protected with 3 CRC bits
If in error, entire block is ignored and interpolation is used

Class 1b: 132 bits

(Class 1a+ CRC) + Class 1b + 4 tail bits are encoded,
using a convolutional encoder of rate 1/2 & constraint length 5
The result is 378 bit

Class 2: Remaining: 78 bits

are transmitted with no protection
42

Summary
Summary of
of Channel
Channel Coding
Coding
260 Voice bits/20msec
Class 1a
50 bits

Class 1b
132 bits

Class 1a CRC
50 bits 3 bits

Class 1b
132 bits

Class 2
78 bits

4
Tail bits

No
Coding

1/2 Rate Convolutional Encoder

378
Channel Encoded Bits

Class 2
78 bits

456bits
Interleaving with degree 8
456=57*8 Channel bits/20msec=28.8kbps

43

Diagonal
Diagonal Block
Block Interleaving
Interleaving
n

Interleaving is used to randomize bursty errors

due to fading effects.
If a burst is lost due to interference or fading,
channel coding ensures that enough bits will
still be received correctly to allow the error
correction to work.
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8

A1 B3

A2 B4

i+1

A3 B5

A4 B6

A5 B7

A6 B8

A7 B1

i+2

i+3

i+4

i+5

i+6

A8

i+7

Frame Number
44

Ciphering
Ciphering
n

Ciphering modifies the contents of the eight

interleaved blocks through the use of
encryption techniques known only to the
particular mobile station and base station.
Security is further enhanced by the fact that
the encryption algorithm is changed from call
to call.
Two types of ciphering algorithms, called A3
and A5, are used in GSM to prevent
unauthorized network access and privacy for
the radio transmission respectively.
45

Coding
Coding for
for Control
Control Channels
Channels
n

GSM control channel messages are defined to

be 184 bits long.
These bits are encoded using a shortened
binary cyclic fire code, followed by a half-rate
convolutional coder.
The resulting 456 encoded bits are interleaved
onto eight consecutive frames in the same
manner as TCH speech data.

46

Modulation
Modulation
n
n
n
n

The modulation scheme used by GSM is 0.3 GMSK

GMSK is a special type of digital FM modulation.
The channel data rate of GSM is , 270.833 kbps,
The MSK modulated signal is passed through a
Gaussian filter to smooth the rapid frequency
transitions which would otherwise spread energy into
adjacent channels.
0100 1101.....

Mapping bit streams to waveforms

47

Slow
Slow Frequency
Frequency Hopping
Hopping
n

Under normal conditions, each data burst is sent over

the same time slot of a specific RF carrier.
But
under sever fading conditions in a cell a low frequency
hopping may be implemented to combat the multipath or
interference effects.
Frequency hopping is carried out on a frame-by-frame basis.
Frequency hopping is completely specified by the service
provider.

F1

F2
T=1

F3

F4
T=2

F5

F6

F7

F8

T=3
48

Outline
Outline
Part 1:
n Overview of GSM Protocol
GSM Channelization
Network Elements and Functionalities
Signaling Protocols and Networks

Part 2:
n Mobile Radio Channel Models
n Link Budget Analysis
n Radio Network Planning

49

System
System Architecture
Architecture
n

A GSM system is basically designed as a combination

of three major subsystems:
the Network Switching SubSystem (NSS) or (SSS)
the Radio Subsystem (RSS), or Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
the Operation Support Subsystem (OSS).

The Mobile Station (MS) is usually considered to be

part of the RSS.

Base Station
Subsystem

Network Switching
Subsystem
Operation
Support
Subsystem

Public
Networks

50

Network
Network Architecture
Architecture
Base Station
BTS Subsystem

BTS
MS

BSC

Network Switching
Subsystem

EIR

IWF

ISDN

BTS

MSC

BTS
BTS

MS

EC

Public
Networks

BTS

BSC

HLR

VLR

OMC

PSTN
AUC

Data
Networks

51

The
The Radio
Radio subsystem
subsystem
n

The radio subsystem includes the equipment and

functions related to the management of the
connections on the radio path, including the
management of handovers. It mainly consists of a BSC,
BTS, and the MS.
The GSM system is realized as a network of radio cells.
Each cell has a BTS with several transceivers. A group
of BTSs are controlled by one BSC.
BSC and BTS together are known as a BSS, which is
viewed by the MSC through a single interface as being
the entity responsible for communication with MSs in
a certain area.
52

Network
Network Subsystem
Subsystem
n

The network subsystem includes the equipment and functions

related to end-to-end calls, management of subscribers, mobility,
and interface with the fixed PSTN.
The network and the switching subsystem together include the
main switching functions of GSM as well as the databases needed
for subscriber data and mobility management
Network Switching
Subsystem
In particular, the switching subsystem consists of

Mobile Switch Center (MSC),

Visitor Location Register (VLR),
Home Location Register (HLR),
Authentication Center (AUC), and
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
Echo Canceller (EC)
InterWorking Function (IWF)
......

EIR

EC

IWF

MSC
HLR

VLR

AUC

53

Operation
Operation Support
Support Subsystem
Subsystem
n

The Operational and Maintenance Center (OMC)

subsystem includes the operation and maintenance of
GSM equipment and supports the operator network
interface.
It is connected to all equipment in the switching
system and to the BSC.
OMC performs GSM's administrative functions (for
example, billing) within a country.
One of the OMC's most important functions is the
maintenance of the country's HLR.

54

GSM
GSM Hierarchical
Hierarchical Network
Network Structure
Structure
n

In the GSM system, the network is divided

into the following partitioned areas.

GSM service area;

PLMN service area;
MSC service area;
Location area (LA);
Cells
GSM Service Area
PLMN

MSC
Service Area

LA

55

GSM
GSM Service
Service Area
Area &
& PLMN
PLMN
n

The GSM service area is the total area served by the

combination of all member-countries where a mobile
can be serviced.
The next level is the PLMN service area. There can be
several within a country, based on its size.
The links between a GSM/ PLMN network and other PSTN,
ISDN, or PLMN networks will be on the level of international
or national transit exchanges.
All incoming calls for a GSM/PLMN network will be routed to
a Gateway MSC.
Call connections between PLMNs, or to fixed networks, must
be routed through certain designated MSCs called a gateway
MSC.
56

MSC
MSC Service
Service Area
Area &
& Location
Location Area
Area
n

In one PLMN there can be several MSC/VLR service

areas.
MSC/VLR is a sole controller of calls within its jurisdiction.
The mobile location can be uniquely identified since the MS is
registered in a VLR, which is generally associated with an
MSC.
There are several LAs within one MSC/VLR combination.
A LA is a part of the MSC/VLR service area in which a MS
may move freely without updating location information to the
MSC/VLR exchange that controls the LA.

Lastly, a LA is divided into many cells.

A cell is an identity served by one BTS. The MS distinguishes
between cells using the Base Station Identification Code
(BSIC) that the cell site broadcasts over the air
57

MS
MS Functions
Functions
n

A list of relevant MS functions includes

Voice and data transmission;

Frequency and time synchronization;
Monitoring of power and signal quality of the
surrounding cells for optimum handover;
Provision of location updates;
Equalization of multipath distortions;
Display of short messages up to 160 characters long;
Timing advance.

58

MS
MS Identification
Identification
n

GSM uses a number of descriptors to identify subscribers,

equipment, and fixed stations/areas. Many are temporary
and used to maintain the confidentiality of fixed identities.
An understanding of these descriptors is essential when
considering GSM exploitation.

International Mobile station Equipment Identity (IMEI)

Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN)
International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)

In general, identities are used in the interfaces between the

MSC and the MS, while numbers are used in the fixed part
of the network, such as, for routing.
59

By making a distinction between the

subscriber identity and the mobile
equipment identity, a GSM PLMN can
route calls and perform billing based on
the identity of the subscriber rather than
the mobile unit being used.
This can be done using a removable
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM).
The smart card SIM is portable between
Mobile Equipment (ME) units.

SIM

SIM
SIM Card
Card

60

SIM
SIM (cont.)
(cont.)
n

The contents of the SIM card are as follows.

Removable plastic card or the SIM module;
Unique mobile subscriber ID through IMSI and ISDN
numbers;
PIN;
Authentication key Ki and A3, AS, and A8 algorithms.

The SIM is a removable SC, the size of a credit card,

and contains an integrated circuit chip with a
microprocessor, random access memory (RAM), and
read-only memory (ROM).
A smart card (SC) is one possible implementation of a
SIM; the other implementation can be the module
mounted on the mobile equipment.
61

IMEI
IMEI
n

The IMEI is the unique identity of the

equipment used by a subscriber by each PLMN
and is used to determine
authorized (white),
unauthorized (black), and
malfunctioning (gray) GSM hardware.

In conjunction with the IMSI, it is used to

ensure that only authorized users are granted
access to the system.
An IMEI is never sent in cipher mode by a MS
62

IMSI
IMSI
n
n

International Mobile Subscriber Identity

An IMSI is assigned to each authorized GSM
user. It consists of a
a mobile country code (MCC),
a mobile network code (MNC), and
a PLMN unique mobile subscriber identification
number (MSIN).

The IMSI is not hardware-specific. Instead, it

is maintained on a SC by an authorized
subscriber and is the only absolute identity
that a subscriber has within the GSM system.
The IMSI shall not exceed 15 digits.

63

TMSI
TMSI
n

TMSI is a temporary identification number that is

assigned by the serving MSC/VLR combination.
It is assigned only after successful subscriber
authentication. Since the TMSI has only local significance
(that is, within the VLR and the area controlled by the
VLR), the structure of this can be chosen by each
administration in order to meet local needs.
The TMSI is mainly used for security reasons to avoid
broadcasting the IMSI over the RF air interface, thereby
making it harder for eavesdroppers.
The TMSI is supposed to be changed on a per-call basis as
recommended by GSM specific actions.
64

MS
-ISDN
MS-ISDN
n

Mobile Station ISDN Number: The MS international

number must be dialed after the international prefix in
order to obtain a mobile subscriber in another country.
The MSISDN number is composed of
the country code (CC) followed by
the National Significant Number (N(S)N), which shall not
exceed 15 digits.

The Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN): is

allocated on a temporary basis when the MS roams
into another numbering area. The MSRN number is
used by the HLR for rerouting calls to the MS.

65

Base
Base Station
Station System
System
n

The BSS is a set of BS equipment (such as transceivers

and controllers) that is in view by the MSC through a
single A interface as being the entity responsible for
communicating with MSs in a certain area.
The function split is basically between a transmission
equipment, the BTS, and a managing equipment at the
BSC.
A BTS comprises radio transmission and reception devices, up
to and including the antennas, and also all the signal
processing specific to the radio interface.
A BSC is a network component in the PLMN that functions for
control of one or more BTS. It is a functional entity that
handles common control functions within a BTS.

The interface between the BSC and a remote BTS is a

standard interface termed the A-bis. BSC
BTS

66

Base
Base Transceiver
Transceiver Subsystem
Subsystem
n

A BTS is a network component that serves one cell and

is controlled by a BSC.
BTS is typically able to handle three to five radio
carriers, carrying between 24 and 40 simultaneous
communications.
Um

TRXn
TRXn-1
TRX2
TRX1

BSC

Abis

BCF
BTS

67

BTS
BTS Functions
Functions
n

A list of functions performed by BTS is as follows.

