Pump Performance Curves Explained

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
PUMP AND PUMP/PIPING SYSTEM

PERFORMANCE AS DEPICTED
IN PERFORMANCE CURVES
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Mechanical
File Reference: MEX-211.02
For additional information on this subject, contact

PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Pumps
Pump and Pump/Piping System
Performance as Depicted in Performance Curves
Section
Page
INFORMATION ............................................................................................................... 4
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 4
PUMP PERFORMANCE CURVES ................................................................................. 5
Centrifugal Pump Performance Curves ................................................................ 6
Velocity Triangles....................................................................................... 8
Specific Speed......................................................................................... 17
Curve Variations ...................................................................................... 22
Positive-Displacement Pump Performance Curves ............................................ 39
Performance Relationships...................................................................... 42
Curve Variations ...................................................................................... 44
EFFECTS OF CHANGES IN SYSTEM HEAD CURVES ON PUMP
PERFORMANCE .......................................................................... 45
Piping System Head ........................................................................................... 46
Static Head Component........................................................................... 47
Friction Head Component ........................................................................ 50
Pump Operating Point ........................................................................................ 54
Throttling Flow ......................................................................................... 54
Pump Speed ............................................................................................ 56
Pump Minimum Flow Arrangements ........................................................ 58
Typical System Curves for Refineries and Pipelines .......................................... 63
High Static, Low Friction .......................................................................... 63
Low Static, High Friction .......................................................................... 64
Parallel Pump Operation.......................................................................... 65
Series Pump Operation............................................................................ 66
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 70
Pumps
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Centrifugal Pump Performance Curve (not to scale)....................................... 6
Figure 2. Radial-Flow Impeller Velocity Triangles .......................................................... 8
Figure 3. Exit Velocity Triangles for a Centrifugal Pump for Changing
Discharge Flow Conditions......................................................................... 13
Figure 4. Entrance Velocity Triangles for Changing Discharge Conditions .................. 14
Figure 5. Entrance Velocity Triangles for a Centrifugal Pump Taking Prewhirl
Into Account ............................................................................................... 16
Figure 6. Impeller Types Compared to Specific Speed (English Units) (To
convert specific speed to metric index, multiply by 0.6123)........................ 18
Figure 7. Drooping Head-Capacity Curve .................................................................... 20
Figure 8. Dip in Head-Capacity Curve.......................................................................... 21
Figure 9. Pump Curve (not to scale) ............................................................................ 25
Figure 10. Viscosity Correction Curve From Saudi Aramco Standard Drawing
AE-36841 ................................................................................................... 28
Figure 11. Parallel Pump Configuration Performance Curves...................................... 34
Figure 12. Parallel Pump Operation with Different Pump Flow Rates .......................... 35
Figure 13. Series Pump Configuration Performance Curves........................................ 36
Figure 14. Change in Centrifugal Pump Performance Curves from Wear Ring
Wear Positive-Displacement Pump Performance Curves .......................... 38
Figure 15. Rotary and Centrifugal Pump Performance Curve Comparison.................. 39
Figure 16. Rotary Pump Performance Curves at a Constant Speed............................ 40
Figure 17. Rotary Pump Performance Curves at a Constant Differential
Pressure ..................................................................................................... 41
Figure 18. The Effect of Viscosity on a Screw Pump Performance Curve.................... 44
Figure 19. Basic System Curve.................................................................................... 46
Figure 20. Positive Static Head .................................................................................... 47
Figure 21. Negative Static Head .................................................................................. 48
Figure 22. Pressure Head ............................................................................................ 49
Figure 23. System Resistance Example....................................................................... 51
Figure 24. Fluid Velocity Profile.................................................................................... 52
Figure 25. Effect of Discharge Valve Throttling on a System Curve............................. 55
Figure 26. Effect of Changing Centrifugal Pump Speed on the Pump
Operating Point .......................................................................................... 57
ii
Pumps
Figure 27. Integral Minimum Flow Control.................................................................... 59

