Managerial Behavior of Expatriate versus Local Bosses

Author(s): Jan Selmer, Inn-Lee Kang and Robert P. Wright

Source: International Studies of Management & Organization, Vol. 24, No. 3, Current Issues
in Expatriation (Fall, 1994), pp. 48-63
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
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Int. Studies ofMgt. & Org., Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 48-63
M.E.Sharpe, Inc., 1994

Jan Selmer, Inn-lee Kang, and

Robert P. Wright

Managerial Behavior of Expatriate

versus Local Bosses

Expatriate management
Management by expatriates is not a new idea. In ancient times, the
leaders of large empires made use of this practice of managing distant
regions long before the appearance of multinational business corporations. It is justified to ask why this historical pattern of managing
foreign operations is still widely practiced in modern multinational
corporations (MNCs). This is sometimes explained in terms of functional needs of control, coordination, and know-how transfer. Obviously, there are also some firmly rooted ethnocentric attitudes and
beliefs concerning the advantage of using expatriate business managers

(EXBMs) instead of locals (Torbirn, 1982, 1992). However, the effectiveness of using EXBMs is contingent upon how their management

behavior is perceived by host-country national (HCN) employees in

the foreign subsidiary. Especially in relation to how local managers are
viewed, this is an important concern and part of the crucial issue for
many MNCs regarding their future staffing policy.

Surprisingly, this critical dimension of expatriate management is

poorly covered in previous academic research (Selmer, Kang, and

Wright, 1992). Zeira, Harari, and Nundi (1975) investigated expatriate
and HCN employee perceptions of the desired pattern of organizational behavior and satisfaction in one foreign subsidiary in the United
Jan Selmer is Head, Inn-lee Kang is Lecturer, and Robert P. Wright is Assistant
Lecturer, Department of Management, School of Business, Hong Kong Baptist
College, 224 Waterloo Road, Kowloon, Hong Kong. The authors gratefully acknowledge the kind financial support for this research project from a Hong Kong
Baptist College Faculty Research Grant.
48

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EXPATRIATE VERSUS LOCAL BOSSES 49

States and concluded that the low morale among HCNs was the re

of a nonadaptive, inappropriate managerial style imposed by the

triate managers. Previous contributions of some marginal relevan
this study have been made by Prasad (1981), Zeira and Harari (197

Zeira and Banai (1981, 1985), and Lee and Larwood (1983).

The subset of managerial behavior studied in this article - name

supportive managerial behavior - covers trust and confidence, inte

in personal and family problems, friendliness, information sharing

consultation, recognition of accomplishments, and job assistance.

concept was advanced as an essential topic of inquiry since rese

findings indicated that supportive managers could be high perform

(Likert, 1967, p. 53). Supportive managerial behavior is substantiall

same concept as consideration used by the Ohio State University studies

the late 1940s (Kerr et al., 1974; Stogdill and Coons, 1951). Furtherm

the concept of supportive managerial behavior is also used by the Path-

Theory, one of the most respected leadership theories (House, 1971; Hou

and Mitchell, 1974) and is also related to the Expectancy Theory of mot

tion (Vroom, 1964). Hence, the topic of this study, supportive mana

behavior, is fiimly based on the established theory of managerial behav

and leadership. However, we know of no study that investigates suppor

managerial behavior in a cross-cultural setting. The purpose of this stud

to explore how expatriate managerial behavior is perceived by HCN subo

dinate managers in foreign subsidiaries.

Host country and culture

The host country in this investigation is Hong Kong. Covering an

of 1,075 square kilometers south of the People's Republic of Ch

Hong Kong is a modern, mostly urban society. Hong Kong ha

million inhabitants, 60 percent of whom were born in the territ

while 34 percent were born in mainland China. Hong Kong is pre
inantly Chinese; an overwhelming majority belong to the Canton
dialect group. The territory has been under British colonial rule
1843, when Victoria Island was given up to Britain by the Qing g
ernment. Hong Kong will be returned to China in 1997 and becom

Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of Ch

(Roberts, 1992).
Although contemporary Hong Kong society has assumed a mode
deceptively Western outlook, the ethnic Chinese have maintai

