Determining Gas Turbine Performance Characteristics

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
DETERMINING GAS TURBINE

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Mechanical
File Reference: MEX-214.03
For additional information on this subject, contact

PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Gas Turbines
Determining Gas Turbine Performance Characteristics
Section
Page
INFORMATION ............................................................................................................... 4
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 4
GAS TURBINE CYCLES AND THEIR EFFECT ON PERFORMANCE .......................... 5
REGENERATIVE CYCLE ..................................................................................... 13
COMBINED CYCLE.............................................................................................. 16
GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE DETERMINANTS .................................................... 18
POWER ................................................................................................................ 18
THERMAL EFFICIENCY....................................................................................... 20
HEAT RATE .......................................................................................................... 21
FUEL HEATING VALUE ....................................................................................... 22
AMBIENT CONDITIONS....................................................................................... 23
ISO CONDITIONS ................................................................................................ 24
SITE RATING........................................................................................................ 25
METHODS FOR GAS TURBINE POWER OUTPUT AUGMENTATION....................... 27
EVAPORATIVE COOLING ................................................................................... 27
INLET COOLING BY REFRIGERATION .............................................................. 29
STEAM INJECTION.............................................................................................. 30
HELPER TURBINE ............................................................................................... 32
METHODS FOR GAS TURBINE EMISSIONS CONTROL ........................................... 33
STEAM OR WATER INJECTION.......................................................................... 34
SPECIALLY DESIGNED COMBUSTION SYSTEMS............................................ 35
SELECTIVE CATALYTIC REDUCTION................................................................ 36
GAS TURBINE SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS........................................................ 37
POWER REQUIREMENTS................................................................................... 37
SITE CONDITIONS............................................................................................... 40
SERVICE CONDITIONS ....................................................................................... 42
ENVIRONMENTAL RESTRICTIONS.................................................................... 44
ISO SELECTION................................................................................................... 44
MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................... 46
DETERMINING SITE PERFORMANCE OF A GAS TURBINE ..................................... 47
DETERMINING ISO POWER AND HEAT RATE.................................................. 48
Gas Turbines
CORRECTING FOR AMBIENT TEMPERATURE................................................. 49

CORRECTING FOR ALTITUDE ........................................................................... 50
CORRECTING FOR HUMIDITY ........................................................................... 53
CORRECTING FOR INLET AND EXHAUST PRESSURE LOSSES .................... 55
CORRECTING FOR MECHANICAL TRANSMISSION LOSSES.......................... 59
CORRECTING FOR TURBINE DETERIORATION .............................................. 59
CORRECTING FOR AUXILIARY POWER ........................................................... 59
DETERMINING SITE POWER AND SITE HEAT RATE ....................................... 60
WORK AIDS.................................................................................................................. 61
WORK AID 1: RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE THE SITE
PERFORMANCE OF A GAS TURBINE........................................................................ 61
WORK AID 1A: FORMULAS ................................................................................ 61
WORK AID 1B: ISO CORRECTION CURVES..................................................... 61
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 66
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. The Simple Cycle ............................................................................................. 5
Figure 2. Brayton Cycle................................................................................................... 7
Figure 3. Comparison of Real and Ideal Cycle.............................................................. 12
Figure 4. Regenerative Cycle........................................................................................ 13
Figure 5. Combined Cycle............................................................................................. 16
Figure 6. Steam Injected Cycle ..................................................................................... 30
Figure 7. Dry Low NOX Burner ...................................................................................... 35
Figure 8. Torque Characteristics of Single Shaft and Multiple Shaft Gas Turbines....... 39
Figure 9. Inlet Temperature Correction Factor .............................................................. 49
Figure 10. Altitude Correction Factor............................................................................. 51
Figure 11. Output Correction and Altitude vs. Atmospheric Pressure ........................... 52
Figure 12. Humidity Correction Factor........................................................................... 54
Figure 13. Inlet Loss Correction Factor ......................................................................... 56
Figure 14. Exhaust Loss Correction Factor ................................................................... 58
Figure 15. Ambient Temperature .................................................................................. 62
ii
Gas Turbines
Figure 16. Elevation ...................................................................................................... 63

Figure 17. Inlet Loss...................................................................................................... 64
Figure 18. Exhaust Loss................................................................................................ 65
iii
Gas Turbines
INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
Saudi Aramco uses gas turbines as drivers for electric
generators, compressors, and pumps. In order for the
Mechanical Engineer to properly select and specify gas turbine
drivers and to evaluate their performance, he must be familiar
with the basic gas turbine cycle and variations that might be
encountered, as well as the effects of turbine cycle parameters
on performance. This module will examine the following
information that is pertinent to the determination of gas turbine
performance characteristics:
Gas Turbine Cycles and Their Effect on Performance
Gas Turbine Performance Determinants
Methods for Gas Turbine Power Output Augmentation
Methods for Gas Turbine Emissions Control
Gas Turbine Selection Considerations
Determining Site Performance of a Gas Turbine
Gas Turbines
GAS TURBINE CYCLES AND THEIR EFFECT ON PERFORMANCE

The gas turbine, which is also referred to as a combustion
turbine, is an internal combustion engine that burns a lean
mixture of fuel and compressed air. The basic gas turbine is
made up of an air compressor, a combustion section, and a
turbine section. Atmospheric air is drawn into the compressor
and compressed to several times atmospheric pressure. Heat is
then added to the compressed air in the combustion section of
the turbine by burning a fuel in the air. The hot, pressurized
combustion gases then expand through a series of stationary
nozzles and rotating turbine wheel and blade assemblies, which
results in rotation of the output shaft. The mechanical energy of
the shaft rotation is used to drive the gas turbine compressor
and gas turbine accessories, as well as a driven component
such as a generator, pump, or compressor. After giving up
energy in expansion, the gases are discharged to the
atmosphere or to a heat recovery system. The flow of air, fuel,
and combustion products through the gas turbine cycle is shown
schematically in Figure 1.
Figure 1. The Simple Cycle
Gas Turbines
The gas turbine operates on a basic thermodynamic cycle

known as the Brayton cycle or the Joule cycle. The ideal cycle
consists of the four processes that are shown on the pressure
volume and temperature entropy diagrams in Figure 2. The
points identified in Figure 2 correspond with the similarly labeled
points on the turbine in Figure 1, and they identify where the
processes are occurring.
The first process in the ideal cycle is isentropic (adiabatic and
reversible) compression of the working fluid (air) in the
compressor section of the turbine (A to B). The work required to
compress each pound of air in the compressor section is shown
in the following formula:
wc
= hB - hA
wc
= Work to compress air, Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
hB
= Enthalpy of the air at the compressor

discharge, Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
hA
= Enthalpy of the air at the compressor suction,

Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
Where:
Gas Turbines
Figure 2. Brayton Cycle
Gas Turbines
The change in enthalpy, hB hA, is equal to the following

formula:
Where:
hB - hA = cp (TB - TA)
cp
= Specific heat of air at constant pressure,

Btu/lb-R (kJ/kg-K)
TB
= Compressor discharge temperature, R

(K)
TA
= Compressor suction temperature, R (K)
wc
= cp (TB - TA)
Thus,
For the ideal cycle, cp is taken to be constant and equal to 0.24

Btu/lb-R in customary units (1.005 kJ/kg-K in SI units).
The second process in the Brayton cycle is the addition of heat
at constant pressure in the combustion section of the turbine (B
to C). In the normal open cycle arrangement, this process is
accomplished by directly burning fuel in the compressed air.
The heat input from the fuel is shown in the following formula:
q
= hC - hB = cp (TC - TB)
= Heat transferred to each pound of air, Btu/lb

(kJ/kg)
hC
= Enthalpy of gases leaving combustion

section, Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
TC
= Temperature of gases leaving combustion

section, R (K)
Where:
The temperature of the gases leaving the combustion section to

the turbine (TC) must be controlled since the capability of the
turbine materials must not be exceeded. Although this
temperature is not normally directly measured, the turbine
control system calculates it and controls the fuel flow to ensure
that the maximum allowable temperature is not exceeded.
Practical temperature limitations for current gas turbine models
suitable for Saudi Aramco applications range up to about
2350F/2810R (1290C/1560 K).
Gas Turbines
The hot, high-pressure gases from the combustion section are

directed to the turbine, where they are expanded isentropically
in the ideal cycle back to atmospheric pressure (C to D). The
work produced by the turbine is shown in the following formula:
wt
= hD - hC = cp (TD - TC)
wt
= Turbine work, Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
hD
= Turbine exhaust enthalpy, Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
TD
= Turbine exhaust temperature, R (K)
Where:
The final process of the Brayton cycle is the rejection of heat

from the turbine exhaust to the atmosphere at constant pressure
(D to A). In the normal, simple cycle, the hot gases, which still
contain a considerable amount of energy, are simply exhausted
to the atmosphere. The exhaust process is represented by
dashed lines in Figure 2 to show an open cycle.
The performance variables of the simple cycle that are
important to the Mechanical Engineer are the cycle efficiency
and the power output. The specific power, which is the power
produced per pound of air, is simply the difference between the
power produced by the turbine and the power absorbed by the
compressor, and it is shown in the following formula:
wnet =
wt - wc = cp (TC - TD - TB + TA)
The efficiency of the gas turbine is equal to the ratio of turbine

power output to fuel heat input, or as shown in the following
equation:
T TA
w net c p (TC TD TB + TA ) TC TD TB + TA
=
=
= 1 D
q
c p (TC TB )
TC TB
TC TB
Since the compression (A to B) and the expansion (C to D) are

both isentropic in the ideal cycle, the pressure ratio for these
two processes is the same, as shown in the following formula:
TB PB
=
TA PA
k 1
k
TC
TD
Gas Turbines
Where:
PB
= Compressor discharge pressure, psia (kPa

abs)
PA
= Compressor inlet pressure, psia (kPa abs)
= The ratio of specific heat at constant pressure

to specific heat at constant volume; for air in
the ideal cycle, this ratio is assumed to be
constant at 1.4
The substitution of these variables in the efficiency equation

results in the following equation:
T TA
= 1
P
TD B
PA
D
k 1
k
P
TA B
PA
k 1
k
= 1
1
PB