BTS Encodes, encrypts, multiplexes, modulates and feeds the
RF signals to the antenna;
Transcoding and rate adaptation;
Time and frequency synchronization signals transmitted from
BTS;
Voice communication through full rate or half rate (future
date) speech channel;
Received signal from mobile is decoded, decrypted and
equalized before demodulation;
Frequency hopping controlled such that no two MSs in the
same BSC area are hopped together;
Random access detection;
Timing advance;
Uplink radio channel measurements.
BTS

68

Transcoder
/Rate Adapter
Transcoder/Rate
Adapter Unit
Unit
n

The Transcoder/Rate Adapter Unit (TRAU) is the equipment in

which coding and decoding is carried out as well as the rate
adaptation in case of data.
The transcoder takes 13-Kbps speech or 3.6/6/12-Kbps data and
multiplexes four of them to convert into standard 64-Kbps data.
First, the 13 Kbps or the data at 3.6/6/12 Kbps are brought up to the
level of 16 Kbps by inserting additional synchronizing data to make
up the difference between a 13-Kbps speech or lower rate data, and
then four of them are combined in the transcoder to provide 64 Kbps.
Then, up to 30 such 64-Kbps channels are multiplexed onto a 2.048
Mbps if a CEPT1 channel is provided on the A-bis interface.

4 x Coded
Speech Channels

TRAU

64 Kbps
69

TRAU
TRAU (cont.)
(cont.)
n

Depending on the relative costs of a transmission plant

for a particular cellular operator, there may be some
benefit, for larger cells and certain network topologies,
in having the transcoders either at the BTS, BSC, or MSC
location.
If the transcoder is located at MSC, they are still considered
functionally a part of the BSS. This approach allows for the
maximum of flexibility and innovation in optimizing the
transmission between MSC and BTS.
If the transcoder/rate adapter is placed outside the BTS (part of
BSC or MSC), the A-bis interface can only operate on a 16-Kbps
channel within the BSS. Four traffic channels can then be
multiplexed on one 64-Kbps circuit. Thus, the TRAU output data
rate is 64 Kbps.
70

TRAU
TRAU Location
Location
To MS

BTS

To MS

BTS

To MS

BTS

RF Air
Interface

TRAU

BSC

A-bis
Interface

BSC

MSC

To Fixed
Networks

TRAU

MSC

To Fixed
Networks

BSC

TRAU

To Fixed
Networks

A
Interface

13 kbps encoded voice / 12 kbps data

16 kbps transmission

MSC

64 kbps transmission
Physical site
71

Base
Base Station
Station Controller
Controller
n

The BSC is connected to the MSC on one side

and to the BTSs on the other.
The BSC performs the Radio Resource (RR)
management for the cells under its control.

BTS
MSC
BTS

BSC

72

BSC
BSC Functions
Functions
n

The functions of BSC are as follows.

RR management for BTSs under its control;
Intercell handover;
Reallocation of frequencies among BTSs;
Power management of BTSs;
Time and frequency synchronization signals to BTSs;
Time delay measurement of the received signals from MSs
with respect to BTS clock;
Controls frequency hopping;
Performs traffic concentration to reduce the number of lines
from BSC to MSC and BTSs;
Provides interface to the Operations and Management for BSS.

73

BTS
-BSC Connections
BTS-BSC
Connections
TRX
Abis

BTS1

BCF

B
S
C

Abis

Abis

Abis

TRX
TRX
TRX

TRX
TRX
TRX
TRX

BCF BTS4

TRX
TRX
TRX
BCF

BTS2

TRX
TRX
TRX
BCF BTS374

Mobile
Mobile Switch
Switch Center
Center (MSC)
(MSC)
n

The main role of the MSC is to manage the

communications between the GSM users and
other telecommunications network users. The
basic switching function is performed by the
MSC, whose main function is to coordinate
setting up calls to and from GSM users.
The MSC has interfaces with the BSS on one
side (through which MSC VLR is in contact with
GSM users) and the external networks on the
other (ISDN/PSTN/PSPDN)
An MSC is generally connected to several BSSs,
which provide radio coverage to the MSC area.
MSC is also connected to other GSM PLMN
entities such as other MSCs and HLR through a
fixed network.

EIR

EC

IWF

MSC
HLR

VLR

AUC

75

MSC
MSC (cont.)
(cont.)
n

The MSC provides the interface between the

fixed and mobile networks. The MSC is the
telephone switching office for mobileoriginated or terminated traffic.
The MSC controls the call setup and routing
procedures in a manner similar to the functions
of a land network end office.
The MSC provides

EIR

EC

IWF

MSC
HLR

VLR

AUC

call setup,
routing, and
handover between BSCs in its own area and
to/from other MSC;
an interface to the fixed PSTN;
and other functions such as billing.
76

MSC
MSC Functions
Functions
n

Some of functions performed by MSC

Paging;

Coordination of call set up from all MSs in its jurisdiction;

Dynamic allocation of resources;
Handover management;
Reallocation of frequencies to BTSs in its area to meet heavy demands;

Specifically, the call-handling function of paging is controlled by

MSC. MSC coordinates the set up of calls to and from all GSM
subscribers operating in its area.
The dynamic allocation of access resources is done in coordination
with the BSS. More specifically, the MSC decides when and which
types of channels should be assigned to which MS. The channel
identity and related radio parameters are the responsibility of the
BSS.
77

MSC
MSC Functions
Functions (cont.)
(cont.)
n

Some of other functions performed by MSC

Location registration;
Billing for all subscribers based in its area;
Encryption;
Signaling exchange between different interfaces;
Synchronization with BSSs;
One MSC may interface several BSSs
Some other network elements are:

78

Visitor
Visitor Location
Location Register
Register
n

The VLR Constitutes the database that

supports the MSC in the storage and retrieval
of the data of subscribers present in its area.
The VLR supports a mobile paging and
tracking subsystem in the local area where the
mobile is presently roaming.
A VLR may be in charge of one or several MSC
LAs.

79

VLR
VLR and
and Location
Location Updating
Updating
n

When a mobile subscriber roams from one LA to another, their

current location is automatically updated in their VLR.
If the old and new LAs are under the control of two different VLRs,
the entry on the old VLR is deleted and an entry is created in the new
VLR by copying the basic data from the HLR.
The subscriber's current VLR address, stored at the HLR, is also
updated. This provides the information necessary to complete calls to
roaming mobiles.
LAI
LAI-2
1

MSC1

MSC2

VLR1

VLR2

3
4

Delete This MS
From Database

HLR

Add This MS
to Database

80

Location
Location Update
Update
n

MS must request a location update when an optional

timer expires. This periodic updating increases the
accuracy of the data in the VLR.
The BTS broadcasts the timer on the BCCH to tell the
MS how often to update locations within a LAI.
The MS must go from the idle mode to the dedicated
mode and back to the idle mode to complete a location
update.
SDCCH is the channel that the MS and BTS use for a
location update.
The MS does not update locations during a call.
81

Data
Data in
in VLR
VLR
n

Data stored in VLR are as follows.

IMSI
MSISDN
MSRN
TMSI
The LA where the MS has been registered
Supplementary service parameters
MS category
Authentication key, query and response obtained
from AUC
ID of the current MSC
82

VLR
VLR Functions
Functions
n

VLR

Works with the HLR and AUC on

authentication;
Relays cipher key from HLR to BSS for
encryption/decryption;
Controls allocation of new TMSI numbers; a
subscriber's TMSI number can be periodically
changed to secure a subscriber's identity;
Supports paging;
Tracks state of all MSs in its area.
83

Home
Home Location
Location Register
Register
n

The HLR is the reference database that permanently

stores data related to a given set of subscribers.
Various identification numbers and addresses as well
as authentication parameters, services subscribed,
and special routing information are stored.
Current subscriber status, including a subscriber's
temporary roaming number and associated VLR if
the mobile is roaming, are maintained.
Location registration is performed by HLR.

84

HLR
HLR Functions
Functions
n

The HLR provides data needed to route calls to all MS-SIMs home
based in its MSC area, even when they are roaming out of area or
in other GSM networks.
The HLR provides the current location data needed to support
searching for and paging the MS-SIM for incoming calls,
wherever the MS-SIM may be.
The HLR is responsible for storage and provision of SIM
authentication and encryption parameters needed by the MSC
where the MS-SIM is operating. It obtains these parameters from
the AUC.
The HLR maintains records of which supplementary services each
user has subscribed to and provides permission control in
granting access to these services.
Both the HLR and the VLR can be implemented in the same
equipment in an MSC (collocated).
A PLMN may contain one or several HLRs.

85

HLR
HLR Data
Data
n

Based on described functions, different types of

data are stored in HLR.
Some data are permanent; that is, they are modified
only for administrative reasons,
while others are temporary and modified
automatically by other network entities depending on
the movements and actions performed by the
subscriber.
Some data are mandatory, other data are optional.

86

Authentication
Authentication Center
Center

Authentication information and ciphering keys are

stored in a database within the AUC, which protects
the user information against unwanted disclosure and
access.
The HLR is also responsible for the "authentication" of
the subscriber each time he makes or receives a call.
The AUC, which actually performs this function, is a
separate GSM entity that will often be physically
included with the HLR. Being separate, it will use
separate processing equipment for the AUC database
functions.
87

Authentication
Authentication Concept
Concept

Number
Shared
Secret
Data

Authentication
Algorithm

No
Matched ?

At Mobile Unit

AIR Interface

At Serving System Random

Authentication
Algorithm

Shared
Secret
Data

Authentication
Response

Yes
Access Denied

Access Granted.

88

Authentication
Authentication Process
Process
n
n
n

n
n

A PIN number is used to activate the MS.

MS sends its IMSI
The network sends back a randomly generated number
(RAND).
MS computes the Signed Response (SRES) using an
authentication algorithm (A3), the Key which is like a
shared secret data, and RAND.
MS send the SRES to the network
The network computes SRES independently and
compare is with the received SRES from mobile.
A match indicates an authorized user whereas a
mismatch results in failed authentication and no service.
89

Equipment
Equipment Identity
Identity Register
Register
n

EIR is a database that stores the IMEI numbers for all

registered ME units.
EIR database stores the ME identification and has nothing
to do with the subscriber who is receiving or originating a
call.
There are three classes of ME that are stored in the
database, and each group has different characteristics.

White List: contains those IMEIs that are known to have been
assigned to valid MSs.
Black List: contains IMEIs of mobiles that have been reported
stolen.
Gray List: contains IMEIs of mobiles that have problems (for
example, faulty software, wrong make of the equipment). This list
contains all MEs with faults not important enough for barring.
90

Interworking
Interworking Function
Function (IWF)
(IWF)
n

A GSM system provides a wide range of data

services to its subscribers and interfaces with the
various forms of public and private data networks
currently available.
It is the job of the IWF to provide this interfacing
capability.
Networks to which IWF presently provides
interface are as follows.
PSTN;
ISDN;
Circuit-switched public data networks (CSPDN);
Packet-switched public data networks (PSPDN).
91

Echo
Echo Canceller
Canceller (EC)
(EC)
n
n

The EC is used on the PSTN side of the MSC for all voice circuits.
The EC is required at the MSC PSTN interface to reduce the effect
of GSM delay when the mobile is connected to the PSTN circuit.