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50 SELMER, KANG, AND WRIGHT (HONG KONG)

strong cultural identity (Bond and King, 1985). The value structure
among the Hong Kong Chinese is due to several factors: the colonial
rule, the Chinese immigrants who came on their own initiative, modernization, and separation from mainland China. The ethos of the Hong
Kong Chinese is a blend of components with diverse sources: Chinese
tradition, Western modernizing influences, and local developments.
Furthermore, due to the colonial government's limited conception of

its role, the Hong Kong people enjoy considerable social, economic,
and cultural freedom (Lau and Kuan, 1988; Leung, 1990; Turner,
Fosh, and Ng, 1991).
Confucianism was the official state ideology in China for two thousand years, until it was officially abolished at the beginning of this
century. This belief system provided the Chinese with great cultural
resilience and stability, and it continues to influence Chinese people
everywhere (Tan, 1986). Confucian cultural values comprise a considerable amount of authoritarianism, and the Chinese generally display a

tendency to defer to any person in a position of power, status, or

control. Confucius' Five Cardinal Relations (Wu Lun), between sovereign and subject, father and son, elder brother and younger brother,
husband and wife, and friend and friend, prescribe unequal and vertical

relations between people. The subordinate member of the relationship

owes respect and obedience to the superior, implying a strict hierarchi-

cal order. Since everyone knows one's hierarchical position, status

differences are accepted and regarded as important by the Chinese

(Bond, 1991; Bond and Hwang, 1986; Hofstede and Bond, 1988;
Yang, 1986).
Chinese management practices
The influence of Chinese culture on management practices is so significant that a Chinese managerial system is distinctly identifiable. It has
been observed that, despite the growth in size and complexity of modern industrial firms, Chinese business organizations commonly display
a conservative and security-centered approach to internal management
(Limlingan, 1986). The hierarchical structure of interpersonal relation-

ships dictates authoritarian patterns of interactions between superior

and subordinates. Subordinates are expected to be submissive and relatively passive in hierarchical relations. Proper social distance between
individuals is maintained, since improper familiarity might threaten the

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EXPATRIATE VERSUS LOCAL BOSSES 51

notion of inequality and diminish perceived status differences. How

ever, traditionally, it is a benevolently authoritarian leadership mode

after the family head who manages his household. It has been observ

that Chinese employees seem to prefer such a paternalistic authorita

ian style, through which a benevolent and respected leader is not on

considerate of his employees, but also takes skilled and decisive

tions (Redding, 1990; Silin, 1976; Whitley, 1992).
Another common feature among all Chinese organizations, wheth
they are small traditional family businesses or large modern corpo
tions, is that the power of decision making is centralized, usually i
single dominant owner, manager, or founder. The decision-mak

process is typically not participative, since open debates about

leadership tend to be viewed as a threat to the leader's status or as

challenge to his authority. Subordinates can only assume that t

leader has thought of everything, and they are expected to follow de

sions and instructions from the top without question. Centralized de

sion making preserves the leader's superior image and is a relev

adaptation to the expectations of employees, coinciding with the p
dominant Chinese values of respect for authority, conformity, and h

archical submission (Birnbaum and Wong, 1985; Bond and Hwan

1986; Redding, 1990; Redding and Wong, 1986).

Communication processes are also influenced by Confucian norm
of hierarchical relations. The Chinese management style has been d
scribed as "closed door management." The logic behind such practic
is that information and control of information are basic components
power in all organizations. The traditions of keeping information sec
and communication tightly controlled are practiced widely in Chin
organizations. The Chinese leadership style depicts a boss holding in
formation, and thus power, which he hands out to subordinates in sm
portions, making them more dependent on the leader (Redding
Wong, 1986; Silin, 1976). It has been observed that vertical commun
cation is restricted in Chinese organizations. The leadership style lim
and distorts the communication downwards, while the condemnatio

resulting from offering opposing views and the sense of powerlessn

among middle managers tend to hamper and deform upward commu

cation in the organization (Redding and Wong, 1986; Redding, 1991;

Silin, 1976).
Supportive managerial behavior, the topic of investigation here,
could be seen to have many dimensions or facets such as mutual confi-