PA
k 1
k
Thus, for the ideal simple cycle, the efficiency is a function only
of the pressure ratio developed by the gas turbine compressor,
and the performance of the compressor is extremely important
in overall gas turbine performance. In the real simple cycle,
turbine efficiency is also dependent on the turbine inlet
temperature (Point C), and this efficiency increases as turbine
inlet temperature increases for a given pressure ratio.
The gas turbine specific power is a function of both pressure
ratio and turbine inlet temperature. For a given turbine inlet
temperature, the maximum net output is produced at a pressure
ratio so that the compressor discharge temperature and turbine
exhaust temperature are equal. Equal compressor discharge
and turbine exhaust temperature result in an optimum pressure
ratio that increases with an increase in turbine inlet temperature.
Using the formula presented above for the efficiency of an ideal
Brayton cycle, the calculated efficiency of a cycle with a
pressure ratio of 11.5:1 would be as shown in the following
formula:
= 1
1
11.5
1.4 1
1.4
= 0.5 = 50%
10
Gas Turbines
A real cycle, however, that is operating at this pressure ratio

might only have an efficiency of 30 32%. The differences
between the real simple cycle and the ideal cycle efficiencies
are as follows:
In the real cycle, the compression in the compressor section

and the expansion in the turbine are not isentropic.
Compressor and turbine inefficiencies are the cause, and, in
the real cycle, consequently provides less power, and the
compressor uses more of the power that is produced.
Compressor efficiency is especially important. For each 1%
decrease in compressor efficiency, there is about a 1.5 to
2% reduction in net power output.
Factors such as compressor fouling can rapidly reduce

compressor efficiency. Because of the importance of
compressor performance in turbine performance,
compressor performance is generally and routinely
monitored during turbine operation so that corrective action,
such as a compressor section water wash, can be taken.
In the real cycle, a pressure drop through the combustion

system between the compressor discharge and the turbine
inlet occurs. This pressure drop results in a smaller
pressure ratio that is available for expansion across the
turbine.
Due to resistance in the exhaust system, the gases do not

exhaust to atmospheric pressure, but, rather, they exhaust to
a slightly higher pressure, typically about 4 to 10 inches WC
(1 to 2.5 kPa) above atmospheric. This exhaust pressure
loss also contributes to a smaller pressure ratio that is
available across the turbine. Each 4-inch WC (1 kPa)
increase in exhaust pressure results in a decrease of about
.4% in both output and efficiency.
There are also inlet pressure losses due to the ducting and
filters, and these losses are typically about 4 inches WC (1
kPa). Each 4 inch WC (1 kPa) of inlet pressure drop results
in a decrease of about 1.4% in output and .5% in efficiency.
The properties of the gas, cP and k, are not constant, but,

rather, they vary with temperature in a way that makes the
real performance less than the ideal predicted performance.
Also, the composition of the gas is not constant throughout
the cycle, and this lack of consistency affects its properties.
11
Gas Turbines
Figure 3 shows a T-S diagram that compares the ideal and real
simple cycle.
Figure 3. Comparison of Real and Ideal Cycle
12
Gas Turbines
Regenerative Cycle
As stated previously, for the ideal simple cycle, the optimum
pressure ratio to produce maximum net output is that for which
the compressor discharge and turbine exhaust temperatures are
the same. In the real cycle, the effect of compressor and turbine
inefficiencies and combustion section pressure drops is to lower
the pressure ratio at which maximum net work is produced. As a
result, the turbine exhaust temperature is considerably greater
than the compressor discharge temperature. For example, for
one typical heavy industry, single-shaft model, the design
turbine exhaust temperature is about 1000F (538C), where the
compressor discharge temperature is approximately 650F
(343C).
To increase the efficiency of the simple cycle, a regenerator can
be added to the cycle in order to recover some of the waste
heat in the exhaust gas. As shown in Figure 4, the regenerator
transfers energy from the exhaust to the air that leaves the
compressor. The regenerator is a gas-to-gas heat exchanger
that uses exhaust gas to preheat the compressor discharge air
before the compressor discharge air enters the combustor. The
use of a regenerator can reduce the fuel consumption of a gas
turbine by as much as 25 percent.
EXHAUST
0 PSIG
720F
REGENERATOR
FUEL
0 PSIG
80f
2000F
600f
0.3 PSIG
1000 F
830F
COMBUSTOR
WORK
COMPRESSOR
POWER
TUBINE
Figure 4. Regenerative Cycle
13
Gas Turbines
A gas turbine cycle that uses a regenerator is called a

regenerative cycle. The regenerative cycle is almost identical to
the simple cycle. The only difference is the addition of a
regenerator on the discharge of the compressor. The
regenerator preheats the compressed air as close as is
economically practical to the exhaust gas temperature.
For an industrial gas turbine, atmospheric air enters the air
compressor at ambient conditions and is compressed to a
higher pressure. The air that leaves the compressor and that
enters the regenerator may range in temperature from about
550 to 850F (290 to 455C) for a typical industrial model;
however, the temperature range depends on the compressor
pressure ratio and the compressor efficiency. The regenerator
raises the compressed air temperature before the compressed
air enters the combustor.
For the example shown in Figure 4, the regenerator raises the
temperature of the combustion air from 650 to 930F. The
combustor now only has to raise the temperature 1070F (from
930F to 2000F) instead of raising it the entire 1350F (from
650F to 2000F) that was required in the simple cycle. The
amount of fuel that is required in the regenerative cycle is
theoretically only 1070/1350, or about 79 percent of that
required by the simple cycle machine.
The power turbine extracts energy from the hot gases to
produce work. The hot gases exhaust from the power turbine at
about 0.3 psig and 1000F. Energy from the power turbine
exhaust is transferred to the compressed air in the regenerator.
The exhaust from the regenerator is about 0 psig and 720F.
14
Gas Turbines
The "thermal effectiveness" of the regenerator is the

measurement of how closely the regenerator achieves its goal
of raising the compressor discharge temperature as close to the
exhaust gas temperature as is economically practical. In terms
of the temperatures that are shown on Figure 4, "thermal
effectiveness" is defined as follows:
Thermal Effectiven ess =
T2 T1
T3 T1
where:
T1
= Compressor discharge temperature into the

regenerator
T2
= Compressor discharge temperature from the

regenerator
T3
= Exhaust temperature into the regenerator
For the gas turbine that is shown in Figure 4, the thermal

effectiveness of the regenerator is as follows:
930 F 650 F
= 0.8 = 80%
1000 F 650 F
Although the regenerative cycle exhibits improved efficiency
over the combine cycle, it is not widely used in industrial gas
turbine applications. The main reason for not using the
regenerative cycle is that the large flow of air through the
machine would require a very large and expensive heat
exchanger. The size of the heat exchanger required would
offset one of the main advantages of using a gas turbine, which
is the compact size of the unit for the power produced. Also, a
pressure drop would occur through the heat exchanger, which
reduces the theoretical improvement in efficiency that could be
obtained.
15
Gas Turbines
Combined Cycle
Another method of using the waste heat in the turbine exhaust
is by using a combined cycle. A combined cycle, as shown in
Figure 5, is a thermodynamic system that combines two or more
independent power cycles. Each power cycle uses a different
working fluid. Combination of the independent power cycles
results in higher efficiency than would be achieved by the
independent operation of the individual cycles. To achieve this
higher efficiency, the individual cycles must exchange energy so
that the ratio of the source to sink temperature of the combined
cycle is greater than the ratio of the source to sink temperature
of any of the individual cycles. The gas turbine cycle and the
steam power system cycle, which are shown in Figure 5, are
two independent cycles that can complement each other to form
an efficient combined cycle. The gas turbine cycle has a high
source temperature and exhausts at a temperature that can be
the energy source for the steam cycle.
250F
STEAM
SUPERHEATER
EVAPORATOR
ST
WORK
ECONOMIZER
CW
HRSG
CONDENSER
WATER
900F
PUMP
GT
Figure 5. Combined Cycle
16
Gas Turbines
Heat from the gas turbine (GT) exhaust is used to generate

steam in a heat recovery device, which is commonly called a
heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). The exhaust from the
GT enters the HRSG at about 900 to 1000F (480 to 540C)
and exhausts to the atmosphere at about 250F (120C). The
HRSG is normally a high pressure steam generator with three
sections: the superheater, the evaporator, and the economizer.
The high pressure steam drives a steam turbine (ST) that drives
a generator to produce more power. The steam turbine is
normally a condensing-type turbine that exhausts to a
condenser. The condenser uses cooling water (CW) to
condense the turbine exhaust steam. A pump returns the
condensate to the HRSG.
Because much of the waste heat in the gas turbine exhaust is
used, the efficiency of the combined cycle is considerably
greater than that of the simple cycle. The efficiency of the
combined cycle is as follows:
CC = GT + HRSGST - GTHRSGST
Where:
GT
= Gas turbine simple cycle efficiency
HRSG = Heat recovery steam generator efficiency