Figure 28. Pump Performance Characteristic Curve and System Head Curve
for a System that uses a Constant Minimum Flow Orifice .......................... 61
Figure 29. Operating Point in Bypass System as System Flow Approaches
Zero ............................................................................................................ 62
Figure 30. High Static Head, Low Friction Head System Curve ................................... 63
Figure 31. Low Static Head, High Friction Head System Curve ................................... 64
Figure 32. Parallel Pump Operation Head-Capacity and System-Head
Curves ........................................................................................................ 65
Figure 33. Series Pump Operation Head-Capacity and System-Head Curves ............ 66
Figure 34. Pump Characteristics and System Head Curve Comparisons .................... 67
Figure 35. Steep Head-Capacity Curve........................................................................ 69
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Effect of Increasing Viscosity on the Performance Characteristics of
a Typical Centrifugal Pump............................................................................. 27
iii
Pumps
INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
The selection and testing of centrifugal and positivedisplacement pumps for an application requires an evaluation of
pump performance characteristics against the application
requirements. Pump performance characteristics are typically
provided by a vendor in a graphical format called a
characteristic curve. Characteristic curves provide information
about pump performance in terms of capacity, head, power,
efficiency, and net positive suction head required (NPSHR). This
module provides the Mechanical Engineer with the basis of
centrifugal and positive-displacement pump characteristic
curves and the effect of changes to piping systems on pump
performance.
Pumps
PUMP PERFORMANCE CURVES

Pump performance curves can be used to analyze an existing
pump or to predict the performance of a new pump. The pump
performance curves are provided by the pump manufacturer,
and they are usually plotted as a family of curves that contains
a graphical representation of the following:
Head versus capacity
Efficiency versus capacity
Horsepower versus capacity
NPSHR versus capacity
Characteristic curves are available for both centrifugal and

positive-displacement pumps.
Pumps
Centrifugal Pump Performance Curves

An example of a centrifugal pump performance curve is shown
in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Centrifugal Pump Performance Curve (not to scale)

Each curve on Figure 1 illustrates different centrifugal pump
performance characteristics. The head versus capacity curves
are the most important pump performance curves. The head
versus capacity curves are the four curves that are shown with
diameter markings (8.88 min. dia.; 9.88 dia.; 10.50 dia.; 10.88
max. dia.). Most centrifugal pumps can be fitted with impellers
that have different diameters while using the same size casing.
This practice provides the flexibility to adapt the pump to a
change in service. Because pumps are normally purchased with
the impeller somewhere near the middle of the possible size
range of impellers, a larger impeller can be installed if a head
increase is required by changed operating conditions.
Pumps
The head versus capacity curves show the pump head (total
dynamic head) at a known flow rate (U.S. gallons per minute)
when the impeller diameter is known. The Mechanical Engineer
reads this curve by referring to the flow rate (for example, 600
gpm) at the curve for the diameter of the installed impeller (for
example, the 10.50 dia. curve) and by reading the value of head
on the left side of the graph (example 475 ft.).
The head versus capacity curve could also be affected by pump
speed. Because most pumps are driven by a constant speed
motor, the operating speed is designated in the information
section of the plot (for the example that is shown in Figure 1, the
pump speed is 3560 rpm). If a pump is to be driven by a
variable speed driver (e.g., variable speed motor or turbine), the
head versus capacity curves are shown for a range of speeds.
As shown in Figure 1, efficiency versus capacity curves are
superimposed on top of the head versus capacity curves and
are marked by 73, 75, 77, 78, 79 in Figure 1. When the capacity
and diameter of the impeller are known, the efficiency of the
pump can be determined from these curves. The point of
maximum efficiency is called the Best Efficiency Point (BEP).
The BEP should be near the design operating point for the
pump, but the design operating point should never be greater
than 110% of the pump BEP.
The horsepower versus capacity curves are shown at the
bottom of the plot in Figure 1. The horsepower versus capacity
curve is drawn for both the minimum impeller diameter (8.88
dia.) and the maximum impeller diameter (10.88 dia.) available
for the pump. Note that this horsepower is valid only for the
rated specific gravity. Typically, the pumped fluid is designated
on the plot (not shown). If the liquid that is being pumped has a
different specific gravity, the horsepower value must be
corrected by multiplying the horsepower at the required flow and
impeller diameter by the actual specific gravity.
The net positive suction head required (NPSHR) versus capacity
curve is shown in the upper right-hand corner of the plot. The
NPSHR is independent of specific gravity, operating pressure,
and impeller diameter. Impeller diameter changes do not affect
the geometry on the suction side of the impeller. The NPSHR
depends primarily on the suction eye area of the impeller and
the impeller speed.
Pumps
Velocity Triangles
Centrifugal pumps are designed to add energy to a fluid in the
form of fluid velocity and then convert the fluid velocity to
discharge head. The amount of discharge head generated by a
centrifugal pump is related to the amount of change in fluid
velocity that is generated by the impeller. The analysis of the
fluid velocities at the impellers suction and at its discharge can
be used to demonstrate the effect of impeller design on the
pump discharge head. Vector diagrams, which are called
velocity triangles, are used to determine the tangential velocity
of the fluid at the impellers eye and at its discharge. Figure 2
shows an example of impeller entrance and exit (discharge)
velocity triangles for a radial-flow impeller.
Figure 2. Radial-Flow Impeller Velocity Triangles
Pumps
Velocity vectors are drawn at the entrance and at the exit, and
they are labeled, respectively, with the subscripts 1 and 2. The
symbol u2 represents the peripheral velocity of a point on the
impellers exit and, because the speed of this point depends on
the diameter of the impeller and its speed of rotation, the
magnitude of u2 is determined through use of the following
equation:
u2 =
D2n
720
Where:
u2
= The peripheral velocity of the impeller at the