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52 SELMER. KANG, AND WRIGHT (HONG KONG)

dence between the boss and his subordinates, the boss taking a personal interest in his subordinates, friendliness of the boss, information
sharing with subordinates, consultation of subordinates, giving recognition to subordinates' achievements, and mental and physical job assistance. Many of these facets seem to contradict Confucian cultural
values in general and Chinese leadership styles in particular. A Chinese boss does not have to show his confidence in his subordinates;
rather, it is the other way around. Chinese bosses are usually not overly

friendly towards their subordinates and not easily approachable. Information is not commonly shared with subordinates and Chinese bosses

are not expected to, and hence generally do not consult with their
subordinates prior to a decision. Since the Chinese boss is the supreme
figurehead for the collective effort of his subordinates, individual
achievements are rarely singled out for separate, individual recognition. However, the personal interest and job-assistance facets of supportive managerial behavior would be more closely connected to the
Chinese paternalistic leadership style.
Given the authoritarian and hierarchical tenets of traditional Chinese

culture and the many nonsupportive ingredients of Chinese leadership

style, it is expected that expatriate bosses will in general appear to be

more supportive than local bosses of Chinese ethnic origin.

Hypothesis: Expatriate bosses in Hong Kong are perceived as

more supportive by their subordinates than local bosses.
Method

The target population is HCN managers who have experience of both

local Chinese and expatriate superiors. The operational population chosen for this project is past graduates and part-time undergraduates of

the School of Business, Hong Kong Baptist College, all employed in

managerial positions in business companies in Hong Kong. A questionnaire was administered to current part-time students during class
breaks, while graduate students were mailed the same questionnaire.
After a mail reminder, a total of 314 usable questionnaires were secured. In all, a total of 2,031 subjects were contacted, but no effective
response rate can be calculated since the share of managers among those
contacted who have had experience of both local and expatriate superiors - that is, who actually belong to our target population - is not known.

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53 SELMER, KANG, AND WRIGHT (HONG KONG)

The instrument used in this survey is a modified version of the

Management Supportive Behavior Scale designed by Likert (1967). To
the original instrument, two response dimensions pertaining to "Expatriate Boss" and "Local Boss" were added, which serve to measure the
extent of supportive behavior of the two categories of superiors as
perceived by the respondents. Some background variables were also
added to the original instrument such as age, gender, organizational
position, duration of exposure to the expatriate boss, and nationality of

the expatriate boss. Table 1 summarizes some characteristics of our

sample.
As the table demonstrates, the sampled managers are all relatively
young. Furthermore, female managers are probably overrepresented in
the sample, compared with the actual share of female managers in our

target population, since the total share of female managers in Hong

Kong in 1991 was 20 percent (Roberts, 1992). The groups of first-level
and top/middle managers are almost of equal size which, again, probably is an overrepresentation of the top/middle management group compared with our target population. However, the gender distribution and
the distribution of managerial positions in our target population, HCN
managers who have experience of both local Chinese and expatriate
superiors, are not known. The average duration of exposure to expatriate bosses seems long enough to create a definite impression of the
managerial behavior of the particular expatriate boss. Expatriate bosses
from Western countries dominate our sample, with British and U.S.

managers the two largest groups, as could have been expected since
both those nationalities form large expatriate business communities in
Hong Kong. Asian expatriate bosses only make up 18 percent of the
sample, with Japanese managers the largest group.
The instrument included seventeen items to measure supportive

managerial behavior as perceived by the subordinate. Each had two

five-point Likert-type scales (1 = very little; 5 = a great deal), referring

to the two categories of superiors "Expatriate Boss (EB)" and "Local

Boss (LB)," respectively (alpha EB = 0.92; LB = 0.91).
In the analysis, some of the items are grouped together to reflect the

facets of supportive managerial behavior. These facets of supportive

behavior are:

Confidence consists of four items in the questionnaire, and it

measures mutual confidence between the subordinate and his

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54 SELMER, KANG, AND WRIGHT (HONG KONG)

Table 1

Sample background
Variables Frequency Percent Mean S.D.
Age

28.3

2.8

Gender
Female

Male

180 57.3
134
42.7

Position

Top/middle-level 151 49.2

management

First-level management 156 50.8

Duration of exposure to the 2.6 2.2

expatriate boss (yrs)

Nationality of the expatriate boss

U.S.
82
26.6
Australian 22 7.1
British 102 33.0
Other Western 47 15.2

Japanese

Other

Asian

20
36

6.5

11.6

superior and how that

0.63). A sample item is:
you

feel

your

Personal

superior

interest

is

is e
How

has

in

measu

much is your superior really

personal and family problems
Friendliness is also measured
and easily approached?
Information sharing is made
extent to which the superior
with the subordinate on job-r

pany

in

general

(alpha

EB

items is: To what extent doe

informed about matters relate
Consultation also consists of
to which the superior asks f
the extent to which the supe

0.82;

LB

0.77).