PLMN
4 wire circuit

BSS

MSC

MS

EC

4w to
PSTN
2w
Hybrid
bridge

Land
telephone

92

Some
Some Other
Other Network
Network Elements
Elements
n

Gateway MSC is the anchor MSC which has direct

signaling interaction with PSTN.
It is the gateway of the GSM network to/from outside network.

GMSC

MSC
MSC
n

P
S
T
N

Message Center (MC): or Voice Mail Services (VMS),

which handles voice mail messaging and
stores/forwards voice mails.
Billing Center (BC): Keep track of charges for all
mobile in the network.

93

Operations
Operations &
& Maintenance
Maintenance Center
Center
n

The main purpose of the OMC is to perform all

operations and maintenance functions on elements of
the GSM PLMN system.
The OMC uses a separate Telecommunications
Management Network (TMN) to communicate with the
various components of the GSM system. In general, it
is done through leased lines on the PSTN or other
fixed networks.
The OMC message and data transfers can either be
carried by SS7 or X.25 protocols.

94

Intra
-Network OMC
Intra-Network
OMC Connections
Connections

Base Station
Subsystem

BTS

Public
Networks

Network Switching
Subsystem

EIR

EC

ISDN

IWF

MSC

BSC

PSTN

MS
HLR

AUC
VLR

Data
Networks

X.25

OMC
95

OMC
OMC Functions
Functions
n

Maintenance functions cover both technical and

administrative actions to maintain and correct the
system operation, or to restore normal operations after
a breakdown, in the shortest possible time.
the following network functions are performed.

Supports for maintenance;

X.25 interface;
Alarm handling;
Fault management;
Performance management;
Software version and configuration control;
Network status;
Traffic collection from network.
96

OMC
OMC (cont.)
(cont.)
n
n

A mobile call trace facility can also be invoked.

The performance management functions include
collecting traffic statistics from the GSM network entities
and archiving them in disk files or displaying them for
analysis.
Because a potential to collect large amounts of data exists,
maintenance personnel can select which of the detailed
statistics to be collected based on personal interests and
past experience.
The OMC provides system change control for the
software revisions and configuration data bases in the
network entities.
Software loads can be downloaded from the OMC to
97
other network entities or uploaded to the OMC.

Network
Network Management
Management Center
Center
n

The salient characteristics and features of the

NMC are as follows.
Single NMC per network;
Provides traffic management for the whole network;
Monitors high-level alarms such as failed or
overloaded nodes;
Performs responsibilities of an OMC when it is not
staffed;
Provides network planners with essential data for
network performance.

The NMC is generally connected to the PLMN

subsystems through leased lines via PSTN.
98

OMC
OMC vs.
vs. MNC
MNC
n

OMC is a regionalized
management center,
OMC is used for
monitoring and
controlling the daily
activities of the system
operations,
OMC is used by network
operators

while NMC is the global

management center.
while NMC is for the
long-term planning.

while NMC is used by

network managers and
network planners.

99

Outline
Outline
Part 1:
n Overview of GSM Protocol
GSM Channelization
Network Elements and Functionalities
Signaling Protocols and Networks

Part 2:
n Mobile Radio Channel Models
n Link Budget Analysis
n Radio Network Planning

100

GSM
GSM Interfaces
Interfaces
GSM Um
Radio
Air Interface

Abis
Interface

A
Interface

SS7

BTS

MS

BSC

BTS

MSC

PSTN

BTS
n

There are three dominant interfaces, namely, an interface

between MSC and the Base Station Controller (BSC), an
A-bis interface between BSC and the Base Transceiver
Station (BTS), and an Urn interface between the BTS and
MS.

101

Functional
Functional Planes
Planes
Operator
n

In the telecommunications domain. a

powerful method to obtain a functional
grouping is to use the Open System
Interconnection model. Functions are
grouped in functional planes, represented
as stacked one upon the other.
The lowest plane, devoted to the physical
transmission of information between
distant entities, relies on physical
hardware media.
whereas the highest one represents the
view of external users. Each plane (or
layer) provides services to the next layer
up, these services being themselves
enhancements of the services provided by
the next layer below.

OAM

User

CM
MM
RR

Transmission

102

Protocols
Protocols and
and Interfaces
Interfaces
SS

HLR

MM+CM

MSC
VLR

RR

BSC
BSC
Air
Interface
n

BTS

Abis
Interface

A
Interface

The distinction between an interface and a protocol is important. An

interface represents the point of contact between two adjacent entities,
and as such it can bear information flows pertaining to several
different pairs of entities. i.e. several protocols.
Signaling messages pertaining to a given protocol may be visible on
several interfaces along their path. if the corresponding peer entities
103
are not adjacent. The protocol then appears on several interfaces.

GSM
GSM Signaling
Signaling Protocols
Protocols
MS

Application

OSI
Layers

CC
MM
RR

BTS

Um
Interface

BSC

A-bis
Interface

Relay
Anchor HLR/
GMSC
PSTN/
MSC/VLR MSC/VLR AuC SMS Gateway ISDN
A
Interface

B
Interface

RIL3-CC

C,D
Interface

MAP/D

MAP/C

RIL3-MM
RIL3-RR

RSM

BSSMAP

TUP
ISUP

MAP/E
MAP/G

Presentation
Session
Transport

Network
Data Link LAP-Dm
Physical Radio

LAP-D
CEPT0

SCCP

SCCP

SCCP

SCCP

MTP3

MTP3

MTP3

MTP3

MTP3

MTP2

MTP2

MTP2

MTP2

MTP3

MTP1

MTP1

MTP1

MTP1

MTP1

104

GSM
GSM Protocols
Protocols
n

Using the OSI model, the GSM system can be

described by considering several functional layers
arranged in hierarchical form. These consist of the
physical layer, data link layer, and the so-called
Layer 3
Layer 3 functions are designated as the application
layer and should not be confused with the standard
layer 3 functions of the OSI model.

105

Layer
Layer 1:
1: Physical
Physical Layer
Layer
n

The lowest layer of the radio interface, layer 1,

provides functions necessary to transfer bit streams
on the physical radio links.
Digital signal processing techniques are used to
perform equalization functions that recover
transmitted bit patterns from signals distorted by
the radio environment and channel coding
functions (due to band limiting) that multiplex
signaling and data channels onto the radio path,
providing a level of immunity to errors.
Speech coding functions also use complex digital
signaling techniques to compress speech
information into a manageable data rate and vice
versa.

106

Layer
Layer 22
n

Layer 2 provides a reliable dedicated signaling link

connection between the MS and the BS.
The layer 2 protocol is based on the ISDN link
access procedure (LAP-D) but adopted to take
account of the limitations using a radio path. On the
other hand, standard LAP-D protocol is used
internally within BSS (between BTS and BSC).
The Message Transfer Part (MTP) of SS7 is used on
the BSC-to-MSC interface to provide a reliable data
link service.
The same protocol (MTP1) is kept between MSCs,
between MSC to HLR/AUC, AUC to GMSC, as well
as between GMSC and PSTN.

107

Layer
Layer 33
n

The application layer is composed of three sublayers: RR, MM,

and CM.
The RR, together with the data link layer and the physical layer,
provide the means for point-to-point radio connections on which
MM and CM messages are carried.
The overall objectives of layer 3 are to provide the means
for the following.
The establishment, operation, and release of a dedicated radio
channel connection (RR);
Location update, authentication, and TMSI reallocation (MM);
The establishment, maintenance, and termination of a circuitswitched call(CCM); SS support; SMS support

108

MAP
MAP Protocol
Protocol Connections
Connections
BSSMAP
BSS

MAP/F

MSC

EIR

MAP/B
MAP/I
VLR

HLR

MAP/D
RIL3

MAP/G
MAP/C
MAP/E

GMSC

MAP/C

VLR
MAP/B
MSC

MAP/H

SMS
Gateway
109

Abis
Abis Interface
Interface
n

All the data, both signaling and user data, move between
the base station (the BTS part) and the BSC on the Abis
interface.
The Abis is implemented when the BTS and BSC are
located at different sites. If both are positioned at the
same location, even in the same cabinet or rack, different
solutions are possible, depending on the manufacturer.
Due to its late and initially fragmented standardization,
the Abis interface appeared in a variety of different
interpretations and implementations. This led to
incompatibilities among network components from
different manufacturers. So, if network operators decided
to buy a BSC from one supplier, they had little choice but
to buy BTSs from the same supplier
110

Digital Transmission Links

n

Hierarchy Digital Transmission adopted by

CEPT are

E0
E1
E2
E3
E4
E5

64Kbps
2.048Mbps
8.4Mbps
34.3Mbps
139.2Mbs
565.1Mbps

1VC
30E0
4 E1
16E1
64E1
256E1

111

Abis
Abis Interface,
Interface, Time
Time Slots
Slots
n

In a manner similar to the air interface, the Abis

interface also uses a layered structure, Layers 1, 2, and 3.
Though the three layers in the Abis have identical
functions to those on the Um interface, their details are
somewhat different.
Layer 1 on the Abis is also the physical layer on which
we find the digital data (speech and signaling) moving
between the base station and the BSC at a rate of 2,048
kbps.
It makes use of a TDMA structure using 32 time slots,
each at a rate of 64 kbps.

112

E1
E1 or
or PCM30
PCM30 Link
Link
n

Due to its structure and speech coding, the 2-Mbps link

is also referred to as a PCM3O link.

TS0

PCM stands for the type of modulation used on Layer 1, pulse

code modulation,
and the number 30 indicates that out of the 32 time slots 30 are
used for user data communication between the base station
and its controller.
The other two time slots, indicated by the shaded squares in
Figure are dedicated to synchronization tasks (on TS 0) and the
signaling required between the base station and the BSC
simply to maintain Layer 2 of the Abis link (on TS 16).

TS1

.....

TS15

TS16

TS17

.....

TS30

TS31
113

BTS
-BSC Connections
BTS-BSC
Connections
TRX
Abis

BTS1

BCF

B
S
C

Abis

Abis

Abis

TRX
TRX
TRX

TRX
TRX
TRX
TRX

BCF BTS4

TRX
TRX
TRX
BCF

BTS2

TRX
TRX
TRX
BCF BTS3114

The A interface
n

n
n

The A interface is the interface signaling protocol

between BSC and MSC.
The A interface defines the messages between the BSC
and the MSC, and messages to/from MS.
Uses 64Kbps E0 channels
Uses the SS7 lower layer protocol stack for carriage
protocol (MTP and SCCP, to be discussed later)
Two message sets are defined for this purpose
DTAP (Direct Transfer Application Part)
BSSMAP (BSS Management Part)
These protocols will be described later

115

Mobile
Mobile Application
Application Part
Part
n

All non-call-associated signaling in GSM is

grouped under MAP.
Non-call-associated signaling implies all
signaling dealing with
mobility management,
security,
activation/deactivation of supplementary services, and
so on.