impellers exit, in feet per second
= Pi, 3.14
D2
= Outside diameter of the impeller vane in

inches
= Speed of the impeller in revolutions per

minute
720
= Conversion from inches per minute to feet

per second
For example: If an impeller with an 18 outside diameter impeller

is operating at 1150 rpm, the peripheral velocity of the impeller
is:
u2 =
3.14(18)(1150)
720
= 90.3 Feet Per Second

The liquid flowing through the impeller must follow the shape of
the vanes closely; therefore, the impellers peripheral velocity
takes a direction fixed by the impellers vane angle. The vector
sum of w2 (the relative velocity of the liquid leaving the impeller)
and of u2 (the velocity of the impeller) is c2 (the absolute velocity
of the liquid leaving the impeller). The meridional velocity, cm, is
the component in the meridional plane of the absolute and the
relative velocity. The meridional velocity is always perpendicular
to the impellers velocity, u. The meridional velocity is the radial
component of the absolute and relative velocities of the water
leaving the impeller. The circumferential component of the
absolute velocity is shown by the vector, cu2. The absolute
Pumps
velocity and direction of the water leaving the impeller is the

vector sum of the meridional velocity and the radial component
of the absolute velocity.
The theory of moment of momentum is a principle of mechanics
that states that the change of moment of momentum with
respect to an axis is equal to the torque of the resultant force
with respect to that axis. If energy losses as the fluid flows
through the impeller are neglected, the torque (T) is equal to the
change in moment of momentum, as shown in the following:
T = change of moment of momentum
Momentum is equal to the product of mass and velocity, and the
moment of momentum will be this product times a moment arm,
which is the radius (r1) at the impellers entrance and the radius
at the impellers exit (r2). The torque is determined by the
following formula:
T=
Q
( cos 2 r1c1 cos 1 )
g r2 c2
Where:
= Torque in foot pounds
= Capacity in cubic feet per second
= Weight of one cubic foot of the fluid
= The acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 feet

per second
r1
= The radius of the impellers entrance in

inches
r2
= The radius of the impellers exit in inches
c1
= The absolute velocity of the fluid at the

entrance to the impeller in feet per second
c2
= The absolute velocity of the fluid at the exit