ST
= Steam turbine cycle (Rankine cycle)

efficiency
Thus, for example, the combined cycle efficiency of a plant that

utilizes a 30% efficient gas turbine with a heat recovery steam
generator that is 80% efficient and a 30% Rankine cycle
efficiency will be:
CC = 0.30 + (0.80)(0.30) - (0.30)(0.80)(0.30) = 0.468 = 46.8%
This is typical. Combined cycle power generation plants are in
operation with efficiencies over 50%. The output of a combined
cycle plant will be about 150% of the gas turbine simple cycle
output.
17
Gas Turbines
GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE DETERMINANTS

In this section, various external factors that affect gas turbine
performance will be discussed. These various factors include
the following:
Power
Thermal efficiency
Heat rate
Fuel Heating Value
Ambient Conditions
ISO conditions
Site Rating
Power
The main measure of gas turbine performance in which the
Mechanical Engineer is interested is the power output of the
machine. If a turbine is selected to run a pump or compressor, it
must deliver enough power so that the pump or compressor can
deliver the required amount of fluid at the required pressure
under all conditions of operation. If the turbine is to drive a
generator, the generator must be able to meet the load demand
of the system.
In customary units of measurement, the power output of the
turbine is measured differently if the turbine is used as a
generator drive or as a mechanical drive for a pump or
compressor. For generator drive applications, the power output
is measured in kilowatts (kW). Because the same manufacturer
is generally responsible for supplying both the gas turbine and
the generator as a set, the power output is specified as the kW
output at the generator terminals for this application; therefore,
the performance measured also includes the efficiency of the
generator. Because large generators are generally very efficient
(~ 98%), the measured performance is still mainly that of the
gas turbine.
18
Gas Turbines
For mechanical drive units, the power output is measured as the

power delivered at the turbine shaft coupling to the driven piece
of equipment, even if the same manufacturer is supplying the
driven equipment; therefore, only the performance of the turbine
is being measured. In customary units of measurement, this
power is measured in horsepower (hp). In SI units, mechanical
power, like electrical power, is measured in kW. The two
measures are related as follows:
1 hp = 0.7457 kW
Because measurement of the power output of a gas turbine for
a generator drive is straightforward, the electric metering
instrumentation measures electric power directly in kW. For
mechanical drive turbines, SAES-K-502, Combustion Gas
Turbines, requires that the load coupling be a torque-metering
coupling designed for continuous operation. The shaft torque at
the coupling is measured in ft-lb (Nm). From the torque and the
measured shaft speed, the power output of the gas turbine can
be calculated as follows:
In customary units:
hp =
2N
33,000
hp
= shaft power, hp
= measured torque, ft-lb
= shaft rotational speed, rpm
Where:
In SI units:
kW =
2N
60,000
Where:
kW = shaft power, kW
= measured torque, Nm
= shaft rotational speed, rpm
19
Gas Turbines
Thermal Efficiency
The thermal efficiency of a gas turbine is the ratio of the power
output to the heat input, which is expressed as a percentage.
The power output is determined as discussed above. The fuel
heat input is determined as the product of the fuel flow times the
heating value of the fuel, as shown in the following formulas:
Gas Turbine Heat Input (Btu/hr) = Fuel Flow Rate
(lb/hr) x Fuel Heating Value (Btu/lb)
Gas Turbine Heat Input (kJ/hr) = Fuel Flow Rate (kg/hr)
x Fuel Heating Value (kJ/kg)
Normally, the lower heating value is used, but sometimes the
higher heating value is used. Fuel heating value is discussed
below.
To calculate the efficiency, the output and the input must be
expressed in the same units of measurement, so some
conversion will generally be necessary. The following
conversion factors will be useful:
1 kW = 3412.14 Btu/hr
1 kW = 3600 kJ/hr
1 hp
= 2544.43 Btu/hr
20
Gas Turbines
Heat Rate
Heat rate is a measure of gas turbine performance defined as
the ratio of fuel heat input to power output. Basically, it is the
reciprocal of efficiency, except that the actual units of input and
output measurement are used.
Heat Rate = Btu/kWh (Generator drive, customary
units)
= Btu/hph (Mechanical drive, customary
units)
= kJ/kWh (SI units)
The gas turbine efficiency can be determined from the heat rate
as follows:
ThermalEfficiency =
3412.14
HeatRate,Btu/kWh
=
2544.43
HeatRate,Btu/hph
3600
HeatRate,kJ/kWh
21
Gas Turbines
Fuel Heating Value

As noted above, the fuel heat input to the gas turbine is the
product of the fuel flow times the fuel heating value. It is normal
practice for gas turbine manufacturers to rate their machines
based on the lower heating value (LHV), but some
manufacturers rate their machines on the basis of higher
heating value (HHV). To compare different gas turbines, the
Mechanical Engineer must not only know the heat rate but also
whether the heat rate is based on the lower heating value or the
higher heating value of the fuel. A gas turbine with a heat rate
that is based on the higher heating value will require more fuel
per horsepower hour (hph) than a gas turbine with the same
heat rate that is based on the lower heating value.
The difference between HHV and LHV is whether the latent heat
of vaporization of the water is considered to be part of the
heating value. When any fuel that contains hydrogen burns in
the air, one of the products of combustion is water. The
percentage of water that is produced depends on the amount of
initial hydrogen that is in the fuel. Because all current gas
turbine fuels contain various amounts of hydrogen, water in the
form of superheated steam is an unavoidable by-product of the
combustion process. Lighter fuels contain more hydrogen than
heavier fuels.
The heat that is released by the water vapor while the water
vapor condenses and cools down to approximately room
temperature accounts for the difference between the lower and
the higher heating values of a fuel. The difference between the
higher heating value and the lower heating value is the amount
of heat that could be recovered if the water that is produced in
the combustion process is condensed. The higher heating value
includes the heat of condensation of the water in the total
measured heat. The lower heating value does not include the
heat of condensation of the water in the total measured heat.
The lower heating value is the maximum portion of the heating
value that can be utilized in usual gas turbine equipment.
For liquid fuels, the HHV is measured in a constant volume
calorimeter. The LHV at constant pressure (the condition in the
gas turbine combustor) can be determined from the following:
LHV (Btu/lb) = HHV-91.23H
LHV (kJ/kg) = HHV-96.25H
22
Gas Turbines
Where:
H
= Percent hydrogen in the fuel, by weight.
For gas fuel, the HHV is measured in a constant pressure

calorimeter. The LHV at constant pressure is determined from
the following:
LHV (Btu/lb) = HHV-93.84H
LHV (kJ/kg) = HHV-99.01H
Ambient Conditions
Ambient conditions are the atmospheric conditions that
surround a gas turbine: the temperature, the barometric
pressure, and the humidity. These conditions can have a
significant effect on the performance of the gas turbine, primarily
due to their effect on the density of the turbine inlet air. The
power produced by the gas turbine is directly related to the
mass flow through the machine. Anything that reduces the
density of the inlet air will reduce the mass flow through the
machine and, as a result, the power output.
Inlet air temperature has the greatest impact on gas turbine
performance. Gas turbine power output will decrease
approximately 0.5 % for each 1F increase in inlet air
temperature (0.9% for each 1C). This decrease occurs because
as the air temperature rises, the density of the air will decrease,
which results in reduced mass flow through the turbine. Also, as
air temperature increases, the pressure ratio developed by the
compressor will decrease. This decrease results in a lower ratio
available across the turbine. The reduced ratio will result in a
reduction in turbine efficiency as well as reduced power output.
Barometric pressure also has an effect on power output of the
turbine. As barometric pressure decreases, the density of the air
decreases, which results in reduced mass flow through the
turbine and the consequent reduction in gas turbine power
output.
23
Gas Turbines
As barometric decreases, the discharge pressure of the

compressor section of the gas turbine will decrease. However,
the pressure ratio, i.e., the ratio of the discharge pressure to the
suction (barometric) pressure, will stay the same; therefore, the
efficiency of the turbine will not be affected by a change in
barometric pressure.
Normal barometric pressure varies with site elevation. Normal
sea level barometric pressure is 14.696 psia (101.325 kPa abs).
As site elevation increases, normal barometric pressure and,
therefore, turbine power output decreases. The reduction in
turbine power output is directly proportional to the decrease in
barometric pressure. As stated above, the efficiency of the
machine is not affected.
Humidity has a very minor effect on gas turbine performance
and is often neglected in performance calculations. For a given
total atmospheric pressure, as the amount of water vapor in the
air increases, the density of the mixture decreases, which
results in reduced mass flow through the turbine and the
consequent reduction in gas turbine power output. An increase
in the amount of water vapor also increases the heat capacity of
the mixture, which affects compressor performance. As a result,
the efficiency of the machine also decreases slightly.
Turbine manufacturers provide curves, charts, or other data that
show the effects of ambient conditions on gas turbine
performance. The final section of this module will demonstrate
the use of these aids to determine the performance of the gas
turbine at different ambient conditions.
ISO Conditions
Because gas turbine performance is heavily dependent on
ambient conditions and because ambient conditions can vary
widely from site to site and with time of year, gas turbines for
industrial and power generation applications are rated at a
standard set of conditions established by the International
Standards Organization (ISO). This standard set of conditions
makes comparison of gas turbines from competing
manufacturers an easier task. ISO conditions are defined as
follows:
Ambient air temperature 59F (15C)
Altitude sea level
24
Gas Turbines
Ambient air pressure 14.696 psia (101.325 kPa abs)
Relative humidity 60% (at the stated temperature and