All protocols use SS7 lower three layers (i.e.,

MTP 1,2,3, SCCP layer, and TCAP layer). These
protocols are used primarily for database queries
and responses.
116

GSM
GSM Network
Network Interfaces
Interfaces
n

GSM has created a set of standard interfaces which

allows an open system architecture.
An operator can mix and match different vendors'
equipment as elements in the network. Previously, each
vendor had a closed system and each element was
proprietary and restricted to the vendors equipment.
In GSM it is possible for an operator to choose the BSS
(BSC and BTS) from one vendor, the MSC and VLR
from another, and the HLR from still another.
Interworking is simpler due to the standardized
interfaces among all of these entities.
117

Air
Air Interface
Interface (Um)
(Um)
n

The radio interface between the BTS and the mobile

station is known as the air interface or Um (user
interface-mobile).
The radio interface uses RF signaling as the layer one
and modification of integrated digital services
network (ISDN) protocol as layers two and three.
This interface has been very well documented in the
GSM standards and all mobile station and BTS
vendors adhere to it strictly.
Each RF channel on the air interface is broken down
into time slots wherein mobile subscribers can
transmit information.

118

A
-bis Interface
A-bis
Interface
n

A-bis interface is the interface between the BTS and

the BSC.
All the connections from the BSC to the BTS utilize a
modification of ISDN signaling for layer three and
use ISDN signaling for layer two.
The physical interface is an E1. Since speech is
compressed in GSM, each 64-kbps channel on the El
supports four TDMA time slots (i.e., four users).
There is a separate signaling channel used for control
of the BTS that is also transported via an El time slot.
119

A
A Interface
Interface
n

The A interface uses SS7 for the lower three layers to

transport modified ISDN call-control signaling.
The information carried on this interface pertains to
management of the BSS, call handling, and mobility
management.
The SCCP and MTP layers provide for data transport.
SCCP is implemented in two classes-0 and 2.
Class 0 (connectionless) is for messages for the BSC,
while class 2 (connection oriented is for messages to a
particular mobile station or logical connection.

BSSMAP controls base-station functions and manages the

physical connection between the BSS and the MSC. It also
controls allocation of radio channels and intra-BSS
handover.

120

The
The A
A interface
interface
n

Two message sets are defined

DTAP (Direct Transfer Application Part)
These are messages between MS and MSC.

BSSMAP (BSS Management Part)

The messages between the BSC and MSC
The BSSMAP messages originates or end in BSC.
n

The distribution of the messages are

performed by a distribution function on top of
SCCP.
The distribution function will add a header on
top of application message to indicate DTAP or
BSSMAP.

121

PSTN
PSTN Interfaces
Interfaces
n

These are the interfaces between the MSC and the

PSTN.
All of these protocols are grouped under callassociated signaling. T
hey are not specific to GSM and are commonly used
in PSTNs for call setup.
The GSM architecture is based on ISDN access and
as such the MSC is based on an ISDN switch.
To take full advantage of all the ISDN services the
MSC should be connected to the PSTN via CCS7based protocols such as ISUP.

122

Outline
Outline
Part 1:
n Overview of GSM Protocol
GSM Channelization
Network Elements and Functionalities
Signaling Protocols and Networks

Part 2:
n Mobile Radio Channel Models
n Link Budget Analysis
n Radio Network Planning

123

Mobile
Mobile Radio
Radio Channel
Channel Models
Models

Signal Power

One commonly used statistical description of the mobile radio

channel, models the received signal as a combination of
three components.
1. Propagation Loss
2. Slow Fading
3. Fast fading

Time/Space

Time/Space

124

Multipath
Multipath Fading
Fading
n

Rayleigh Scenario
Completely Scattered Field
No Dominant Direct Path
All Paths have comparable
Strengths.

R2
R1

Ricean Scenario:
Partially Scattered Field
R0
One Dominant Strong Path
Others are comparable and weaker

R2
R1

Rn
R3

Rn
R3

125

Long
Long Term
Term // Shadow
Shadow Fading
Fading

Normal Distribution

Due to various shadowing and terrain effects the signal

level measured on a circle around the base station
shows some random fluctuations around the estimated
value given by the propagation model.
This random signal level along the cell boundary has
lognormal variations.

126

Free
Free Space
Space &
& Two
Two Ray
Ray Model
Model
n
n
n
n

Path loss slope

Antenna Heights
Frequency Dependence
Antenna Pattern

PL FS = (G T + G R + 20 log 10 f + 32 .44 20 log 10 d )

PL 2 R = (G T + G R + 20 log 10 hT + 20 log 10 hR 40 log 10 d )

127

Hatas
Hatas Equation
Equation
LHaUr(dB) = 69.55 + 26.l6 logfc - 13.82 log (h T)
- a(hR) + [44.9 - 6.55 log (h T)] log r -CF
Range of Validity
150 < fMHz < 1500
1 < rkm < 20
30 < (hT)m< 200
The path loss for suburban areas is given by
L ha,Su (dB) = L

ha,Ur (dB)

l < (hR)m < 10

- 2[log fMHz/28] 2 - 5.4

The path loss for open areas is given by

L ha,Op(dB) = L

ha,Ur (dB)

- 4.78 [log fMHz]2 - 18.33log fMHz- 40.94

128
128

COST231
-Hata Model
COST231-Hata
Model
n

For PCS bands 1800/1900MHz Okumura-Hata

model is not valid.
Instead a modified version called COST231Hata is usually used.

LHaUr(dB) = 46.3 + 33.9 logfc - 13.82 log (hT)

- a(hR) + [44.9 - 6.55 log (hT)] log r +CF

129
129

How
How to
to use
use these
these models?
models?
n

The propagation models are used in two

different ways:
Coverage analysis

Distance
n

Model
Equation

Path Loss

Cell Size Estimation

Path Loss

Model
Equation

Distance
130

Outline
Outline
Part 1:
n Overview of GSM Protocol
GSM Channelization
Network Elements and Functionalities
Signaling Protocols and Networks

Part 2:
n Mobile Radio Channel Models
n Link Budget Analysis
n Radio Network Planning

131

Maximum
Maximum RF
RF Path
Path Loss
Loss
PABS

Path Loss
Down Link

RXMS
Sensitivity

PAMS

Path Loss
Up Link

RXBS
Sensitivity
132

LBA
LBA Inputs
Inputs
n

Base and Mobile Receiver Sensitivity

Parameters
Minimum Acceptable Signal to Noise Ratio
Environmental/Thermal Noise Assumption
Receiver Noise Figure

n
n

Antenna Gain at Base and Mobile

Station
Hardware Losses (Cable, Connectors,
Combiner,....)
Target Coverage Reliability
Propagation Characteristics of the
Channel
Receiving Environment

LBA

133

LBA
LBA Outputs
Outputs
n

Coverage Design
Thresholds
In-Building
In-Car
On-Street

LBA

n
n

n
n

Base Station ERP

Maximum Allowable
Path Loss
Cell Size Estimate
Cell Count Estimate

134

List
List of
of Gains
Gains and
and Losses
Losses
Losses

Gains
n
n
n
n

Power Amplifier Gain

Base Station Antenna Gain
Mobile Antenna Gain
Diversity Gain

Hardware
Combiner
Cables
Connectors
Duplexer

Air Interface
Fade Margin

Propagation

Coverage

Losses
Penetration
Losses
In-car
In-Building
Body Loss
135

dB
dB Unit
Unit for
for Gains
Gains and
and Losses
Losses
n

Decibell (dB) is a logarithmic unit for

representing power gains and losses.
Gain Glinear=Pout/Pin is equivalent to GdB
where

Pout
Pout
GdB= 10 Log ( GLinear) =10 Log (
Pin
Examples:
Pin

Subsystem

A gain of 100 is equivalent to 20dB gain

A 10 times attenuation in power = -10 dB loss
136

dB
dB Units
Units for
for Signal
Signal Power
Power
n

By fixing P0 as a reference power, e.g....

to 1 Watt or 1Miliwatt, one can define
similar units for power.
Examples:
(P)

= 10 log P/(1Watt)
(P) dBm = 10 log P/(1mW)
dBw

P0

Name of unit Example

Interpretation

dBw

10dBw

mW

dBm

20dBm

10:1 over 1W
or 10W
100:1 over 1mW
or 100 mW

Decibel in reference to a power unit

137

Effective
Effective Radiated
Radiated Power
Power (ERP)
(ERP)

Gantenna
ERP
PA
Power
Amplifier

LH

HardWare
Losses

ERP=PA - LH + GAntenna
138

Antenna
Antenna Gain
Gain Units:
Units: dBi
dBi&
& dBd
dBd
n

dBi
is a unit to measure antenna gain in
reference to an isotropic antenna.
So: an isotropic antenna has a power gain
of unity; i.e., 0 dBi.

dBd

Half-Wave Dipole /4
2 wire
Balanced feed
/4

is a unit to measure antenna gain in

reference to a lossless Half-Wave Dipole
antenna.
So, a lossless half-wave dipole antenna
has a power gain of 0 dBd or 2.15 dBi.

G dBi = GdBd + 2.15 dB

Converting
dBd to dBi

139

ERP
ERP vs.
vs. EIRP
EIRP
n

ERP (Effective Radiated Power):

is the transmitted power with respect to a dipole
antenna within a given geographic area.

EIRP (Effective Isotropic Radiated Power):

is the transmitted power with respect to a dipole
antenna within a given geographic area.

EIRP(dBw) = ERP (dBw) + 2.15 (dB)

Converting
ERP to EIRP
140

Receiver
Receiver Sensitivity
Sensitivity
n

RX: Receiver sensitivity

is the minimum acceptable input signal level in dBm, at the
input of the receivers low noise amplifer, required by the
system for reliable communication.

RX is a function of:
Carrier to Noise Ratio (CNR)
For a given FER, e.g. of about 1%, the each type of modulation
and coding requires a minimum signal to noise ratio which at the
bit level is stated as Eb/ N0.

Thermal/Environmental Noise:
is a combination of
Antenna Noise (dBm)
Receiver Noise Figure(NF) in dB
Temperature and System Bandwidth

LNA
141

Receiver
Receiver Sensitivity
Sensitivity Calculation
Calculation
Nin= k T B
(S/N)in

Receiver
Noise Figure

(S/N)out

To Demodulator

( SNRin ) dB = ( SNRout ) dB + NF
Sin N in = ( SNRout ) dB + NF
Sin = N in + ( SNRout ) dB + NF
RX Sensitivity = Sin

= 10 log( k T B ) + NF + ( SNRout ) dB
Absolute Sensitivity

142

Penetration
Penetration Losses
Losses
On Street
In Car
In Building
Body Loss

In-Car

143

Contour
Contour Coverage
Coverage Reliability
Reliability

Normal Distribution

Due to various shadowing and terrain effects the signal level

measured on a circle around the base station shows some
random fluctuations around the estimated value given by the
propagation model.
This random signal level along the cell boundary has
lognormal variations.
144

LogNormal
LogNormal Distribution
Distribution

1.5
2

9.6

8.4

7.8

7.2

6.6

5.4

%50
4.8

4.2

3.6

2.4

%50
1.8

1.2

0.001031
0.001594
0.00242
0.00361
0.005291
0.007617
0.010774
0.014969
0.020432
0.027397
0.036089
0.046702
0.059369
0.074143
0.090962
0.10963
0.129801
0.150974
0.172508
0.19364
0.21353
0.231314
0.246164
0.6

0
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.25
1
1.2
1.4
0.2
1.6
1.8
0.15 2
2.2
2.4
2.6
0.1
2.8
3
3.2
0.05
3.4
3.6
3.8
0
4
4.2
4.4

-(x_- x)2
1
p(x) =
exp[
]
2
2
(2)1/2

A lognormal random process when expressed in dBs has a normal i.e.