of the impeller in feet per second
= Fluid angle at the entrance to the impeller
= Fluid angle at the exit from the impeller
10
Pumps
The power required to move the fluid through the pump can be
determined by multiplying both sides of the torque equation by
the angular velocity (), which is shown in the following formula:
T =
Q
r c cos r c cos
2
1 1
1
g 2 2
P = T
Where:
P
= Power in foot pounds per second
= Angular velocity in radians
Because T equals P, which is the power required, and r2

equals u2 and r1 equals u1, the equation can be written as
follows:
P=
Q
u c cos u c cos
2
1 1
1
g 2 2
Power is also equal to the weight of the fluid raised per second
against the head, as shown in the following equation:
P = QHth
Where:
P
= Power in foot pounds per second
= Capacity in cubic feet per second
= Weight of one cubic foot of the fluid
Hth
= The theoretical head of the pump
Combining equations and solving for theoretical head provides

the following equation, which is often referred to as Eulers
equation:
Q Hth =
Q
( cos 2 u1c1 cos )
g u2 c 2
or
Hth =
u2c 2cos2 u1c1cos1

g
or
11
Pumps
Because c2 cos2 is equal to cu2 and c1 cos1 is equal to cu1,

the equation can be written as:
Hth =
u2c u2 u1c u1
g
Where:
Cu2 and Cu1
= Respectively, the liquid tangential

velocities at the blades exit and at
its inlet.
Eulers equation is the fundamental equation for the theoretical

head of a centrifugal pump. Simply stated, the theoretical head
produced by a pump is equal to the product of the tip speed and
the fluid tangential velocity. The relationship between the
impeller blade angles and the head provide the basis for
impeller diameters and vane angles required to produce the
required pump head for a given speed. The actual head, H, will
be equal to the theoretical head, h, minus the energy losses of
the pump. Losses include fluid turbulence, friction, and hydraulic
losses such as fluid leakage past wear rings. The actual head
(H) produced by the impeller can be calculated by multiplying
the theoretical head by the hydraulic efficiency (H), as shown in
the following equation:
H= H
H th
Exit velocity triangles illustrate the change in pump head with

changes in pump flow rate. When the rate of discharge of a
constant speed pump changes, the following aspects of the
velocity triangles remain constant:
The peripheral velocity, u2, of the impeller at the impellers

exit does not change because speed, n, is constant.
The blade outlet angle, 2, is contained between the

direction of the relative velocity, w2, and the vector u2.
The change in pump discharge flow rate does affect the relative
velocity, w2. The relative velocity through the impeller passages
will increase or decrease according to changes in the rate of
discharge. As a result, the shape of the velocity triangles will
change, with the resulting changes in the absolute fluid velocity,
cu2, producing a change in total head.
12
Pumps
Figure 3 illustrates the effect on pump head that results from

changing the pumps discharge flow rate on velocity triangles.
Figure 3A shows the velocity triangle for pump operation below
the BEP flow rate. Figure 3B illustrates the velocity triangle for
operation at the BEP flow rate. Figure 3C shows the velocity
triangle for pump operation above the BEP flow rate.
Figure 3. Exit Velocity Triangles for a Centrifugal Pump for

Changing Discharge Flow Conditions
The comparison of the exit velocity triangles shown in Figure 3

illustrates the effect on pump head by changing pump discharge
rate. A reduction in the discharge rate will increase the
circumferential component of the absolute velocity, cu2, and it
will decrease the meridional component, cm2, which causes
pump head to increase. An increase in the discharge rate will
decrease the circumferential component of the absolute
velocity, and it will increase the meridional component, which
results in a decrease in pump head.
Because the power absorbed by the fluid is directly proportional
to the product of HQ, the changes in the pumps flow rate
determine the power of self-regulation of impeller pumps. If the
total head of a pump increases during operation, the pump
automatically reacts by reducing the discharge flow rate so that
the impeller can overcome the increased resistance.
Conversely, a reduction in the discharge head of a pump results
in an increase in the pumps discharge rate.
13
Pumps
When a change in the pumps discharge rate occurs, the