barometric pressure, this corresponds to 0.0063 lb
moisture/lb dry air)
Inlet and exhaust pressure losses none
Each turbine manufacturer will rate the output and the efficiency
or heat rate of its turbine at these conditions and will provide
curves, charts, or other data that can be used to predict the
performance at other ambient conditions. The use of these aids
will be discussed in the final section of this module.
Site Rating
As stated earlier, gas turbine manufacturers rate their machines
at ISO conditions. The Saudi Aramco Engineer, however, is
concerned with how the gas turbine will perform when it is
installed at the Saudi Aramco site. Of course, site conditions will
also vary, so some set of conditions that may exist at the site
must be selected. In order to ensure that adequate power is
available from the turbine under all conditions, Saudi Aramco
uses a conservative approach that uses worst case conditions.
These are specified in SAES-K-502 as follows:
Site temperature is the maximum recorded ambient

temperature at the proposed installation site, increased by
up to 5.5C (10F) due to the ambient air heating by site
equipment. A lower temperature may be specified if an
exceptionally high ambient temperature exists at the site
during short periods of time. In this case, the user may agree
to operate temporarily above the base load and accept the
resulting accelerated rate of turbine deterioration, the
frequency of maintenance, and the increased operating cost.
Site ambient pressure is the barometric pressure determined

from the site elevation relative to sea level.
Site humidity is the maximum site humidity. What is

important is the humidity ratio, which is the mass of water
vapor in the moist air per unit mass of dry air, i.e., pounds of
water vapor per pound dry air (kg of water vapor per kg of
dry air). Humidity ratio can be determined from site wet bulb
and dry bulb temperature data.
25
Gas Turbines
The site ambient conditions to be used in calculating site turbine

performance can be found in SAES-A-112, Meteorological And
Seismic Design Data.
In addition to ambient conditions of temperature, pressure, and
humidity, the following conditions are also taken into account
when determining the site performance of the gas turbine:
Inlet and exhaust pressure losses.
Gearbox and transmission mechanical losses.
Turbine deterioration and contingency factor.
The turbine manufacturer has accounted for in its ISO rating

any auxiliary loads taken from the turbine shaft beyond
normal shaft driven auxiliaries
The final section of this module provides further discussion and

sample calculations of using site conditions to determine the site
performance of the gas turbine.
26
Gas Turbines
METHODS FOR GAS TURBINE POWER OUTPUT AUGMENTATION

As seen in the previous section, ambient conditions, especially
ambient temperature, can have a significant impact on gas
turbine power output. As the temperature at the gas turbine
compressor inlet increases, gas turbine power output goes
down. Unfortunately, times of high ambient temperature may
coincide with times that gas turbine power is needed most. For
example, as ambient temperature increases, electrical demand
will rise due to increased air conditioning loads that place more
demand on gas turbines that drive electrical generators. In
these situations, it may be desirable to have provisions for
augmenting gas turbine power output.
This section describes several methods available for
augmenting gas turbine power output. The most commonly
used methods are the following:
Cooling of the gas turbine compressor inlet air, which may

be accomplished through the use of evaporative coolers or
refrigeration.
Steam injection.
Use of a helper turbine.
Evaporative Cooling
As the temperature of the air increases, its density decreases;
therefore, the mass flow through the compressor and, hence,
through the turbine decreases. Also, as the temperature at the
compressor inlet increases, the pressure ratio developed across
the compressor will decrease, which results in a lower ratio
across the turbine. As a result of the decreased mass flow and
pressure ratio, the power output of the turbine will decrease. As
noted in the previous section, the efficiency of the gas turbine
will also decrease with an increase in ambient temperature.
One way to increase the gas turbine power output and efficiency
is to cool the compressor inlet air. Such cooling increases its
density and increases the pressure ratio developed by the
compressor. A very cost-effective way of cooling the
compressor inlet air, especially in dry climates, is through the
use of evaporative coolers.
27
Gas Turbines
Evaporative cooling is based on the process of adiabatic

saturation of the air. To evaporate water requires the addition of
the latent heat of vaporization of the water, approximately 1050
Btu/lb (2440 kJ/kg) at 80F (27C). This heat is supplied by the
water-saturated air and by the water remaining as sensible heat,
which reduces their temperature. If the water that is not
evaporated is continuously recirculated, its temperature will
approach the wet bulb temperature. As a result, there will also
be some sensible cooling of the air by the water.
The most common arrangement for gas turbine inlet air

evaporative cooling is direct evaporative cooling, i.e., the water
is evaporated directly into the inlet air. Water is continuously
recirculated to keep a cellulose paper or similar filter media
soaked. The turbine inlet air passing through this media is
cooled by the evaporation of water from the media into the
airstream. Drift eliminators are installed downstream of the
media to prevent carryover of any liquid water that could
damage the gas turbine compressor. The system is typically
designed so that the pressure drop across the cooler is less
than 0.5 in WC (125 Pa).
The effectiveness of an evaporative cooler is a measure of how
close to the wet bulb temperature the cooler cools the air, which
is calculated as follows:
Effectiven ess=
Tdnin Tdbout
100
Tdbin Twb
Where:
Tdbin
= Dry bulb temperature of air entering cooler,

F (C)
Tdbout = Dry bulb temperature of air leaving cooler,

F (C)
Twb
= Wet bulb temperature, F (C)
An evaporative cooler that was 100 percent effective would cool

the inlet air to the wet bulb temperature. Typical effectiveness of
a gas turbine inlet air evaporative cooler would be about 80
percent. It is important that a temperature difference of 3 to 4F
(1.6 to 2.2C) between the wet bulb temperature and the dry
bulb temperature is maintained to prevent condensation due to
the pressure drop at the gas turbine compressor inlet.
28
Gas Turbines
The main advantage of the evaporative cooler is that it is simple

and relatively inexpensive, both in terms of initial capital cost
and operational costs. The only necessary operating equipment
is the pump used to recirculate the water. The main
disadvantage is that its ability to cool the air is limited by
ambient humidity. A supply of makeup water must also be
available to replace the water that is evaporated and lost by
blowdown.
Inlet Cooling by Refrigeration

An alternate method of cooling the gas turbine compressor inlet
is by the use of refrigeration. This method is more effective than
evaporative cooling; however, this method is also more costly,
as it involves the costs of installation and operation of the
refrigeration equipment. A fairly common method is the use of
an absorption chiller to cool water that is circulated through coils
in the gas turbine inlet section to absorb the heat from the inlet
air. The steam that is required for the operation of the
absorption chiller can be produced in a heat recovery steam
generator (HRSG) by using the heat from the gas turbine
exhaust, which improves overall cycle efficiency.
Refrigeration cycles other than the absorption cycle can be used
to cool the gas turbine inlet air. The cost of power to operate the
cycle must be weighed against the improvement in gas turbine
power output and efficiency for the selected cycle.
One variation of inlet refrigeration that has recently received
some attention for power generation applications is ice
harvesting. The refrigeration system is run during periods of low
demand, typically at night, to freeze large quantities of water.
The ice produced is melted during periods of peak demand, and
the resulting chilled water is circulated through the coils in the
gas turbine inlet to reduce the air temperature.
The main advantages of using refrigeration to cool the gas
turbine inlet air are that it is more effective than evaporative
cooling and the air inlet temperature to the turbine can be
controlled. The main disadvantage is the cost. Also, if an
absorption cycle is used, a HRSG will have to be provided with
the turbine to produce the steam.
29
Gas Turbines
Steam Injection
The power output of the gas turbine can be increased
significantly through the use of steam injection. The basic
steam injected cycle is shown in Figure 6. Superheated steam
for injection is produced in a HRSG that uses the waste heat in
the turbine exhaust gases or from a site boiler source. The
steam is generally injected into the compressor discharge,
enough upstream of the combustion section to ensure proper
mixing with the air stream. In some cases, steam injection for
power augmentation is injected directly into the combustors.
The amount of steam injected for power augmentation ranges
up to about 5 percent of the compressor discharge mass airflow.
Figure 6. Steam Injected Cycle

The steam injection provides additional mass flow through the
turbine, which results in increased power output. Additionally,
30
Gas Turbines
the injected steam increases the heat capacity of the fuel-air

mixture, which reduces the combustion temperature and allows
more fuel to be fired, while keeping the turbine inlet temperature
within the limitations of the turbine materials. The reduced
temperature in the primary combustion zone also reduces the
formation of nitrogen oxides (NOX). The use of steam injection
specifically for NOX emission reduction will be described in a
later section. In addition to a significant improvement in power
output over that of the simple cycle, the efficiency of the steam
injected cycle is also slightly better.
Because the steam is exhausted to the atmosphere, the major
drawback of the steam injected cycle is that very large
quantities of water are continuously required to produce the
steam. Because even small amounts of impurities can react with
hot metal parts in the combustion section of the turbine, the
water used to produce the steam must be highly purified. Even
with the highly purified water specified, gas turbines that operate
on the steam injected cycle have higher maintenance
requirements than those gas turbines that operate with a simple
cycle under similar conditions. Steam and water injection
causes a more turbulent combustion than gas turbines that do
not use steam or water injection. The increased combustion
turbulence increases wear and vibration on combustion system
components. Because of the increase in combustion component
wear, erosion, and corrosion, gas turbines that use steam or
water injection require hot gas path inspections on a more
frequent basis than gas turbines that do not use steam or water
injection. The actual periodicity of the hot gas path inspections
varies by manufacturer and gas turbine model. Some
manufacturers have special kits, for use with steam or water
injected gas turbines that can be installed on gas turbine
combustion systems to minimize the damaging effects of steam
or water injection and reduce the inspection periodicity.
31
Gas Turbines
Helper Turbine
As discussed in MEX 214.02, the gas turbine requires a starting
device that can accelerate the turbine to a speed at which the
power output from the turbine is greater than the power required
to drive the gas turbine compressor. One type of driver that can
be used for this application is a steam turbine. If the steam
turbine is designed to remain coupled to the turbine during
operation and provide supplementary power to the gas turbine
train, it is designated a helper turbine. According to SAES-K502, steam turbine starters that can be used as helpers are
rated at approximately 4 percent of the ISO output of the gas
turbine.
If a steam turbine is selected as the gas turbine starting means,
it may be worthwhile to specify it as a helper for the additional
power available. However, the Mechanical Engineer must
recognize that the following several points that may affect this
decision:
Steam to operate the turbine must be available at all times,

not just at startup.
The steam turbine, the coupling, and the accessories must

be rated for continuous operation.
API Standard 616, Gas Turbines for Refinery Services, and