Gaussian distribution.
According to this distribution 50% of time the signal level is below its
mean value.
Therefore by setting the coverage threshold at any level L we can only
145
ensure about 50% of coverage reliability.

Lognormal
Lognormal Fade
Fade Margin
Margin

n
n

1.5
2

Fade Margin

9.6

8.4

7.8

7.2

6.6

5.4

4.8

4.2

%80
2.4

1.8

1.2

%20

3.6

0.001031
0.001594
0.00242
0.00361
0.005291
0.007617
0.010774
0.014969
0.020432
0.027397
0.036089
0.046702
0.059369
0.074143
0.090962
0.10963
0.129801
0.150974
0.172508
0.19364
0.21353
0.231314
0.246164
0.6

0
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.25
1
1.2
1.4
0.2
1.6
1.8
0.15 2
2.2
2.4
2.6
0.1
2.8
3
3.2
0.05
3.4
3.6
3.8
0
4
4.2
4.4

Therefore by setting the coverage threshold at any level L we can only ensure about
50% of coverage reliability.
Usually contour coverage reliability of 70-80% is needed..
Therefore to assure e.g. %80 contour coverage reliability one has to shift the
distribution toward higher signal levels so that the dashed area reduces to %20.
This requires providing additional signal power called fade margin or lognormal
margin.
146

Area
Area Coverage
Coverage Reliability
Reliability
n

Coverage design objectives are usually defined

in terms of Area Reliability.
Area Reliability is the percentage of area where
the received signal is above the threshold.
It can be thought of as the average of contour
reliability's for all circles of radii r, 0 < r < R.
99%
97%

95%

94%
90%

147

From
From Area
Area to
to Contour
Contour Reliability
Reliability
Area Reliability

Contour Reliability

/n
1

PX0 (R) = 0.95

0.95

0.9

0.9

0.85
0.8

Area Reliability

0.85

0.75

0.8

0.7

0.75

0.65

0.7

0.6
0.55

0.65

0.5

0.6
0.55
0.5
0

/n

8
148

Fade
Fade Margin
Margin vs
vs Contour
Contour
Reliability
Reliability
Contour Reliability
Standard Deviation of Fade
0.5

Fade Margin in dB

25
0.55

0.6
0.65
20
0.7
0.75
0.8
15
0.85
0.9
0.95

0
0.753969
1.520079
2.311926
3.146406
4.046942
5.049728
6.218597
7.689305
9.869118

0
0.87963
1.773426
2.697248
3.670807
4.721433
5.89135
7.25503
8.970856
11.51397

0
1.005292
2.026773
3.082569
4.195208
5.395923
6.732971
8.291463
10.25241
13.15882

0
1.130953
2.280119
3.46789
4.719609
6.070413
7.574592
9.327896
11.53396
14.80368

Fade Margin

0
1.256615
2.533466
3.853211
5.24401
6.744904
8.416214
10.36433
12.81551
16.44853

0
1.382276
2.786812
4.238532
5.768411
7.419394
9.257835
11.40076
14.09706
18.09338

0
1.507938
3.040159
4.623853
6.292812
8.093884
10.09946
12.43719
15.37861
19.73824

10

=12 dB
11
10
9
8
7
6

0
0.5

0.55

0.6

0.65

0.7

0.75

0.8

Contour Reliability

0.85

0.9

0.95

Location Probability at Cell Edge

149

Fade
Fade margin
margin Calculation
Calculation
n

For a given
standard deviation for the local mean s,
the propagation loss factor, n:
Compute s/n.

For the required area reliability and computed s/n

Estimate coverage contour reliability from plot_I

Use the contour reliability and the standard deviation s

and plot-II to estimate the fade margin Mfade.
Use Mfade to find the maximum path loss and the
coverage design thresholds:
Coverage threshold = Rx - Mobile Antenna Gain Penetration
Loss + Mfade
150

LBA
LBA Phase
Phase 1:
1: Uplink
Uplink Analysis
Analysis
n
n

Starting with the reverse link

Find the Maximum Allowable Path Loss (MAPL)
Start from MS maximum power
Subtract all the losses in due to, RF components
Subtract all the margins due to fading and interference for a
given target loading
Add all the gains in the path e.g. antenna and diversity gains
Subtract the receiver sensitivity of the base station for a given
FER
The result is MAPL.

MAPL=PLUp = PAm - All Losses + All Gains - RXBase

151

Gains
Gains &
& Losses
Losses in
in UpLink
UpLink
Equation
Equation
MS Antenna
Gain/Loss

ERP
Body Loss

PA

In-Building/Car
Penetration Loss
Fade Margin

GB

LH

Path Loss

Hardware
Losses

RXBase = PAm + GM - LBody - LBldg - MFade- PLUp + GB - LH

RX

PLUp = PAm + GM - LBody - LBldg - MFade- RXBase + GB - LH

152

LBA
LBA Phase
Phase 2:
2: Path
Path Balancing
Balancing
n
n

In the forward link:

For each channel
Compute the MS sensitivity for a given SNR or
Eb/No requirement
Add the reverse link path loss, (MAPL)
Add/subtract all losses/gains not considered in the
reverse link calculations
The result is ERP of base station

153

Gains
Gains &
& Losses
Losses in
in Downlink
Downlink
PA
ERP

LH

Fade Margin

GB

PA
Hardware
Losses

Path Loss
In-Building/Car
Penetration Loss
Body Loss
MS Antenna
Gain/Loss

RXMobile = PAB - LH + GB - MFade- PLDown - LBldg - LBody + GM

PAB = RXMobile + LH - GB + MFade+ PLDown + LBldg + LBody - GM

RX
154

Cell
Cell Size/Count
Size/Count Estimation
Estimation
n

Objective:
To determine the size and number of cells required
to provide coverage for a given area.

Required Input:
Maximum Allowable Path Loss (MAPL)
Propagation Loss Model
Market Boundaries

155

Cell
Cell Size/Count
Size/Count Estimation
Estimation
Link Budget Analysis
Max Allowable Path Loss

Market Boundaries

Field Tests
Path Loss Model

Cell Radius Estimate

Cell Count Estimate

156

Cell
Cell Size
Size Estimatation
Estimatation
n

Using Hatas Empirical Formula

PL = 69.55 + 2616
. log10 f c 13.82 log10 hb +
( 44.9 6.55 log10 hb ) log 10 R a ( hm )
Solve it backward to Cell radius estimate based on Hatas
formula:

MAPL 69.55 2616

. log10 fc + 13.82log10 hb + a(hm )
log10 R =
44.9 6.55log10 hb

157

Cell
Cell Count
Count Estimation
Estimation

158

Outline
Outline
Part 1:
n Overview of GSM Protocol
GSM Channelization
Network Elements and Functionalities
Signaling Protocols and Networks

Part 2:
n Mobile Radio Channel Models
n Link Budget Analysis
n Radio Network Planning

159

Network
Network Planning
Planning
n

The problem of planning a wireless network can be

formalized as follows:
Given
the subscribers density and their statistical behavior,
terrain and propagation environment characteristics
and available bandwidth
as input data,
minimize the cost of radio and network infrastructure with respect
to radio coverage and cell layout, channel reuse and frequency
plan,
subject to quality of service constraints.

This problem is quite complex and is typically addressed

through decomposition.
160

Design
Design Considerations
Considerations
n

Implementation Issues
Cost and Time to Market
Resources
Expansion Provisions

Performance Issues
Coverage
Grade of Service
Quality of Service

161

Coverage
Coverage Issues
Issues
n
n
n
n

n
n

RF Channel Characterization
Receiver Sensitivity
Coverage Design Parameters
Coverage Simulations and Performance
analysis
Field Verification
Handoff Provisioning

162

Traffic
Traffic and
and Capacity
Capacity Issues
Issues
n

Subscriber Forecast,
Expected Service Penetration
Subscriber Distribution Maps

Traffic Modeling,

n
n
n

Traffic Types
Access Pattern
Average Load per Call
Grade of Service

Air Interface Capacity

Hardware Limitations
Backhaul and Fixed Network Impact
163

Quality
Quality of
of Service
Service Issues
Issues
n

Inter-cell and Intracell interference Issues in

TDMA Networks
CDMA Networks

Interference Management
Interference Avoidance Techniques
Channel Assignment
FCA
DCA

Interference Cancellation Techniques

Interference Averaging Techniques
164

Design
Design Process
Process
n

Network Planning is typically addressed

through decomposition.
The main steps characterizing the mobile
network planning procedure include
traffic and mobility model,
radio coverage and cell dimensioning,
frequency plan,
distribution, switching, and signaling and database
network planning.
As the planning phases are strictly dependent on each
other, an iterative approach is typically used.

165

RF
RF Design
Design Preparation
Preparation
n
n
n
n

RF design Starts with some preparation,

Selecting the vendor
Setting Design Objectives and Standards
Setting up required databases
Terrain, Morphology, Road Maps, Demographics, Client
Preferred site locations,

n
n

Antennas and Hardware related specifications

Estimating required Resources
RF engineers (man-hours)
Measurement Tools
Software Tools
166

Predesign
Predesign Measurements
Measurements
n

Measurement tools should be used to

characterize the propagation environment in
various areas within the market.
Fine tune the parameters of the propagation
model used by the software tool; e.g.
Correction Factors, path Loss Slope ...
Optional ( if time and money restrictions
permit)
Penetration Losses (In-building, In-car,..)
Fading and Delay spread statistics.
167

Paper
Paper Design
Design (LBA)
(LBA)
n

Link Budget Analysis (LBA) is a spread-sheet type

analysis of losses and gains in the forward and reverse
radio paths.

LBA has the following objectives:

Estimating Maximum allowable path loss
Balancing forward and reverse link foot prints
Defining coverage thresholds for various coverage classes
determining typical transceiver parameters

LBA also provides us with estimates of cell radius and

cell count, which together can define a first cut cell
layout.

168

Simulations
Simulations &
& Implementation
Implementation
n

n
n
n

Initial Design consists of the

following major steps,
Coverage Analysis
Site Selection considering
Capacity Analysis
Capacity Analysis
Interference avoidance
Interference Analysis
through careful frequency
&
planning
Frequency Planning
These steps usually involve
iterations.
Implementation
Any change in site configuration
to alleviate a capacity or
interference problem may
violate coverage rules and
objectives.