One

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item

EXPATRIATE VERSUS LOCAL BOSSES 55

opinion when a problem comes up which involves your work

Recognition is measured by one item: To what extent is you
superior generous in the credit and recognition given to oth
for the accomplishments and contributions, rather than seeki
to claim all the credit himself?
Job assistance embodies six items on the instrument and mea-

sures how well the superior is perceived to assist the subordinate in the job with both mental and physical help (alpha EB =

0.79; LB = 0.86). A sample item is: How much is he or she

interested in training you and helping you learn better ways of
doing your work?
Results

A paired-samples i-test was used to test our hypothesis and the results
show that the means of the two distributions are different (p = 0.039) that is, the mean of the perceived supportive behavior of the expatriate

bosses is greater than that of the local bosses, confirming our stated
hypothesis that expatriate bosses in Hong Kong are perceived as more
supportive by their subordinates than local bosses. The difference was
further tested with respect to the background variables: age, gender,
position, length of exposure, and nationality of the expatriate boss;
and the seven facets of supportive managerial behavior: confidence,

personal interest, friendliness, information sharing, consultation,

recognition, and job assistance. The findings are summarized in Tables 2 and 3.

The results in Table 2 show that the most significant difference in

perceived supportive behavior is found with respect to recognition.
This is followed by friendliness, confidence, and consultation. Personal
interest, information sharing, and job assistance indicate no statistically
significant difference in perceived supportive behavior between expatriate and local bosses.

The findings summarized in Table 3 indicate that gender is the

predominant variable that accounts for the significant difference in
perceived supportive behavior of expatriate versus local bosses. The
overall supportive behavior as well as all seven facets of supportive
behavior show highly significant differences in the perceived behavior

between expatriate and local bosses. Female subordinates' scores are

consistently higher for the expatriate boss, whereas the male scores are

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56 SELMER, KANG, AND WRIGHT (HONG KONG)

Table 2

Facets of supportive managerial behavior

Perceived difference in supportive
behavior of expatriate vs. local bosses

Facet of supportive behavior (EB-LB) : difference in means

Confidence
Personal

0.3090**

interest

Friendliness

n.s.

0.2138***

Information sharing n.s.

Consultation

0.2046*

Recognition 0.3709****
Job

assistance

n.s.

not

higher
of

tion

ing

n.s.

significant;

for
the

<

the local bo
subordinate

confidence,

info

managers consistently
with regard to these t

perceived

local

bosses

dence, whereas the sen

nificantly more suppor
the expatriate boss ma
interest and friendlin
gave higher scores to lo
expatriate bosses more
dinates with experience
received higher scores
local bosses were perc

The

duration

difference

in

of

expos

terms

of

exposure found local

resulted in favoring th
failed to produce any si

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EXPATRIATE VERSUS LOCAL BOSSES 57

Table 3

Perceived difference in supportive behavior of expatriate bosses (EB)

vs. local bosses (LB):
Background variables and facets of supportive behavior1
Age Gender Position Duration of Nationality
Background (young/ (male/fe- (junior/ exposure (Asian/

variable old)2 male) senior)3 (short/long)4 Western)

Overall supportive n.s. -2.2578/ n.s. n.s. n.s.
behavior 4.2874****

Facets of supportive behavior

Confidence n.s. -0.5267/ 0.0789/ -0.2796/ n.s.
0.9529**** 0.5563* 0.6279**

Personal n.s. -0.1970/ n.s. n.s. -0.0887/

interest 0.0756** 0.2115*
Friendliness n.s. -0.0985/ n.s. n.s. 0.2782/
0.4535**** -0.0385*
Information n.s. -0.3923/ -0.0784/ n.s. n.s.

sharing 0.5000**** 0.2746*

Consultation n.s. -0.3206/ n.s. n.s. n.s.
0.6047****

Recognition n.s. 0.0682/ n.s. n.s. n.s.

0.6059"**

Job assistance n.s. -0.6742/ -0.2792/ n.s. n.s.

0.8824"* 0.7234*

1 All differences are calculated as follows: score for expatriate boss (E

boss (LB).
2 Young: 24-29 years; old: 30-50 years.