SAES-K-502 specify that starter turbines shall be general
purpose turbines, while API Standard 616 requires that
helpers be special purpose turbines. This requirement may
result in more stringent requirements for turbines used as
helpers.
32
Gas Turbines
METHODS FOR GAS TURBINE EMISSIONS CONTROL

The combustion of fuel in the gas turbine results in the formation
of products that are considered atmospheric pollutants. Gas
turbine emissions that are generally of concern are the
following:
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC)
Sulfur oxides, primarily sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Oxides of nitrogen (NOX)
Of these, SO2 and NOX emissions are limited by SAES-A-102,

Ambient Air Quality and Source Emission Standard. The
Ambient Air Quality Standards apply to the ambient air outside
the official boundaries of each Saudi Aramco facility. The
Source Emission Standards are the maximum amount of a
particular pollutant that can be discharged from a source. The
Source Emission Standard limits are used to limit adverse air
quality impacts so the surrounding areas do not exceed the
Ambient Air Quality Standards. Source Emission limits for SO2
emissions vary with location, from 0.5 lb/Mbtu fuel heat input
(215 ng/J) to 2.3 lb/Mbtu (1000 ng/J). Source Emission limits for
NOX emissions are restricted to 0.3 lb/Mbtu (130 ng/J) when
firing oil and 0.2 lb/Mbtu (86 ng/J) when firing gas.
SO2 emissions are a concern only when firing a fuel that
contains sulfur, such as a sour gas. SO2 emissions are
controlled primarily by treatment of the fuel and will not be
addressed here. NOX emissions are of primary concern in gas
turbine operation. Methods used to reduce NOX emissions
include the following:
Steam or water injection.
Specially designed combustion systems, known as dry low

NOX systems.
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR).
33
Gas Turbines
Steam or Water Injection

The primary way in which NOX is formed is by the reaction of
oxygen and nitrogen from the combustion air at high
temperatures. Additional NOX will be formed when burning fuels
that contain chemically combined nitrogen. The main factors
that affect the amount of NOX formed include the following:
Peak flame temperature
Time at peak temperature
Amount of oxygen available
The major methods designed to prevent the formation of NOX

address these factors.
Steam or water for reduction is injected directly into the primary
combustion zone of the combustor. This injection both reduces
the peak flame temperature and reduces the relative oxygen
content of the fuel-air mixture, which results in reduced
generation of NOX. To achieve the emission levels required by
SAES-A-102, the mass ratio of water injection to fuel flow would
need to be about 1:1 when firing gas fuel. If steam injection is
used, a ratio of about 1.4:1 would be required.
The increased mass flow through the turbine due to the steam
or water injection results in increased power output. However,
this increased power output comes at the expense of a
reduction in turbine efficiency (if the steam used for steam
injection is produced in a HRSG using waste heat from the
turbine exhaust, the overall cycle efficiency will improve slightly,
but the turbine will be less efficient).
Other than the efficiency penalty, the main disadvantages to
steam or water injection for NOX control include the following:
A continuous supply of very high purity demineralized water

is necessary.
Increased combustion chamber pulsations, especially with

water injection.
Increased maintenance, especially with water injection.
Possibility of extinguishing the flame at low loads due to

overinjection.
Increase in CO emissions.
34
Gas Turbines
Specially Designed Combustion Systems

In recent years, manufacturers have put a great deal of effort
into designing combustion systems that minimize the emission
of NOX without the need for steam or water injection. Because
steam or water is not required, these systems are referred to as
dry systems.
The basic principal behind the dry low NOX systems is that the
fuel is burned in two or more zones in the combustor, which is
referred to as staged combustion. The amount of fuel and air
admitted to each combustion zone is closely controlled. Figure 7
shows one arrangement. At high loads (greater than about 40
percent), a portion of the fuel and air is premixed in the first
zone in a very lean mixture. Combustion takes place in the
second zone where additional fuel and air are added. The lean
mixture results in a lower flame temperature with associated
reduced NOX emissions.
Figure 7. Dry Low NOX Burner
35
Gas Turbines
Selective Catalytic Reduction

The use of steam or water injection or specially designed
combustion systems limits the amount of NOX that is formed by
the combustion process. Another approach to reducing NOX
emissions is to remove NOX that is formed from the exhaust gas
stream. This approach is often used together with one of the
other methods to achieve very low levels of NOX emissions.
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) removes NOX from the gas
stream by chemically reacting the NOX with ammonia vapor
(NH3) in the presence of a catalyst. At temperatures of about
600 to 750F (315 to 400C), the NOX and ammonia react in
the presence of the catalyst to produce water vapor and
nitrogen as products.
Because the SCR reaction only takes place in a limited
temperature range, which is below the normal gas turbine
exhaust temperature, this method of NOX control is only
applicable to systems that use a HRSG for combined cycle or
cogeneration application. The SCR module is situated in the
HRSG at a location where the gas temperature has been
reduced to this range over a wide range of operating conditions.
36
Gas Turbines
GAS TURBINE SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS

A number of factors must be considered by the Mechanical
Engineer when selecting a gas turbine for a particular
application. This section examines the following gas turbine
selection considerations:
Power requirements
Site conditions
Service conditions
Environmental restrictions
ISO selection
Maintenance considerations
Power Requirements
The primary consideration in the selection of a gas turbine for a
particular application is that it be able to provide sufficient power
under all conditions of operation to support the driven load. The
determination of the size of the gas turbine should be based on
its base load rating. The base load, when corrected for site
conditions and other factors, must be sufficient to supply the
required power of the driven equipment under conditions of
normal deterioration.
Base load is defined by SAES-K-502 as the maximum allowable
output of the equipment (as specified by the vendor) under the
limitations of the following requirements that are specified in API
616 and SAES-K-502:
Rotors, casings, bearing housings, supports, baseframe, and

the unit's structure must have a minimum expected life of
160,000 operating hours (over 20 years).
Planned time between major overhauls (TBO) must be a

minimum of 48,000 operating hours (6 years) for industrial
heavy-duty combustion gas turbines, 25,000 hours for
aeroderivatives.
The time between hot gas path inspections, if needed, must

be at least 24,000 hours (3 years). During this period, the
turbine is suitable for continuous operation, except for very
brief shutdowns for combustion inspections.
37
Gas Turbines
The time between combustion/borescope inspections must

be not less than 8,000 hours (1 year).
Peak load is the output that results in a time between major

overhauls of 2000 hours; so, it is apparent that a major penalty
in terms of maintenance and down time is paid for operating at
peak load. The gas turbines should be operated at peak load
only when absolutely necessary, and the gas turbine should
never be operated above peak load.
The gas turbine must be capable of powering the driven
equipment over the entire operating time between overhauls.
Because gas turbine performance will degrade over time,
SAES-K-502 requires that the following deterioration and
contingency factors be applied in calculating the available site
power of the turbine:
For single or multiple shaft turbines driving generators, a

factor of 0.90 is used. There must also be a 10% margin
over the required site power.
For multiple shaft turbines in mechanical drive applications, a

factor of 0.90 is used.
For single shaft turbines in mechanical drive applications, a

factor of 0.85 is used.
In addition to maximum power considerations, the Engineer who

selects the gas turbine must consider how it is loaded. The
following items should be considered:
Will the turbine be consistently loaded at or near maximum

power, or will load requirements vary over a wide range? A
generator drive, for example, will typically always operate at
or near base load; therefore, a single or multiple shaft
turbine will be suitable. Single shaft turbines have poorer
part load efficiencies than multiple shaft units; so, if the load
will vary considerably, a multiple shaft machine will be a
better choice.
Is the turbine operated at a constant speed, such as a

generator driver, or at a variable speed? Again, a multiple
shaft machine has better efficiency at lower speeds, and it
would be preferable for variable speed requirements.
38
Gas Turbines
What are the torque requirements at various speeds? A

single shaft machine exhibits maximum torque at full speed,
and there are very poor torque characteristics as speed
decreases. A multiple shaft machine can deliver almost
constant power over a wide speed range, and this nearly
constant power results in excellent low speed torque. Figure
8 compares the torque characteristics of single and multiple
shaft machines. If high starting torque is required, it is
apparent that the choice should be a multiple shaft turbine.
One application for a multiple shaft turbine is for pump
drivers. Saudi Aramco Standard SAES-K-502 prohibits the
use of single shaft machines in this application.
Figure 8. Torque Characteristics of Single Shaft and Multiple Shaft Gas Turbines
39
Gas Turbines
How quickly must the machine come up to speed? For a