Optimization
169

Radio
Radio Coverage
Coverage Design
Design
n

For radio coverage and cell dimensioning, the previous

traffic data are considered together with the
propagation issues.
The main factors affecting the electromagnetic
coverage forecast are:
Terrain configuration,
Mobility and Fading effects.
Land use, vegetation, and urbanization density
Penetration losses associated with receiving
environments, buildings and vehicles.

170

Traffic
Traffic Analysis
Analysis
n
n

As for the traffic modeling,

the PCS service area must be characterized based on
subscribers' density and distribution.
Geographical maps or territorial databases are utilized
to identify the main roads, inhabitant densities, and
business areas. Urban and geographical analysis can be
integrated, when necessary, with data relevant to the
fixed telecommunication users distribution.
In this step also mobility attributes are modeled, since
they affect significantly signaling network and
distributed data base dimensioning.

171

Joint
Joint Radio
Radio &
& Traffic
Traffic Design
Design
n

In principle radio coverage and traffic distribution are

to be considered jointly.
However, due to the inherent task complexity, the
procedure calculates
first of all a suitable radio coverage for the service area,
Then it verifies if that coverage can fulfill the cell capacity
requirements deriving from the traffic forecasting.

These two very strictly dependent steps are iterated

until a satisfactory solution is derived.
The factors conditioning the resulting cell layout come
from either propagation or traffic constraints,
depending on the most critical conditions.
172

Call
Call Traffic
Traffic and
and Capacity
Capacity
n

Capacity can be defined as

Maximum number of simultaneous calls in the system or
The maximum number of calls supported assuming a random
traffic model. This is called Erlang capacity.

The number of calls in the system is a random process,

usually modeled by a Poisson Distribution
Rayleigh Distribution

Probability Density of Number of Users

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

9.6

8.4

7.8

7.2

6.6

5.4

4.8

4.2

3.6

2.4

1.8

1.2

0.6

0
0

Probability Density Function

Fade Level

173
173

Erlang
Erlang aa Unit
Unit for
for Traffic
Traffic
n

Traffic density in a system is proportional to

the call arrival rate l and
average call duration 1 /
.

Erlang (A) is, a dimensionless unit for traffic

density, defined as

= /

Example:
An average call arrival rate of 2 calls per hour when
the average call duration is 3 minutes results in
(2/60)x3= 0.1A=100mA
174
174

Subscriber
Subscriber Usage
Usage
n

Subscriber usage is the amount of traffic

created by an average user, this number is
expressed in erlangs/subscriber.
This value differ from system to system and
even in a given market it changes with time.
Example 2:
In a market where each user makes 1 call per hour
and each call last about 3 minutes the subscriber
usage is: (1/60min)x3min=0.05 A/subs.

175

Grade
Grade Of
Of Service
Service (GOS)
(GOS)

Rayleigh Distribution
0.7

0.6

0.5

Max Number of
Traffic Channels

0.4
0.3

0.2

Prob. of Blocking

0.1

Fade Level

10

9.6

9.2

8.8

8.4

7.6

7.2

6.8

6.4

5.6

5.2

4.8

4.4

3.6

3.2

2.8

2.4

1.6

1.2

0.8

0.4

0
0

In a trunked mobile radio system, when a particular call arrives

while all channels are already in use, the call is blocked
The Grade Of Service (GOS) is defined as the probability that a
call is blocked, i.e. not be served immediately.

Probability Density Function

176
176

Call
Call Blocking
Blocking Concept
Concept
n

Some systems use a queuing to hold the blocked calls until a

channel becomes available.
There are two types of queuing strategies in cellular systems.
Erlang B, All Blocked Calls Cleared
Erlang C, All Blocked Calls Delayed
Arrived
Calls

Cleared
Calls

Served Calls
Calls

SYSTEM
QUEUE

Delayed
Calls

177
177

Trunking
Trunking Strategies;
Strategies; Erlang
Erlang BB
n
n

Almost all Cellular and PCS systems use Erlang B .

The relation between blocking probability, number of
channels or voice circuits and the traffic load according to
Erlang B model follows this equation:

AN
GoS = Pr(blocking ) = N N ! j
A

j= 0 j !
n

N: Number of traffic channels

A: Number of Erlangs

Since the relation between A and N in this equation is

not in the explicit form, in many practical cases Erlang
tables are commonly used.
178
178

Erlang vs. No. of Channels

n

Erlang table calculations:

Blocking
Probability

1%

2%

3%

5%

No. of Channel

1.36

1.65

1.87

2.21

10

4.46

5.08

5.52

6.21

15

8.10

9.00

9.64

10.6

179
179

Subscriber Forecast
Total Population
PCS Market Penetration Factor

Total No. of Subscribers

LBA

Market Area

Subscribers Density

MAPL

Prop. Model

Cell Area

# Subs/Cell

180

BTS Traffic Analysis

# Subs/Cell

Erlang/Subs

Erlangs/Cell

Erlangs Model

Voice Channels/Cell

GoS

Channelization

RF Channels/Cell
181

Frequency
Frequency Planning
Planning &
& FCA
FCA
n

Once the cell layout and the cell dimensioning

(in terms of channels) are identified, a frequency
plan is to be evaluated by keeping the relevant
quality of service above an assigned threshold.
A formal description of the frequency planning
task in a Fixed Channel Assisgnment (FCA)
system follows:
minimize the overall bandwidth (union of used frequencies Fi )
subject to (C/I)i > (C/I)0 for all is. Fi is the set of frequencies
assigned to cell i and (C/I) 0 represents the minimum allowed
carrier to interference threshold (the quality of service measure).
182

Channel
Channel Assignment
Assignment
n

Channel assignment is the problem of

allocating enough channels or frequencies to each
base station to meet its capacity needed, subject to
maintaining a minimum C/I for all points within
the service area.

The channel assignment can be

Fixed
Semi_fixed
Dynamic

183
183

Fixed
Fixed Assignment
Assignment
n

In fixed assignment, channels are permanently

allocated to each cell to meet a pre-determined GOS.
Fixed assignment can be based on:
Uniform reuse pattern if traffic is uniformly distributed
among cells.
Non-uniform based on estimated traffic in each cells coverage
area.

Frequency planning is a search for the assignment that

causes minimum intercell co-channel and adjacent
channel interference.
Question:
What is Semi-Fix Channel Assignment?
n

184
184

Dynamic
Dynamic Channel
Channel Assignment
Assignment
n

In DCA the allocation of channels is changed

adaptively according to the dynamics of the call traffic.
DCA relies on periodic uplink and/or down link
measurements of multiple channels to find the one
which causes least amount of interference.
DCA maximizes the bandwidth utilization by
effectively
maximizing the number of channel reuses and
minimizing the number of idle channels

DCA algorithms may be centralized or distributed.

185
185

Implementation
Implementation &
& Optimization
Optimization
n

Once all the coverage, capacity and interference

objectives are met site acquisition and candidate site
evaluation starts.
For time and cost considerations, in some design
projects client prefers to perform an extensive initial
site acquisition and evaluations.
System implementation and optimization requires
both drive tests and simulations.
At this phase iterations on coverage, capacity and
interference analysis and frequency plan, similar to
previous phase, is performed but now based on real
and feasible sites.
186

Review
Review and
and Discussions
Discussions

187

Useful
Useful References
References

An Introduction to GSM, Siegmund M. Redl, Matthias K. Weber

and Malcolm W. Oliphant, Artech House Publishers, 1995
The GSM System for Mobile Communications, Michel Mouly
and Marie B. Pautet, 1995
GSM System Engineering, Asha Mehrotra, Artech House
Publishers, 1997.
GSM System Engineering Handbook, Lee and Miller, Artech House
Publishers, 1998.
Wireless Communications, Principles and Practice, Theoddore
Rappaport, Prentice Hall/IEEE Press 1996.
188

Outline
Outline
Part 1:
n Overview of GSM Protocol
GSM Channelization
Network Elements and Functionalities
Signaling Protocols and Networks

Part 2:
n Mobile Radio Channel Models
n Link Budget Analysis
n Radio Network Planning

189

Mobile
Mobile Radio
Radio Channel
Channel Models
Models

Signal Power

One commonly used statistical description of the mobile radio

channel, models the received signal as a combination of
three components.
1. Propagation Loss
2. Slow Fading
3. Fast fading

Time/Space

Time/Space

190

Multipath
Multipath Fading
Fading
n

Rayleigh Scenario
Completely Scattered Field
No Dominant Direct Path
All Paths have comparable
Strengths.

R2
R1

Rn
R3

Ricean Scenario:
Partially Scattered Field
One Dominant Strong Path
Others are comparable and weaker R0

R2
R1

Rn
R3

191

Long
Long Term
Term // Shadow
Shadow Fading
Fading

Normal Distribution

Due to various shadowing and terrain effects the signal

level measured on a circle around the base station
shows some random fluctuations around the estimated
value given by the propagation model.
This random signal level along the cell boundary has
lognormal variations.

192

Free
Free Space
Space &
& Two
Two Ray
Ray Model
Model
n
n
n
n

Path loss slope

Antenna Heights
Frequency Dependence
Antenna Pattern

PL FS = ( G T + G T + 20 log 10 f + 32.44 20 log 10 d )

PL2 R = ( G T + G T + 20 log 10 hT + 20 log 10 hR 40 log 10 d )

193

Hatas
Hatas Equation
Equation
LHaUr(dB) = 69.55 + 26.l6 logfc - 13.82 log (h T)
- a(hR) + [44.9 - 6.55 log hT)] log r -C F
Range of Validity
150 < fMHz < 1500
1 < rkm < 20
30 < (hT)m< 200
The path loss for suburban areas is given by
L ha,Su (dB) = L

ha,Ur (dB)

l < (hR)m < 10

- 2[log fMHz/28] 2 - 5.4

The path loss for open areas is given by

L ha,Op(dB) = L

ha,Ur (dB)

- 4.78 [log fMHz]2 - 18.33log fMHz- 40.94

194
194

COST231
-Hata Model
COST231-Hata
Model
n

For PCS bands 1800/1900MHz Okumura-Hata

model is not valid.
Instead a modified version called COST231Hata is usually used.