3 Junior: first-line managers; senior: middle and top managers.

4 Short: one year's exposure or less; long: three year's exposure or mo

n.s. = not significant; * p < 0.10; ** p < 0.05; *** p < 0.01 ; **** p

Discussion

While our findings seem to confirm the hypothesis that expatriate bosses

in Hong Kong are perceived as more supportive than local bosses by the
subordinates, this needs to be qualified by the fact that our sample may
have an overrcpresentation of female subordinates. This has an important

bearing because our findings also indicate that female subordinates overwhelmingly found their expatriate bosses more supportive than did male

subordinates, who preferred local bosses. However, this possible gender

bias is not easily corrected for, since, as pointed out above, the gender
distribution in our target group is not known.

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58 SELMER, KANG, AND WRIGHT (HONG KONG)

Regarding the facets of supportive behavior as displayed in Table 2,

recognition of accomplishments and contributions has the most significant difference in subordinate perception of expatriate versus local
boss behavior, indicating that local bosses are less prone to acknowledge the efforts of subordinates. This is in accordance with the tradi-

tional Chinese emphasis on modesty and humbleness (Yang, 1986).

Chinese people in general do not believe in offering praises to others,
presuming that praise and compliments will make a person become
conceited. In fact, a certain embarrassment is a common reaction when
Chinese receive a compliment. Furthermore, our finding seems to concur with the authoritarian and paternalistic relationship between supe-

rior and subordinate inherent in the Chinese leadership style. The

authoritarian relations are of a highly personal nature, implying that
virtually all initiatives originate with the boss, based on his moral and
rational superiority. The successful subordinate is expected to correctly
understand the boss's mind and is then trusted to carry out the boss's
decision as the product of superior wisdom (Redding and Wong, 1986;
Silin, 1976, pp. 127-128; Whitley, 1992, pp. 59-63). Furthermore, the
loyalty expected of a subordinate also requires that all achievements be
attributed to the boss and his leadership qualities.

The other facet of supportive behavior in Table 2 that showed a

significant difference in subordinate perception is friendliness. As
noted above, the traditional Chinese boss can be expected to be rela-

tively aloof and remote from subordinates and to maintain a high

power distance. He is not expected to develop close personal relationships with subordinates (Whitley, 1992, p. 79). The significant difference in confidence could emanate from the fact that it reflects the

subordinate's perception of mutual confidence. Again, the traditional

posture of a Chinese boss is not to directly reveal his or her thoughts

and feelings to subordinates (Redding and Wong, 1986). Consequently, it is not as easy to realize that your boss has confidence in you
than vice versa. Finally, the significant difference in consultation be-

tween expatriate and local bosses confirms previous research findings

that Chinese bosses are more authoritarian than their Western counter-

parts and hence spend less time consulting with their subordinates
(Bond, 1991, p. 79).
Regarding the background variables, Table 3 shows that gender is
the absolute dominating variable in the case of perceived difference in
overall supportive behavior as well as for each of the seven facets. The

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EXPATRIATE VERSUS LOCAL BOSSES 59

female group consistently gives expatriate bosses the higher score, b

the male subordinates give higher scores to local bosses in all se

facets except recognition. Female subordinates perceive expatri
bosses as more supportive than local bosses, whereas male subor

nates have the opposite view. This is a clear-cut case of gender prefe

ence in the perception of one's superior in Hong Kong.

There is probably not one single cause or explanation for this, b
rather a pattern of cultural and social factors characterizing the gen
situation of women managers in Hong Kong. The gender identity o

women managers in Hong Kong is based on the powerful male-fem

stereotypes in Chinese culture, in which gender differences are m
deeply embedded than in any Western society (Bond, 1991). The cu
tural legacy of Confucianism gives men power with respect to wom
and male dominance exists to a high degree. The gender identity
both men and women seems to be that a woman's place is in the ho
and that her primary responsibility is to take care of her family. F
thermore, stereotypical perspectives of female traits as inferior f
leadership are widely held and men are less appreciative of manage
attributes associated with women. Men also expect to experience diff

culty in working with women as managers (de Leon and Ho, 19

Hong Kong Chinese male executives expressed the belief that wome
are not open-minded, that they personally avoid arguing with wome

and that they hesitate to criticize women (Arnold and Lee, 199
There is no legislation that makes gender discrimination illegal

Hong Kong, and discriminatory practices against women for highe

managerial positions are common among Hong Kong business fir
(de Leon and Ho, 1993).
Against this background it can be speculated that once the Chine
value premises have been made redundant and the cultural "spe

broken by getting an expatriate boss, the female subordinate stands

gain more than the male manager. Obviously, regardless of gender,

subordinates need to get to know how their new boss thinks, but t

chance is that the expatriate boss, especially the Western managers

will entertain less discriminating opinions towards women in gene

and female managers in particular. No wonder, then, that men pre

local bosses and women expatriate bosses. However, this gender pre

erence constitutes a complex problem that warrants a separate stud

Such an investigation is currently underway.