entrance velocity triangles also change. As shown in Figure 4,
there is a change in the angle of entry (1). Figure 4A shows the
reduction of the angle of entry when the pumps flow rate is
reduced below the BEP. Figure 4B shows the entrance velocity
triangle during BEP flow rate. Figure 4C shows the increase in
the angle of entry when the pumps flow rate is increased above
the BEP.
Figure 4. Entrance Velocity Triangles for Changing Discharge Conditions
The normal angle of entry is equal to the angle between the inlet
element of the impeller vane and the tangent to the
circumference of the inside diameter of the impeller. When
pump flow rate is reduced below the BEP flow rate value, flow
eddies form on the back face of the impeller vane and on the
working (front) side of the impeller vane. Flow eddies are areas
in which the pumped fluid travels in orbital recirculating patterns
or reduced velocity instead of traveling through the passage to
the impeller exit. The flow eddies reduce the hydraulic efficiency
of the pump. A reduction in the hydraulic efficiency will lower the
actual head produced by the impeller.
14
Pumps
When a pump is operated above or below the BEP flow rate, a

prewhirl (also called prerotation) develops at the impellers inlet.
This prewhirl produces a reduction in the difference between the
angle of entry of the pumped fluid and the blade inlet angle. The
change in the entrance velocity triangle is caused by the
absolute velocity of the fluid that enters the impeller, cu1. As
previously stated, cu1 is equivalent to u1c1 cos 1. The effect of
prewhirl on pump head can be shown by the inlet component of
Eulers equation:
Hth =
u2c 2cos2 u1c1cos1

g
As prewhirl increases the fluid angle at the entrance of the

impeller, the cosine of angle 1 approaches zero. Analysis of
impeller designs indicates that all centrifugal pump impellers
cause a slight amount of prewhirl, even if guide vanes are
installed in the pump suction. When there is a minimum amount
of prewhirl, the inlet component of Eulers equation approaches
zero (cosine of 90 = 0); therefore, Eulers equation can be
written as follows:
Hth =
u2 c 2cos2
g
15
Pumps
Figure 5 shows the effect of prewhirl on entrance velocity

triangles. Figure 5A shows the effect of prewhirl on an entrance
velocity triangle when a pump is operated at a flow rate less
than the BEP. Prewhirl occurs in the direction of impeller
rotation (commonly called positive prewhirl), and the direction of
the absolute velocity of the fluid at the entrance to the impeller
(1) decreases, which results in a net decrease in pump
discharge rate. Figure 5B shows the effect of prewhirl on an
entrance velocity triangle when a pump is operated at a flow
rate above the BEP. The prewhirl occurs in the direction
opposite of impeller rotation (commonly called negative
prewhirl). There is an increase in pump discharge rate, but the
effect is less marked.
Figure 5. Entrance Velocity Triangles for a Centrifugal Pump

Taking Prewhirl Into Account
16
Pumps
Specific Speed
The term specific speed is used to classify the overall

geometry and performance characteristics of pump impellers by
correlating the pump capacity, head, and most efficient
operating speed. The specific speed of an impeller is defined as
the revolutions per minute at which a geometrically similar
impeller would run if it were of such a size as to discharge one
gallon per minute against one foot head. An understanding of
how to calculate and interpret specific speed for a particular
pump provides a greater insight into the reasons why pump
impellers are shaped differently, why the shape of performance
curves changes for different pumps, and why there is a wide
variation in the value of efficiency at the BEP for different
pumps.
Specific speed is a dimensionless number that can be
calculated from the following equation:
Ns =
N Q
H0.75
Where:
Ns
= Specific speed (nq for metric)
= Rotative speed in revolutions per minute