LHaUr(dB) = 46.3 + 33.9 logfc - 13.82 log (hT)

- a(hR) + [44.9 - 6.55 log hT)] log r +CF

195
195

How
How to
to use
use these
these models?
models?
n

The propagation models are used in two

different ways:
Coverage analysis

Distance
n

Model
Equation

Path Loss

Cell Size Estimation

Path Loss

Model
Equation

Distance
196

Outline
Outline
Part 1:
n Overview of GSM Protocol
GSM Channelization
Network Elements and Functionalities
Signaling Protocols and Networks

Part 2:
n Mobile Radio Channel Models
n Link Budget Analysis
n Radio Network Planning

197

Maximum
Maximum RF
RF Path
Path Loss
Loss
PABS

Path Loss
Down Link

RXMS
Sensitivity

PAMS

Path Loss
Up Link

RXBS
Sensitivity
198

LBA
LBA Inputs
Inputs
n

Base and Mobile Receiver Sensitivity

Parameters
Minimum Acceptable Signal to Noise Ratio
Environmental/Thermal Noise Assumption
Receiver Noise Figure

n
n

Antenna Gain at Base and Mobile

Station
Hardware Losses (Cable, Connectors,
Combiner,....)
Target Coverage Reliability
Propagation Characteristics of the
Channel
Receiving Environment

LBA

199

LBA
LBA Outputs
Outputs
n

Coverage Design
Thresholds
In-Building
In-Car
On-Street

LBA

n
n

n
n

Base Station ERP

Maximum Allowable
Path Loss
Cell Size Estimate
Cell Count Estimate

200

List
List of
of Gains
Gains and
and Losses
Losses
Losses

Gains
n
n
n
n

Power Amplifier Gain

Base Station Antenna Gain
Mobile Antenna Gain
Diversity Gain

Hardware
Combiner
Cables
Connectors
Duplexer

Air Interface
Fade Margin

Propagation

Coverage

Losses
Penetration
Losses

In-car
In-Building
Body Loss

201

dB
dB Unit
Unit for
for Gains
Gains and
and Losses
Losses
n

Decibell (dB) is a logarithmic unit for

representing power gains and losses.
Gain Glinear=Pout/Pin is equivalent to GdB
where

Pout
Pout
GdB= 10 Log ( GLinear) =10 Log (
Pin
Examples:
Pin

Subsystem

A gain of 100 is equivalent to 20dB gain

A 10 times attenuation in power = -10 dB loss
202

dB
dB Units
Units for
for Signal
Signal Power
Power
n

By fixing P0 as a reference power, e.g....

to 1 Watt or 1Miliwatt, one can define
similar units for power.
Examples:
(P)

= 10 log P/(1Watt)
(P) dBm = 10 log P/(1mW)
dBw

P0

Name of unit Example

Interpretation

dBw

10dBw

mW

dBm

20dBm

10:1 over 1W
or 10W
100:1 over 1mW
or 100 mW

Decibel in reference to a power unit

203

Effective
Effective Radiated
Radiated Power
Power (ERP)
(ERP)

Gantenna
ERP
PA
Power
Amplifier

LH

HardWare
Losses

ERP=PA - LH + GAntenna
204

Antenna
Antenna Gain
Gain Units:
Units: dBi
dBi&
& dBd
dBd
n

dBi
is a unit to measure antenna gain in
reference to an isotropic antenna.
So: an isotropic antenna has a power gain
of unity; i.e., 0 dBi.

dBd

Half-Wave Dipole /4
2 wire
Balanced feed
/4

is a unit to measure antenna gain in

reference to a lossless Half-Wave Dipole
antenna.
So, a lossless half-wave dipole antenna
has a power gain of 0 dBd or 2.15 dBi.

G dBi = GdBd + 2.15 dB

Converting
dBd to dBi

205

ERP
ERP vs.
vs. EIRP
EIRP
n

ERP (Effective Radiated Power):

is the transmitted power with respect to a Dipole
antenna within a given geographic area.

EIRP (Effective Isotropic Radiated Power):

is the transmitted power with respect to a Isotropic
antenna within a given geographic area.

EIRP(dBw) = ERP (dBw) + 2.15 (dB)

Converting
ERP to EIRP
206

Receiver
Receiver Sensitivity
Sensitivity
n

RX: Receiver sensitivity

is the minimum acceptable input signal level in dBm, at the
input of the receivers low noise amplifer, required by the
system for reliable communication.

RX is a function of:
Carrier to Noise Ratio (CNR)
For a given FER, e.g. of about 1%, the each type of modulation
and coding requires a minimum signal to noise ratio which at the
bit level is stated as Eb/ N0.

Thermal/Environmental Noise:
is a combination of
Antenna Noise (dBm)
Receiver Noise Figure(NF) in dB
Temperature and System Bandwidth

LNA
207

Receiver
Receiver Sensitivity
Sensitivity Calculation
Calculation
Nin= k T B
(S/N)in

Receiver
Noise Figure

(S/N)out

To Demodulator

( SNRin ) dB = ( SNRout ) dB + NF
Sin N in = ( SNRout ) dB + NF
Sin = N in + ( SNRout ) dB + NF
RX Sensitivity = Sin

= 10 log( k T B ) + NF + ( SNRout ) dB
Absolute Sensitivity

208

Penetration
Penetration Losses
Losses
On Street
In Car
In Building
Body Loss

In-Car

209

Contour
Contour Coverage
Coverage Reliability
Reliability

Normal Distribution

Due to various shadowing and terrain effects the signal level

measured on a circle around the base station shows some
random fluctuations around the estimated value given by the
propagation model.
This random signal level along the cell boundary has
lognormal variations.
210

LogNormal
LogNormal Distribution
Distribution

n
n
n

1.5
2

9.6

8.4

7.8

7.2

6.6

5.4

%50
4.8

4.2

3.6

2.4

%50
1.8

1.2

0.001031
0.001594
0.00242
0.00361
0.005291
0.007617
0.010774
0.014969
0.020432
0.027397
0.036089
0.046702
0.059369
0.074143
0.090962
0.10963
0.129801
0.150974
0.172508
0.19364
0.21353
0.231314
0.246164
0.6

0
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.25
1
1.2
1.4
0.2
1.6
1.8
0.15 2
2.2
2.4
2.6
0.1
2.8
3
3.2
0.05
3.4
3.6
3.8
0
4
4.2
4.4

-(x_- x)2
1
p(x) =
exp[
]
2
2
(2)1/2

A lognormal random process when expressed in dBs has a normal i.e.

Gaussian distribution.
According to this distribution 50% of time the signal level is below its
mean value.
Therefore by setting the coverage threshold at any level L we can only
ensure about 50% of coverage reliability.
211

Lognormal
Lognormal Fade
Fade Margin
Margin

n
n
n
n

1.5
2

Fade Margin

9.6

8.4

7.8

7.2

6.6

5.4

4.8

4.2

%80
2.4

1.8

1.2

%20

3.6

0.001031
0.001594
0.00242
0.00361
0.005291
0.007617
0.010774
0.014969
0.020432
0.027397
0.036089
0.046702
0.059369
0.074143
0.090962
0.10963
0.129801
0.150974
0.172508
0.19364
0.21353
0.231314
0.246164
0.6

0
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.25
1
1.2
1.4
0.2
1.6
1.8
0.15 2
2.2
2.4
2.6
0.1
2.8
3
3.2
0.05
3.4
3.6
3.8
0
4
4.2
4.4

Therefore by setting the coverage threshold at any level L we can only ensure about
50% of coverage reliability.
Usually contour coverage reliability of 70-80% is needed..
Therefore to assure e.g. %80 contour coverage reliability one has to shift the
distribution toward higher signal levels so that the dashed area reduces to %20.
This requires providing additional signal power called fade margin or lognormal
margin.

212

Area
Area Coverage
Coverage Reliability
Reliability
n

Coverage design objectives are usually defined

in terms of Area Reliability.
Area Reliability is the percentage of area where
the received signal is above the threshold.
It can be thought of as the average of contour
reliability's for all circles of radii r, 0 < r < R.
99%
97%

95%

94%
90%

213

From
From Area
Area to
to Contour
Contour Reliability
Reliability
Area Reliability

Contour Reliability

/n
1

PX0 (R) = 0.95

0.95

0.9

0.9

0.85
0.8

Area Reliability

0.85

0.75

0.8

0.7

0.75

0.65

0.7

0.6
0.55

0.65

0.5

0.6
0.55
0.5
0

/n

8
214

Fade
Fade Margin
Margin vs
vs Contour
Contour
Reliability
Reliability
Contour Reliability
Standard Deviation of Fade
0.5

Fade Margin in dB

25
0.55

0.6
0.65
20
0.7
0.75
0.8
15
0.85
0.9
0.95

0
0.753969
1.520079
2.311926
3.146406
4.046942
5.049728
6.218597
7.689305
9.869118

0
0.87963
1.773426
2.697248
3.670807
4.721433
5.89135
7.25503
8.970856
11.51397

0
1.005292
2.026773
3.082569
4.195208
5.395923
6.732971
8.291463
10.25241
13.15882

0
1.130953
2.280119
3.46789
4.719609
6.070413
7.574592
9.327896
11.53396
14.80368

Fade Margin

0
1.256615
2.533466
3.853211
5.24401
6.744904
8.416214
10.36433
12.81551
16.44853

0
1.382276
2.786812
4.238532
5.768411
7.419394
9.257835
11.40076
14.09706
18.09338

0
1.507938
3.040159
4.623853
6.292812
8.093884
10.09946
12.43719
15.37861
19.73824

10

=12 dB
11
10
9
8
7
6

0
0.5

0.55

0.6

0.65

0.7

0.75

0.8

Contour Reliability

0.85

0.9

0.95

Location Probability at Cell Edge

215

Fade
Fade margin
margin Calculation
Calculation
n

For a given
standard deviation for the local mean ,
the propagation loss factor, n:
Compute s/n.

For the required area reliability and computed s/n

Estimate coverage contour reliability from plot_I

Use the contour reliability and the standard deviation s

and plot-II to estimate the fade margin Mfade.
Use Mfade to find the maximum path loss and the
coverage design thresholds:
Coverage threshold = Rx - Mobile Antenna Gain Penetration
Loss + Mfade
216

LBA
LBA Phase
Phase 1:
1: Uplink
Uplink Analysis
Analysis
n
n

Starting with the reverse link

Find the Maximum Allowable Path Loss (MAPL)
Start from MS maximum power
Subtract all the losses in due to, RF components
Subtract all the margins due to fading and interference for a
given target loading
Add all the gains in the path e.g. antenna and diversity gains
Subtract the receiver sensitivity of the base station for a given
FER
The result is MAPL.

MAPL=PLUp = PAm - All Losses + All Gains - RXBase

217

Gains
Gains &
& Losses
Losses in
in UpLink
UpLink
Equation
Equation
MS Antenna
Gain/Loss

ERP
Body Loss

PA

In-Building/Car
Penetration Loss
Fade Margin

GB

LH

Path Loss

Hardware
Losses

RXBase = PAm + GM - LBody - LBldg - MFade- PLUp + GB - LH

RX

PLUp = PAm + GM - LBody - LBldg - MFade- RXBase + GB - LH

218

LBA
LBA Phase
Phase 2:
2: Path
Path Balancing
Balancing
n
n

In the forward link:

For each channel
Compute the MS sensitivity for a given SNR or
Eb/No requirement
Add the reverse link path loss, (MAPL)
Add/subtract all losses/gains not considered in the
reverse link calculations
The result is ERP of base station

219

Gains
Gains &
& Losses
Losses in
in Downlink
Downlink
PA
ERP

LH

Fade Margin

GB

PA
Hardware
Losses

Path Loss
In-Building/Car
Penetration Loss
Body Loss
MS Antenna
Gain/Loss

RXMobile = PAB - LH + GB - MFade- PLDown - LBldg - LBody + GM

PAB = RXMobile + LH - GB + MFade+ PLDown + LBldg + LBody - GM

RX
220

Cell
Cell Size/Count
Size/Count Estimation
Estimation
n

Objective:
To determine the size and number of cells required
to provide coverage for a given area.