In the case of junior (first-level management) versus senior (mid

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60 SELMER, KANG, AND WRIGHT (HONG KONG)

die/top-level management) subordinates, the latter give expatriate

bosses higher scores in three of the seven facets - namely, confidence,
information sharing, and job assistance - while the junior subordinates

score local bosses higher on the last two of these three facets. One
reason for the differences between the junior and the senior groups
could be that junior managers probably have less frequent interactions
with top managers than senior managers. On the effect of the national-

ity of the expatriate bosses, subordinates who have had Asian expatri-

ate bosses tend to give a higher score to local bosses in terms of

personal interest, whereas subordinates with experience of Western
expatriate bosses do not favor local bosses on this same facet. On the
other hand, there is a reverse scoring regarding friendliness. This could

reflect the very broad concept of nationality applied here, indicating

the need to differentiate between expatriates bosses from different
countries/cultures in future studies.

The length of exposure (i.e., measuring how long the subordinate

has worked under the expatriate boss) seems to make no significant
differences in the subordinates' perception of their bosses, except in
the case of confidence. Here, subordinates with shorter exposure to an
expatriate boss prefer a local boss, while longer exposure results in a
higher score for the expatriate boss. Since our study looks at a duration
of exposure of at least one year, it would seem that it takes longer than
a year to establish mutual confidence and trust between the subordinate

and the expatriate boss. Our findings also show that age has little
impact on subordinates' perception of the supportive behavior of expatriate and local bosses. However, this should be seen in the context of
the narrow age distribution of our respondents as shown in Table 1.
Conclusion

Our tentative conclusion is that there is overall support for our hypoth-

esis that expatriate bosses in Hong Kong are perceived as more supportive than local bosses by their subordinates. However, this needs to
be further investigated with respect to a possible gender bias since our
study shows an extremely strong support for the hypothesis in the case
of female middle managers. Furthermore, there is a distinct possibility
that the meaning of the concept of supportive managerial behavior is
culture-bound. This connects to the controversy in cross-cultural psychology regarding ernie versus etic perspectives, where the former

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EXPATRIATE VERSUS LOCAL BOSSES 61

refer to cultural relativism, arguing for a culture-specific approa

while the latter implies an universal approach (see Jahoda, 1983
the case of leadership styles, it has been pointed out that, for exam
concern and consideration can be demonstrated in different ways
different cultures. A Chinese boss in Hong Kong showing cons

ation towards his subordinates behaves very differently from

equally considerate British boss in Britain (Bond, 1991). It is there

not unlikely that subordinates have interpreted some of the behavio
their expatriate boss using the Chinese cultural code of behavior as

norm. In light of this consideration, it is even more probable

female subordinates would notice any shift to a more egalitarian

havior expressed by their new expatriate boss.

Future studies should also investigate different nationalities of e

triate bosses separately in order to detect any preferences more ea

There is also the need to look at other facets of expatriate leaders
behavior. It is in the nature of the job of expatriate managers to cr

national and cultural borders, and in some respects adjustment is

quired of the manager (Selmer, 1987), whereas in other respects,

ordinates will undertake some cultural adjustment (Selmer an

Leon, 1993). With the increasing prevalence of MNCs in the A

countries, findings from research on these topics will have many p

tical implications for staffing policies and team-building in multi

tional business organizations in this part of the world.

References

Arnold, M., and Lee, E. "Perceptions and Attitudes of Hong Kong Chinese
Executives about Women in Management." Proceedings of the 3rd Inter
tional Conference on Comparative Management. Kaohsiung, Taiwan, 19
pp. 190-196.
Birnbaum, P.H., and Wong, G.Y.Y. "Organizational Structure of Multinat
Banks in Hong Kong from a Culture-Free Perspective." Administrative
ence Quarterly, 30 (1985): 262-277.
Bond, M.H. Beyond the Chinese Face: Insights from Psychology. Hong K
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