single shaft turbine, the starting device must accelerate the
mass of the compressor and the turbine rotor, coupling, and
load. Typically, large motors or diesels are necessary. For a
multiple shaft machine, the starting device needs only to
accelerate the gas generator compressor and the turbine,
which are a much smaller inertial mass than a single shaft
turbine (compressor, turbine rotor, coupling, and load). Small
gas expansion turbines or air motors are often used as
starting devices for these units.
Site Conditions
The sites rated temperature will be the maximum inlet air
temperature at which the turbine must be capable of developing
the specified sites rated power. The site conditions that are
used to define the sites rated power are the rated temperature,
the altitude, and the relative humidity of the installation site. To
determine the size of the gas turbine that is required for a
specific site, these site conditions must be determined. A gas
turbine user is mostly interested in the output power that the gas
turbine has the capability to deliver at the following site
conditions, as defined in SAES-K-502:
The site's maximum temperature.
The site's altitude (elevation above or below sea level).
The site's maximum humidity.
Generally, the sites rated temperature reflects the maximum

ambient temperature; however, if exceptionally high
temperatures can be expected for short periods of time, a lower
temperature may be specified as the sites rated temperature. If
such is the case, there will be times when the gas turbine must
be operated above base load to produce the required power,
which will result in increased maintenance requirements for the
equipment and shorter times between overhauls.
The altitude that is used to determine the size of the gas turbine
is the elevation of the installation site above or below sea level.
40
Gas Turbines
Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapor that is

actually present in the atmosphere to the amount of water vapor
that would be present if the atmosphere were completely
saturated with water vapor. Relative humidity is measured as
the ratio of the vapor pressure of the water in the air to the
saturated vapor pressure at the given temperature. The
humidity ratio, or absolute humidity, which is the ratio of the
mass of water vapor in the air to the mass of dry air, affects gas
turbine performance. The humidity ratio can be calculated from
the relative humidity, the ambient temperature, and the
barometric pressure as follows:
PVAP =
HRH
PSAT
100
PVAP
HABS = 0.622
PBAR PVAP
Where:
PVAP
= Vapor pressure of water in air (psia or kPa

abs)
HRH
= Relative humidity (%)
PSAT
= Saturation pressure of water vapor at

ambient temperature (psia or kPa abs)
HABS = absolute humidity (lb water vapor/lb dry air,

= kg water vapor/kg dry air)
PBAR = barometric pressure (psia or kPa abs)
Water vapor saturation pressure can be obtained from steam
tables, or properties can be determined through use of
psychrometric charts.
The sites ambient conditions to be used in calculating site
turbine performance can be found in SAES-A-112.
41
Gas Turbines
Service Conditions
In addition to the ambient conditions that exist at a site, the
service conditions that are associated with the gas turbine
installation must be considered in the determination of the size
and the type of gas turbine that is to be used. The locations in
which the gas turbine must operate (e.g., a refinery, a remote
area, or an offshore platform) must be considered in a
determination of the service requirements. When these
determinations are made, the following concerns must be
considered:
The length of expected continuous service (without an

overhaul) at the location.
The maintenance and maintenance requirements at the

location. (For example, heavy-duty turbines are normally
overhauled on site, which results in several logistic concerns,
such as the need for a large crane and the need for a supply
of spare parts.)
The environmental conditions of the location. (For example,

operations in a desert atmosphere may be affected by the
sand and dust that are in the area. As another example,
offshore platforms operate in a humid environment and in
the presence of salt water mist or spray.) During bad
weather, special emphasis must be placed on reliability.
API 616 includes minimum requirements for gas turbines for

refinery services of mechanical drives, generator drives, or
process gas generation. API 616 requires that gas turbines be
capable of the following:
A minimum of three years of continuous service, with a

minimum of 8000 hours of operation between hot section
inspections.
Continuous service at the gas turbine's potential maximum

power.
Idle periods of up to three weeks, under specified site

conditions, without requiring any special maintenance
procedures.
42
Gas Turbines
The maintenance practices that are associated with gas

turbines will suggest the prime choice of the type of gas turbine
that is selected for remote area locations. One of the major
disadvantages of the heavy-duty gas turbine is that the turbine
is normally overhauled on site. The following are some of the
disadvantages of the on-site overhaul, and these disadvantages
must be considered for the selection of the type of turbine:
The logistics of the support that is required by an overhaul

crew in a remote location.
The necessity of a large crane for overhaul.
A supply of spare parts at a central location.
The two to four week shutdown required to complete the

overhaul.
The following are some of the disadvantages of the use of

aircraft derivative gas turbines in remote locations:
Aircraft derivative gas turbines require either spare modules

or complete spare gas turbines to be available for change
out.
Expensive tooling is required for disassembly and

reassembly.
The cost of spare parts is high.
Gas turbines on offshore platforms operate in a very humid

environment and in the presence of salt water mist and spray.
The basic size of the offshore platform requires that the gas
turbine's size and weight be considered. Compact sizes and low
weights are required. Offshore platforms are usually at remote
locations, and occasional inaccessibility to the platform due to
bad weather requires that special emphasis be placed on
reliability and self-sufficiency of operation and maintenance. The
following are special concerns for offshore platforms:
A custom inlet air filtration system is needed to limit the

intake of dust, airborne salts, and water droplets.
Special painting for the offshore environment should be

considered.
43
Gas Turbines
Selection of the materials that are adjacent to each other

and that are exposed to the environment requires careful
consideration to prevent atmospheric corrosion and galvanic
corrosion.
Onshore acceptance testing of gas turbines at full

anticipated load is recommended to avoid lengthy
commissioning offshore.
Environmental Restrictions
The determination of the size of the gas turbine must take into
consideration the effect of any extra equipment that must be
installed on the gas turbine to meet applicable environmental
regulations. Two of the environmental restrictions that must be
satisfied are emissions control and noise control. The major
sources of noise for a gas turbine are the inlet, exhaust, cooling
fans, pumps, and ventilation duct fans. Silencers will probably
be required to satisfy the regulatory noise requirements. The
installation of silencers will reduce the thermodynamic efficiency
of the gas turbine by increasing the inlet and outlet pressure
losses of the gas turbine.
Gas turbine selection considerations related to emissions
include both the allowable level and how that level will be
achieved. For example, will an adequate supply of
demineralized water be available for steam or water injection, or
will it be necessary to select a model equipped with dry low NOX
combustors?
ISO Selection
The power and the heat rate of a gas turbine are the major
factors in the determination of the size of the gas turbine.
Because both the power and the heat rate vary with the
environmental conditions, the environmental conditions must be
defined. Each gas turbine manufacturer could rate its respective
gas turbine at a set of conditions that are defined by the
manufacturer. The comparison between different gas turbines
would involve not only the conversion of the turbine's rated
power and the turbines heat rate to the site conditions, but the
comparison also would require the conversion of the individual
manufacturer's ratings to the ISO conditions.
44
Gas Turbines
The ISO rated power is the continuous power that is developed

by the gas turbine when the gas turbine is operated at its rated
firing temperature and speed under the ISO standard operating
conditions. The ISO heat rate is the gas turbine's energy
consumption per unit of power that is developed by the gas
turbine when the gas turbine is operated at its rated firing
temperature and speed under the ISO standard operating
conditions.
To obtain a gas turbine's site rating, the ISO rating that is
provided by the manufacturer must be corrected to the site
conditions. Gas turbine manufacturers normally provide graphs
of power output changes and heat rate changes with various
inlet temperatures and inlet pressures. The operation of a gas
turbine under ISO conditions will result in the power output and
the heat rate of the gas turbine that are equivalent to the gas
turbine's ISO ratings. Because of the lower thermodynamic
cycle efficiency and reduction in mass flow rate due to lower gas
density, operation of a gas turbine at a higher ambient
temperature will result in a lower power output and a higher heat
rate. Operation of a gas turbine at a higher elevation (lower inlet
pressure) also will result in a lower power output; however, the
heat rate will be unaffected. Operation of a gas turbine with
pressure losses that are caused by inlet air filters and silencers
or with exhaust losses that are caused by exhaust ducting and
silencers also will result in a lower power output and an increase
in heat rate. The power output of a gas turbine also directly
affects the gas turbine's heat rate, with higher heat rates (poorer
efficiency) at reduced loads.
In general, gas turbine performance depends on mass flow,
pressure ratio, temperature ratio, compressor efficiency,
combustion efficiency, turbine efficiency, and load. The
manufacturer's gas turbine ISO ratings differ from turbine to
turbine. Because of these differences, the best way to compare
gas turbines is by site ratings instead of ISO ratings. Each
turbine's ISO rating is corrected to the site conditions before any
comparison is made. The corrections that must be made to the
manufacturer's data are covered in detail later in this module.
45
Gas Turbines
Maintenance Considerations
The necessary maintenance associated with a gas turbine is
one of the considerations associated with the determination of
the size and type of gas turbine that is to be used at an
installation. Because plant maintenance personnel have
experience in the installation, the removal, and the overhaul of
gas turbines, they should be consulted concerning any
questions associated with maintenance on the type of gas
turbine. The following are some of the site maintenance
considerations that must be addressed:
What maintenance can be performed at the site and what

maintenance requires removal of the turbine from the site?
Can the unit be removed as a unit, or does it require

complete or partial disassembly?
Are special equipment, fixtures, or tools (e.g., cranes, spare

parts requiring special handling, critical service parts)
required to perform normal maintenance?
Are there any critical service spare parts that require a long
lead time for their procurement? Should the critical service
spare parts with a long lead time be purchased and stored?
What type of storage requirements do the spare parts have?