Required Input:
Maximum Allowable Path Loss (MAPL)
Propagation Loss Model
Market Boundaries

221

Cell
Cell Size/Count
Size/Count Estimation
Estimation
Link Budget Analysis
Max Allowable Path Loss

Market Boundaries

Field Tests
Path Loss Model

Cell Radius Estimate

Cell Count Estimate

222

Cell
Cell Size
Size Estimatation
Estimatation
n

Using Hatas Empirical Formula

PL = 69.55 + 2616
. log10 f c 13.82 log10 hb +
( 44.9 6.55 log10 hb ) log 10 R a ( hm )
Solve it backward to Cell radius estimate based on Hatas
formula:

MAPL 69.55 2616

. log10 fc + 13.82log10 hb + a(hm )
log10 R =
44.9 6.55log10 hb

223

Cell
Cell Count
Count Estimation
Estimation

224

Outline
Outline
Part 1:
n Overview of GSM Protocol
GSM Channelization
Network Elements and Functionalities
Signaling Protocols and Networks

Part 2:
n Mobile Radio Channel Models
n Link Budget Analysis
n Radio Network Planning

225

Network
Network Planning
Planning
n

The problem of planning a wireless network can be

formalized as follows:
Given
the subscribers density and their statistical behavior,
terrain and propagation environment characteristics
and available bandwidth
as input data,
minimize the cost of radio and network infrastructure with respect
to radio coverage and cell layout, channel reuse and frequency
plan,
subject to quality of service constraints.

This problem is quite complex and is typically addressed

through decomposition.
226

Design
Design Considerations
Considerations
n

Implementation Issues
Cost and Time to Market
Resources
Expansion Provisions

Performance Issues
Coverage
Grade of Service
Quality of Service

227

Coverage
Coverage Issues
Issues
n
n
n
n

n
n

RF Channel Characterization
Receiver Sensitivity
Coverage Design Parameters
Coverage Simulations and Performance
analysis
Field Verification
Handoff Provisioning

228

Traffic
Traffic and
and Capacity
Capacity Issues
Issues
n

Subscriber Forecast,
Expected Service Penetration
Subscriber Distribution Maps

Traffic Modeling,

n
n
n

Traffic Types
Access Pattern
Average Load per Call
Grade of Service

Air Interface Capacity

Hardware Limitations
Backhaul and Fixed Network Impact
229

Quality
Quality of
of Service
Service Issues
Issues
n

Inter-cell and Intracell interference Issues in

TDMA Networks
CDMA Networks

Interference Management
Interference Avoidance Techniques
Channel Assignment
FCA
DCA

Interference Cancellation Techniques

Interference Averaging Techniques
230

Design
Design Process
Process
n

Network Planning is typically addressed

through decomposition.
The main steps characterizing the mobile
network planning procedure include
traffic and mobility model,
radio coverage and cell dimensioning,
frequency plan,
distribution, switching, and signaling and database
network planning.
As the planning phases are strictly dependent on each
other, an iterative approach is typically used.

231

RF
RF Design
Design Preparation
Preparation
n
n
n
n

RF design Starts with some preparation,

Selecting the vendor
Setting Design Objectives and Standards
Setting up required databases
Terrain, Morphology, Road Maps, Demographics, Client
Preferred site locations,

n
n

Antennas and Hardware related specifications

Estimating required Resources
RF engineers (man-hours)
Measurement Tools
Software Tools
232

Predesign
Predesign Measurements
Measurements
n

Measurement tools should be used to characterize

the propagation environment in various areas
within the market.
Fine tune the parameters of the propagation model
used by the software tool; e.g. Correction Factors,
path Loss Slope ...
Optional ( if time and money restrictions permit)
Penetration Losses (In-building, In-car,..)
Fading and Delay spread statistics.

233

Paper
Paper Design
Design (LBA)
(LBA)
n

Link Budget Analysis (LBA) is a spread-sheet type

analysis of losses and gains in the forward and reverse
radio paths.

LBA has the following objectives:

Estimating Maximum allowable path loss
Balancing forward and reverse link foot prints
Defining coverage thresholds for various coverage classes
determining typical transceiver parameters

LBA also provides us with estimates of cell radius and

cell count, which together can define a first cut cell
layout.

234

Simulations
Simulations &
& Implementation
Implementation
n

n
n
n

Initial Design consists of the

following major steps,
Coverage Analysis
Site Selection considering
Capacity Analysis
Capacity Analysis
Interference avoidance
through careful frequency
Interference Analysis
planning
&
These steps usually involve
Frequency Planning
iterations.
Any change in site configuration
Implementation
to alleviate a capacity or
interference problem may
violate coverage rules and
objectives.

Optimization
235

Radio
Radio Coverage
Coverage Design
Design
n

For radio coverage and cell dimensioning, the previous

traffic data are considered together with the
propagation issues.
The main factors affecting the electromagnetic
coverage forecast are:
Terrain configuration,
Mobility and Fading effects.
Land use, vegetation, and urbanization density
Penetration losses associated with receiving
environments, buildings and vehicles.

236

Traffic
Traffic Analysis
Analysis
n
n

As for the traffic modeling,

the PCS service area must be characterized based on
subscribers' density and distribution.
Geographical maps or territorial databases are utilized
to identify the main roads, inhabitant densities, and
business areas. Urban and geographical analysis can be
integrated, when necessary, with data relevant to the
fixed telecommunication users distribution.
In this step also mobility attributes are modeled, since
they affect significantly signaling network and
distributed data base dimensioning.

237

Joint
Joint Radio
Radio &
& Traffic
Traffic Design
Design
n

In principle radio coverage and traffic distribution are

to be considered jointly.
However, due to the inherent task complexity, the
procedure calculates
first of all a suitable radio coverage for the service area,
Then it verifies if that coverage can fulfill the cell capacity
requirements deriving from the traffic forecasting.

These two very strictly dependent steps are iterated

until a satisfactory solution is derived.
The factors conditioning the resulting cell layout come
from either propagation or traffic constraints,
depending on the most critical conditions.

238

Frequency
Frequency Planning
Planning &
& FCA
FCA
n

Once the cell layout and the cell dimensioning

(in terms of channels) are identified, a frequency
plan is to be evaluated by keeping the relevant
quality of service above an assigned threshold.
A formal description of the frequency planning
task in a Fixed Channel Assisgnment (FCA)
system follows:
minimize the overall bandwidth (union of used frequencies Fi )
subject to (C/I)i > (C/I)0 for all is. Fi is the set of frequencies
assigned to cell i and (C/I) 0 represents the minimum allowed
carrier to interference threshold (the quality of service measure).
239

Channel
Channel Assignment
Assignment
n

Channel assignment is the problem of

allocating enough channels or frequencies to each
base station to meet its capacity needed, subject to
maintaining a minimum C/I for all points within
the service area.

The channel assignment can be

Fixed
Semi_fixed
Dynamic

240
240

Fixed
Fixed Assignment
Assignment
n

In fixed assignment, channels are permanently

allocated to each cell to meet a pre-determined GOS.
Fixed assignment can be based on:
Uniform reuse pattern if traffic is uniformly distributed
among cells.
Non-uniform based on estimated traffic in each cells coverage
area.

Frequency planning is a search for the assignment that

causes minimum intercell co-channel and adjacent
channel interference.
Question:
What is Semi-Fix Channel Assignment?
n

241
241

Dynamic
Dynamic Channel
Channel Assignment
Assignment
n

In DCA the allocation of channels is changed

adaptively according to the dynamics of the call traffic.
DCA relies on periodic uplink and/or down link
measurements of multiple channels to find the one
which causes least amount of interference.
DCA maximizes the bandwidth utilization by
effectively
maximizing the number of channel reuses and
minimizing the number of idle channels

DCA algorithms may be centralized or distributed.

242
242

Implementation
Implementation &
& Optimization
Optimization
n

Once all the coverage, capacity and interference

objectives are met site acquisition and candidate site
evaluation starts.
For time and cost considerations, in some design
projects client prefers to perform an extensive initial
site acquisition and evaluations.
System implementation and optimization requires
both drive tests and simulations.
At this phase iterations on coverage, capacity and
interference analysis and frequency plan, similar to
previous phase, is performed but now based on real
and feasible sites.
243

Review
Review and
and Discussions
Discussions

244

Useful
Useful References
References

An Introduction to GSM, Siegmund M. Redl, Matthias K. Weber

and Malcolm W. Oliphant, Artech House Publishers, 1995
The GSM System for Mobile Communications, Michel Mouly
and Marie B. Pautet, 1995
GSM System Engineering, Asha Mehrotra, Artech House
Publishers, 1997.
GSM System Engineering Handbook, Lee and Miller, Artech House
Publishers, 1998.
Wireless Communications, Principles and Practice, Theoddore
Rappaport, Prentice Hall/IEEE Press 1996.
245

Control
Control Channel
Channel Configurations
Configurations
n

There are three configurations of the control

channels.
A combined Control Channel
1 BCCH+3 CCCH + 4 SDCCH

Non-Combined Control Channel

1 BCCH + 9 CCCH (no SDCCH)

SDCCH Channel
8 SDCCH
n
n

If the CCCH has a low traffic requirement, the

CCCH can share its time slot with SDCCHs.
At least one of the first two configurations is
needed. (Why?)
246

Control
Control Channel
Channel Assignments
Assignments
n

Typically the first control channel assigned

comprises one BCCH, 3 CCCHs and 4
SDCCHs. When subscriber growth demands
for additional control channels
8 SDCCH may be added to a second time slot
to give a total of 12 SDCCHs
Also the configuration on the first channel may
change to provide no SDCCHs, resulting in
the total of 8 SDCCH and 9 CCCH.

247

BTS Dim. Control Channels

n

Number of Control channel required

#TRXs
1

#TCHs
7

#Erlangs
2.94

#SDDCHs
4

2
3
4

14
22
30

6.2
14.9
21.9

8
8
12

38

29.2

12

6
7
8

45
53
61

35.6
43.1
50.6

16
16
20

69

58.2

20

10

77

65.8

20

Note: CBCH uses one SDCCH

B
T
S

Use of Time Slots

TS0
Other TSs
1 BCCH+
3CCCH+4SDCCH
1BCCH+9CCCH
8 SDDCH
1BCCH+9CCCH
8 SDCCH
1BCCH+
8 SDCCH
3CCCH+4SDCCH
1BCCH+
8 SDCCH
3CCCH+4SDCCH
1BCCH+9CCCH
2 x 8 SDCCH
1BCCH+9CCCH
2 x 8 SDCCH
1BCCH+
2 x 8 SDCCH
3CCCH+4SDCCH
1BCCH+
2 x 8 SDCCH
3CCCH+4SDCCH
1BCCH+
2 x 8 SDCCH
3CCCH+4SDCCH
248

BTS Dim. : Number of TRXs

n

B
T
S

The maximum number of RF Channels per BTS is limited

by:
Manufacturers Hardware Limitations
Avaliable Spectrum and Target Reuse factor

If the numbers RFs needed is not feasible cell splitting or

more sectorization may be needed.
At the end of this step all BTSs should have acceptable
number of RF channels.
Voice Channels/Sector

Control Channels/Sector

Total RF channels

249