(rpm)
= Flow at optimum efficiency (BEP) in gallons

per minute (gpm) or cubic meters per
second (m3/sec)
= Total head per stage at BEP in feet or

meters
A unit analysis of specific speed indicates that the value of

specific speed is not truly dimensionless unless the value of the
acceleration due to gravity (g) is placed in the equation
denominator. By convention, the centrifugal pump industry omits
the value of the acceleration due to gravity.
Note that for double flow impellers, Q = Q/2.
17
Pumps
The specific speed of any centrifugal pump can be determined

by using the pump speed and the head in flow rate at the BEP
and the specific speed equation. The value for specific speed
for the pump designated by the characteristic curve will never
change, even if the pump speed changes. If the pump is run at
a different speed, the pump head and flow rate will change, but
the specific speed will not change because the values are
defined in the specific speed equation at the BEP.
Specific speed is relative to the shape and characteristics of the
impeller. As shown in Figure 6, specific speed varies with
impeller form and proportions.
Figure 6. Impeller Types Compared to Specific Speed (English Units)

(To convert specific speed to metric index, multiply by 0.6123)
The effect of specific speed on pump performance

characteristics is generally associated with the types of
impellers for a specific speed range, radial flow impellers,
Francis-vane impellers, mixed flow impellers, and axial flow
impellers. The effect of specific speed on pump performance
characteristics is described in terms of the impeller type for the
specific speed range.
18
Pumps
Specific speed has a direct effect on the shape and slope of a

centrifugal pump head-capacity curve and the horsepower
curves. The lower the specific speed of an impeller, the flatter
the head-capacity curve. As shown in Figure 6, radial flow
impellers have the lowest specific speed. A low specific speed
results in flat head capacity curves in which the head at zero
flow (shutoff head) is typically less than 110% of the head at
BEP. Low specific speed pumps commonly have a drooping
characteristic curve at shutoff head. Figure 7 shows an example
of a drooping characteristic curve. Unstable pump operation can
occur if a pump is operated at the flow rates and head between
the dashed lines labeled A and B.
A pump that exhibits a drooping characteristic curve may be
acceptable in applications in which the pump is not operated in
the region between lines A and B. For instance, if a pump with a
drooping characteristic curve is installed with another pump in a
parallel configuration (both pumps taking suction from the same
source and discharging to a common header), the pump may be
acceptable for use as long as the pump is operated outside of
the range defined by the lines labeled A and B and the parallel
pump is not operated simultaneously. If the two pumps are
operated in parallel, one of the pumps may carry the majority of
the pumping load and the second pump may carry a lesser
pump load; both pumps will be operating at the same head but
with different capacities. The points labeled 1 and 2 on Figure 7
illustrate the point of a pump capable of operating at the same
head but with two different flow rates. In the example of the
operation of the two parallel pumps, one pump may be
operating at point 1 while the second pump is operating at point
2. If the parallel pump system discharge is throttled or if system
flow demand is lowered, the pump operating at point 2 will start
to increase head, which shifts the operating point toward point
3. The increase in head developed by the pump now operating
at point 3 will result in the other parallel pump (operating at point
1) operating at shutoff head. If no provision is available to
protect the pumps against operation at shutoff head (through
the use of a recirculation bypass), the pump operating at point 1
will overheat and become damaged.
19
Pumps
Another problem situation may occur if two pumps are installed

in parallel and only one pump is operating. In this situation, it
may be impossible to start the second pump because the
pressure developed by the second pump may be less than
shutoff head, which results in overheating the second pump.
This situation may occur if the first pump is operating at a
capacity less than point 4, below the unstable region of the
curve.
Figure 7. Drooping Head-Capacity Curve
In some applications, a drooping characteristic curve can

present problems even if a parallel pump is not installed.
Operation of a single pump in the unstable region of the curve
may cause the pump to operate with pressure and flow swings.
Operation of the pump in the unstable region results in a
tendency for backflow through the pump, which increases the
magnitude of the flow and pressure swings.
20
Pumps
Mixed flow impeller pumps have a steeper head-capacity curve