Short-term storage packaging has generally not been
adequate in the prevention of corrosion damage. Corrosion
damage normally results in time delays to reprocure the
parts and/or expensive repairs to the damaged parts.
Are there other units on site that have interchangeable parts

with the proposed unit? Significant reductions in the cost of
inventory for spare parts can be achieved if other units on
site have interchangeable parts with the proposed unit.
46
Gas Turbines
DETERMINING SITE PERFORMANCE OF A GAS TURBINE

It has been shown that ambient conditions have a significant
effect on the performance of a gas turbine engine. Other factors,
such as pressure losses in the inlet and exhaust ducts of the
turbine, mechanical efficiency losses in transmission gears, and
deterioration of the turbine over time, also affect turbine
performance. This section describes the method used to
determine the site performance of a gas turbine based on the
stated performance at ISO conditions and correction factors
supplied by the turbine manufacturer. An example calculation
will be provided.
The following conditions are used for the example calculations
throughout this section. A single shaft gas turbine operating with
a simple cycle is used to drive a centrifugal compressor. The
compressor is started unloaded, and it requires a maximum
continuous input of 12,500 hp. The compressor will be installed
at Riyadh, for which the following data from SAES-A-112 are
available:
Site Elevation:
1995 ft
Highest Recorded Temperature:
120F
Summer Design Wet Bulb Temp @ 1%:
72F
Mean Coincident Dry Bulb Temp:
93F
From the turbine manufacturer, the following additional

information relative to the proposal is available:
Inlet Pressure Drop:
3 in. WC
Exhaust Pressure:
6 in. WC
Reduction Gear Mechanical Efficiency:
97.5%
This section of the Module will examine the effects of various

parameter changes on gas turbine performance as follows:
Determining ISO Power and ISO Heat Rate
Correcting for Ambient Temperature
Correcting for Altitude
Correcting for Humidity
Correcting for Inlet and Exhaust Pressure Losses
47
Gas Turbines
Correcting for Mechanical Transmission Losses
Correcting for Turbine Deterioration
Correcting for Auxiliary Power
Determining Site Power and Site Heat Rate
Determining ISO Power and Heat Rate

ISO rated power is the continuous power developed by a new
gas turbine unit (flange to flange), while the unit is operating at
sea level, at base load, and at 100 percent of rated speed in the
following, standard operating conditions (refer to ISO 2314):
Inlet air temperature (total):
15C (59F)
Inlet pressure (total):
1.0133 bar (14.696 psia)
Inlet air relative humidity:
60 percent
Exhaust pressure (static):
1.0133 bar (14.696 psia)
The inlet conditions are measured at the compressor inlet

flange, and the exhaust conditions are measured at the turbine
exhaust flange. The power is measured at the shaft output
flange; therefore, no inlet losses, exhaust losses, or power
transmission losses are included.
ISO heat rate is a measure of the fuel heat input required at ISO
conditions for the turbine to produce one bhp/hr at ISO
conditions. ISO heat rate is generally based on the lower
heating value of the fuel (LHV). For mechanical drive turbines,
ISO heat rate is expressed in Btu/hphr (customary units). For
electrical generator drive turbines (and for mechanical drives
when SI units of measurement are used), ISO heat rate is
expressed in kJ/kWhr.
The gas turbine manufacturer provides the ISO rated power and
ISO heat rate for the turbine, as well as correction factors to
adjust these values to other conditions. For the application in
the example, the turbine vendor has proposed a unit with an
ISO power output of 21,105 hp and an ISO heat rate of 7790
Btu/hph.
48
Gas Turbines
Correcting for Ambient Temperature

Ambient temperature and the reduction in air density as the
temperature increases have by far the greatest impact on gas
turbine performance. Both ambient air temperature and
reduction in air density as a result of temperature increase
reduce the mass flow through the turbine and reduce the
pressure ratio. Corrections for ambient temperature are usually
presented by the manufacturer in the form of curves that show
the power and the heat rate as functions of temperature. These
curves may also include curves for other variables, such as
turbine exhaust temperature and exhaust flow, that vary with
ambient temperature. Figure 9 shows the ambient temperature
correction factor curves for the power and the heat rate for the
proposed machine.
Figure 9. Inlet Temperature Correction Factor
49
Gas Turbines
SAES-K-502 specifies that the sites rated temperature shall be

the highest recorded temperature at the site. With the proposed
turbine arrangement, air heated by the turbine itself will not be
drawn into the compressor; so, the site temperature will not
increase. At the maximum recorded site temperature of 120F,
the correction factor from the curve for power is 0.768, and the
correction factor for heat rate is 1.07.
Correcting for Altitude

Altitude also affects gas turbine power due to the change in air
density; however, altitude does not affect turbine heat rate. The
power correction will be essentially the same, regardless of
turbine manufacturer, and it will simply be the ratio of the normal
atmospheric pressure at the site elevation to normal
atmospheric pressure at sea level, as shown in the following
equation:
PCFALT =
PATM
14.696
Where
PCFALT = Power correction factor for altitude
PATM
= Normal atmospheric pressure at the

specified altitude (psia)
Normal atmospheric pressure at the specified altitude can be

obtained from standard charts or other data. The turbine
manufacturer will typically provide a curve that directly provides
the correction factor for site elevation, such as shown in Figure
10, or one that shows the barometric pressure and the power
correction factor, such as Figure 11.
50
Gas Turbines
Figure 10. Altitude Correction Factor
51
Gas Turbines
Figure 11. Output Correction and Altitude vs. Atmospheric Pressure
52
Gas Turbines
Figure 11 shows the relationship between altitude, barometric

pressure, and the effect on power output. Because the altitude
is fixed for any given application, atmospheric pressure is also
fixed except for minor variations that are caused by changes in
barometric pressure. As shown in Figure 11, the correction
factor is unity at 14.7 psi (14.7 psi corresponds to 0 ft.
elevation), which is the standard condition that is established by
the International Standards Organization (ISO). This graph
accounts for any changes in barometric pressure and is used for
the correction of power outputs due to changes in altitude and
barometric pressure. For a site that has barometric pressures
that vary, this graph can be used to determine the maximum
and minimum expected changes in power output.
A comparison of both graphs shows that at the elevation of the
example proposed turbine installation (1995 feet) in the
example, with no other changes in barometric pressure, the
rated power has a correction factor of 0.93. Using Figure 10, the
correction factor is horizontally read from the point at which the
altitude (1995 feet) vertically intersects the power correction
line. Figure 11 is used a little differently. The horizontal
intersection of the altitude (1995 feet) with the altitude line,
when read vertically down to the horizontal axis, indicates the
atmospheric pressure (13.7 psia). The correction factor is read
horizontally from the point at which the vertical line at this
atmospheric pressure intersects the power correction line. This
correction factor is also 93 percent, or 0.93.
Correcting for Humidity

The humidity correction factor is generally very small, but it is
specified in SAES-K-502. As the water vapor content of an airwater vapor mixture increases, the density of the mixture
decreases for a constant total pressure, which results in
reduced mass flow through the turbine and reduced output. The
increase in water vapor content also increases the specific heat
of the mixture, which increases compressor work and decreases
efficiency (increasing heat rate). Corrections for humidity are
typically presented as a curve, such as shown in Figure 12, that
shows the correction factors as a function of humidity ratio.
53
Gas Turbines
Figure 12. Humidity Correction Factor
A wet bulb temperature of 72F at the coincident dry bulb

temperature of 93F corresponds to a relative humidity of about
36 percent. From steam tables, the saturation pressure of water
vapor at 93F is 0.767 psia. The humidity ratio then equals the
following:
PVAP
=
HABS = 0.622HRH
P
P
ATM VAP
0.767
0.622(0.36 )
= 0.013lb water/lbdryair
13.7 0.767
From Figure 12, the power correction factor is 0.9991 and the
heat rate correction factor is 1.0025.
54
Gas Turbines
Correcting for Inlet and Exhaust Pressure Losses