with the shutoff head typically at 160% of the pump head at
BEP. Mixed flow impellers may exhibit a dip in the headcapacity curve that indicates an area of unstable operation. An
example of a dip in a mixed flow impeller pump head-capacity
curve is shown in Figure 8. The dip in the head-capacity curve
may not be considered a problem if the pump is operated
outside of the dip region. Many pump manufacturers do not
show the dip on the pump curves but stop the head-capacity
curve before the dip region and note that the pump should not
be operated in the unstable region.
Figure 8. Dip in Head-Capacity Curve
21
Pumps
The bhp curve is also affected by specific speed. Radial flow

impeller pumps typically have a rising bhp curve with an
increase in pump flow. The maximum bhp commonly occurs at
the maximum flow at which the pump can operate in the system.
Mixed flow impellers have a flatter bhp curve, with the maximum
bhp at the maximum flow at which the pump can operate in the
system. Axial flow impellers have a bhp curve that is the
opposite of a radial flow impeller, with the highest bhp at the
lowest flow rate. Because the highest bhp for an axial impeller
pump is at the lowest flow rate, axial flow pumps are typically
started with the pump discharge valve open. Starting an axial
flow pump with the little or no discharge flow can result in
overloading the pump motor.
Curve Variations
The following section provides an explanation of the different

curve variations for centrifugal pumps. Centrifugal pump
performance curves will vary based on the following:
Affinity laws
Viscosity corrections
Parallel and series pump operation
Reduction in pump efficiency from operational wear
Affinity Laws - Performance curves for centrifugal pumps vary
with changes in pump speed, head, flow, and power. The rules
that govern the effect of the changes in the performance curve
are called the Affinity Laws. The basis for the derivation of the
Affinity Laws is specific speed, which does not change for a
given impeller diameter. If the performance of a pump is known
at one speed and impeller diameter, the performance of the
pump can be calculated if the pump speed or the impeller
diameter are changed.
There are two sets of Affinity Laws; one set of Affinity Laws is
used when the impeller diameter is held constant and speed is
changed, the other set of Affinity Laws is used when the pump
speed is constant and the pump impeller diameter is changed.
22
Pumps
The following equations express the pump Affinity Laws for a

constant diameter impeller:
Q1 N1
=
Q 2 N2
H1 N1
=
H2 N2
bhp1 N1
=
bhp 2 N2
Where:
Q
= Flow rate in gallons per minute or

cubic meters per hour
= Total head in feet or meters
= Pump speed in revolutions per

minute
bhp
= Brake horse power
Subscript 1 = Initial condition

Subscript 2 = Final condition
23
Pumps
The following equations express the pump Affinity Laws for a

constant speed impeller:
Qq
D
= 1
Q 2 D2
H1 D1
=
H2 D2
bhp1 D1
=
bhp 2 D2
Where:
Q
= Flow rate in gallons per minute or

cubic meters per hour
= Total head in feet or meters
= Impeller diameter in feet or meters
bhp
= Brake horse power
Subscript 1 = Initial condition

Subscript 2 = Final condition
The two sets of Affinity Laws are sometimes combined into the
following equations:
Q1 N1D1
=
Q 2 N2D2
H1 N12D12
=
H2 N22D22
bhp1 N13D13
=
bhp 2 N32D32
24
Pumps
The use of the Affinity Laws to determine pump characteristics

can be shown in the following example using the pump curves
shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9. Pump Curve (not to scale)
25
Pumps
The following example assumes that the pump is at a constant

speed, 3560 rpm, with a 9.88 inch diameter impeller. A pump is
operating at 400 gpm with a discharge head of 410 feet and 80
bhp. If a 10.50 inch impeller is installed in the pump, the pump
characteristics for specific flow, head, and bhp will change as
follows:
Initial flow rate
= 400 gpm
400 9.88
=
Q 2 10.50
Q2 = 425gpm
Initial head at 400 gpm
410 9.88
=
H2 10.50
= 410 feet
H2 = 463 Ft.
Initial brake horsepower
80 9.88
=
bhp 2 10.50
= 80 bhp
bhp2 = 96bhp
The results of the calculations can be shown by plotting the new
flow, head, and bhp points and comparing those plots to the
actual 10.50 inch diameter characteristic curve.
26
Pumps
Viscosity Corrections - The viscosity of the pumped fluid will