Restrictions in the inlet air path (inlet filters, silencers, and duct
work) cause the total pressure at the compressor inlet to
decrease, which reduces the gas turbine's power output in two
ways. First, the compressor inlet pressure decrease causes a
reduction in the mass flow of the working fluid (air). Second, the
compressor inlet pressure decrease causes a decrease in
compressor discharge pressure. The compressor discharge
pressure decrease results in a lower turbine pressure ratio,
which reduces turbine output. The decrease of the compressor
inlet pressure also affects the heat rate. A lower turbine
pressure ratio causes a reduced thermal efficiency, which
results in a higher heat rate.
The magnitude of the inlet pressure correction as a percentage
of machine rating will vary, generally being a larger percentage
for smaller machines. For the machine we are considering, a
4 in. H2O decrease of the inlet air pressure will cause a 1.7%
decrease in the turbine power output, a 0.7% increase in the
heat rate, and a 2F increase in the exhaust temperature. Figure
13 shows the effect of inlet pressure loss on turbine power and
heat rate. For the proposed turbine, the 3 in WC inlet pressure
drop corresponds to a power correction factor of 0.988 and a
heat rate correction factor of 1.005.
55
Gas Turbines
Figure 13. Inlet Loss Correction Factor
56
Gas Turbines
Restrictions that are in the exhaust system (heat recovery

equipment, silencers, and duct work) cause a back pressure at
the turbine exhaust. The difference between the exhaust
pressure and the atmospheric pressure is referred to as the
exhaust-pressure drop. The exhaust-pressure drop causes a
reduction in the power output and thermal efficiency by causing
the turbine pressure ratio to decrease. A decrease of the
exhaust pressure also affects the heat rate. A lower turbine
pressure ratio causes a reduced thermal efficiency, which
results in a higher heat rate. In our example, a 4 in. H2O
decrease of the exhaust pressure will cause a 0.7% decrease in
the turbine power output, a 0.7% increase in the heat rate, and
a 2F increase in the exhaust temperature. Figure 14 shows the
effect of outlet pressure loss on turbine power and heat rate. A
comparison of the inlet and outlet pressure effects on turbine
power output shows that a 4 in. H2O drop of the inlet pressure
affects the turbine output by 1% more than the same 4 in. H2O
drop of the exhaust pressure.
57
Gas Turbines
Figure 14. Exhaust Loss Correction Factor
For our example, where the exhaust pressure is 6 in WC, the

power correction factor from Figure 14 is 0.9895, and the heat
rate correction factor is 1.01.
58
Gas Turbines
Correcting for Mechanical Transmission Losses

SAES-K-502 requires a power correction factor for mechanical
transmission losses if applicable. A power correction factor will
typically be a data item submitted by the turbine vendor for base
load. In our example, the reduction gear has a 97.5%
mechanical efficiency; so, the power correction factor is 0.975.
Since the mechanical transmission losses are a direct reduction
of output for a given fuel flow, a heat rate correction factor can
be calculated simply as the reciprocal of the power correction
factor: 1/0.975 = 1.026.
Correcting for Turbine Deterioration

The vendors stated ratings are for a brand new gas turbine.
Some deterioration of performance occurs naturally with turbine
operation. To account for performance deterioration, SAES-K502 requires that the following factors be applied:
0.90 for generator drive single shaft and multiple shaft units.
0.90 for mechanical drive multiple shaft units.
0.85 for mechanical drive single shaft units.
Since the proposed unit is a single shaft turbine for a

mechanical drive application, the power correction factor is 0.85.
Gas turbine heat rate will also deteriorate (increase) as the
turbine ages. The percentage change in efficiency or heat rate
will typically be less than the percentage change in power
output. No standard correction for heat rate deterioration is
specified in SAES-K-502. If the Engineer wants to estimate
future heat rate for the turbine in a deteriorated condition, a
percentage change equal to about one-half of the percentage
change in output is reasonable; thus, the heat rate correction
factor for the example turbine would be about 1.075.
Correcting for Auxiliary Power

If any of the shaft-driven auxiliaries, other than those auxiliaries
included in the turbine manufacturers rating, are driven by the
turbine, the power they require must be subtracted from the
turbine power output. None are included in the example.
59
Gas Turbines
Determining Site Power and Site Heat Rate

Once all the correction factors have been determined, they are
applied as multipliers to the ISO rated conditions, with the
exception of the auxiliary power correction. The auxiliary power
correction is subtracted from the turbine power output after the
other corrections have been applied.
Thus, the sites rated power is calculated as follows:
Sites Rated Power =
ISO Rated Power x Temperature

Correction x Altitude Correction x
Humidity Correction x Inlet
Losses Correction x Exhaust
Losses Correction x
Transmission Loss Correction x
Deterioration and Contingency
Correction - Auxiliary Power
And sites rated heat rate is:

Sites Rated Heat Rate =
ISO Rated Heat x Temperature

Correction x Humidity Correction
x Inlet Losses Correction x
Exhaust Losses Correction x
Transmission Loss Correction x
Deterioration and Contingency
Correction
For our example:

Sites Rated Power Rate =
21,105 (0.768) (0.93) (0.9991)

(0.988) (0.9895) (0.975) (0.85) - 0
= 12,202 hp
Sites Rated Heat Rate =
7790 (1.07) (1.0025) (1.005)

(1.01) (1.026) (1.075) = 9355
Btu/hph
Because the sites rated power of 12,202 does not exceed the
maximum requirement of 12,500 hp for the compressor, the
turbine is not suitable for the application. Expected operating
costs (fuel costs) for the turbine can be calculated on the basis
of the sites heat rate of 9355 Btu/hph.
60
Gas Turbines
WORK AIDS
WORK AID 1:
RESOURCES USED TO DETERMINE THE SITE

PERFORMANCE OF A GAS TURBINE
Work Aid 1A:
Formulas
Sites Rated Power =
ISO Rated Power x Temperature Correction x Altitude

Correction x Humidity Correction x Inlet Losses Correction x
Exhaust Losses Correction x Transmission Loss Correction x
Deterioration and Contingency Correction - Auxiliary Power
Sites Rated Heat Rate = ISO Rated Heat x Temperature Correction x Humidity
Correction x Inlet Losses Correction x Exhaust Losses
Correction x Transmission Loss Correction x Deterioration and
Contingency Correction
Deterioration and Contingency Factors:
= 0.90 for generator drive single-shaft and multiple-shaft units.
= 0.90 for mechanical drive multiple-shaft units.
= 0.85 for mechanical drive single-shaft units.
Work Aid 1B:
ISO Correction Curves
The following ISO correction curves are provided in the following figures:
Ambient Temperature (Figure 15)
Elevation (Figure 16)
Inlet Loss (Figure 17)
Exhaust Loss (Figure 18)
61
Gas Turbines
Figure 15. Ambient Temperature
62
Gas Turbines
Figure 16. Elevation
63
Gas Turbines
Figure 17. Inlet Loss
64
Gas Turbines
Figure 18. Exhaust Loss
65
Gas Turbines
GLOSSARY
Brayton cycle
The ideal cycle upon which the gas turbine operation is

based. It consists of an isentropic compression in the
compressor, constant pressure heat addition in the
combustion section, isentropic expansion in the turbine
section, and constant pressure exhaust. Also known as the
Joule cycle.
Combined cycle
A combination of two thermodynamic cycles, namely the

Brayton cycle and the Rankine (steam turbine) cycle. The
waste heat in the gas turbine exhaust is used to generate
superheated steam in a heat recovery steam generator
(waste heat boiler), which in turn is used to power a steam
turbine. Use of waste heat to generate superheated steam
results in a greatly improved overall efficiency.
Evaporative cooling
Cooling produced by evaporating water into the air. The

necessary latent heat of vaporization of the water is provided
by the air and remaining water, reducing their temperature.
Fuel higher heating

value
Heat produced by combustion of a unit of fuel under

conditions where all water vapor from the combustion
reaction is condensed, i.e., the latent heat is included in the
heating value.
Fuel lower heating

value
Heat produced by combustion of a unit of fuel under

conditions where all water vapor from the combustion
reaction remains as a vapor; i.e., the latent heat is not
included in the heating value.
Heat rate
A measure of the fuel heat input per unit power output, it is

generally based on the lower heating value (LHV) of the fuel.
Typical units of measurement are Btu/kWhr, Btu/hphr, and
Kj/kWhr
helper turbine
A steam turbine that is used as a gas turbine starting device

is designed to remain coupled to the turbine during operation
and to provide supplementary power to the gas turbine train.
Humidity ratio
The mass ratio of water vapor to dry air, it is generally given

in lb water vapor/lb dry air, kg/kg, or g/kg. Also called
absolute humidity or specific humidity.
Isentropic process
A process that occurs with no change in entropy. It is

adiabatic (no heat is transferred) and reversible.
A set of standard conditions at which gas turbine
manufacturers rate their machines, as follows:
ISO conditions
66
Gas Turbines
Temperature:
Atmospheric Pressure:
Relative Humidity:
Inlet and Exhaust Losses:
59F (15C)
14.696 psia (101.325 kPa)
60%
None
ISO rated power
The continuous power developed by the gas turbine when

operated at rated speed and firing temperature at ISO
conditions
NOX
A collective term for the oxides of nitrogen formed in high

temperature combustion processes. NOX has been
implicated in environmental problems, and emissions are
restricted.
regenerative cycle
A variation of the simple cycle where a heat exchanger is

used to transfer some of the waste heat in the turbine
exhaust to the combustion air between the compressor
discharge and the combustor inlet, resulting in improved
cycle efficiency.
simple cycle
The real gas turbine cycle based on the Brayton cycle.

Power output and efficiency are lower than in the ideal cycle
due to compressor and turbine inefficiencies (compression
and expansion are not isentropic); pressure drop effects in
the inlet, combustion section, and exhaust; real gas
deviations from ideal gas properties; etc.
site rated conditions
Specified values of maximum inlet air temperature, minimum

ambient pressure, maximum humidity, and inlet and exhaust
pressure drops at which sites rated power is required. For
Saudi Aramco installations, the maximum temperature is the
maximum recorded temperature at the site, and the
minimum pressure is determined by the site elevation.
site rated power
The power developed by the gas turbine when operated at

rated speed, firing temperature, and the sites rated
conditions.
steam injected cycle
A variation of the simple cycle, the cycle has steam injected

into the air stream at the compressor discharge, increasing
the mass flow through the turbine, and thereby increasing
turbine power output. If the steam is produced in a steam
generator using waste heat from the gas turbine exhaust,
cycle efficiency is also improved.
Ratio of the net energy output of the gas turbine to the fuel
heat input, expressed as a percentage.
thermal efficiency
67

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