also affect pump performance characteristics. As the viscosity of
a pumped fluid increases, the pump will expend more power
moving the fluid; therefore, less energy will be available for flow
and head. As a result, an increase in kinematics viscosity of a
pumped fluid will result in a large reduction in pump capacity,
head, and efficiency. Table 1 illustrates the impact on a typical
centrifugal pump performance characteristics by changes in the
pumped fluid kinematics viscosity.
Viscosity,
SSU (cSt)
Capacity
gpm (m3/h)
Total Head
ft (m)
Efficiency
%
Power
bhp (kW)
3000 (681)
300 (91)
85
241 (180)
500 (110)
3000 (681)
291 (89)
71
279 (208)
2,000 (440
2900 (658)
279 (85)
59
312 (233)
5,000 (1110)
2670 (606)
264 (80)
43
373 (278)
10,000 (2200)
2340 (531)
243 (74)
31
417 (311)
15,000 (3300)
2100 (477)
228 (69)
23
473 (353)
Table 1. Effect of Increasing Viscosity on the Performance Characteristics

of a Typical Centrifugal Pump
The effect of viscosity on pump performance characteristics can

be determined using viscosity correction curves. In accordance
with SAES-G-005, viscosity correction curves issued by
Hydraulic Institute Standards can be used for conventional
units; for SI units, Standard Drawing AE-036841 may be used.
Figure 10 shows Standard Drawing AE-36841.
27
Pumps
SAU
AP
PD.
CE
RT.
OI
COMPA
1OO
HEAD.
CH
9O
CH
KD.
8O
O.6XQ
O.8XQ
1.OXQ
1.2XQ
7O
6O
N
N
N
N
1OO
DE
SC
RIP
TIO
N
RE
VIS
ED
AN
D
CH
AN
GE
D
TO
NE
W
BO
RD
ER.
9O
CORRECTION
FACTORS
CQ
8O
7O
CAPACITY
AND
EFFICIENCY
6O
5O
4O
3O
JO/
EW
O
2O
BY
ESRL
SDO
DA
TE
01
NO.
VISCOSITY
mm2/S
22 33
44 66 88 1317 O
1O 15 2O32 43 6588 131722 33
2 6 O
26OO O O OO O O
O
JU
NE'
95
185
9O
45
25
12
01
REVISION
S
DRAW
N
BY
4.3
12O
6O
3O
2O
1O
6 4
DATE
CHKD.
BY
OPRG.
HEAD IN
METERS
(FIRST STAGE)
BY
DATE
ENG.
185
12O 9O
6O 45
3O
2O
25
12 1O
O.O5 O.1O O.2O
O.3O O.5O
5
O.25
O.4O O.65
BY
DATE
APP'D.
O
CONST
R
BY
DATE
CERTIFI
O.95
1.25
1.9O
6.5O
2.5O 3.8O
5.OO
3.15
CAPACITY IN 1OO L/S
BY
MANDATORY DRAWING
DATE
THIS DRAWING IS
NOT
TO BE USED
FOR
CONSTRUCTION OR
FOR
ORDERING
MATERIAL
UNTIL CERTIFIED
AND
DATED
DRAWING
TITLE
SI METRIC UNITS
PLANT
NO.
99O
INDEX
DRAWING
NO.
AE-O36841
SHT.
NO.
001
REV.
NO.
01
JO/EWO
Saudi Aramco 2616 ENG. (3/91)
CADD-
Figure 10. Viscosity Correction Curve From Saudi Aramco

Standard Drawing AE-36841
28
Pumps
If the desired capacity and head for pumping a viscous fluid is

known, and if the fluid viscosity and specific gravity at the
pumping temperature is known, a viscosity correction curve can
be used to find the approximate equivalent capacity and head
when pumping water. The following symbols and definitions are
used on the correction curve shown in Figure 10 and to perform
the required calculations:
Qvis
The viscous capacity in gallons per minute or liters

per second. Qvis is the capacity when pumping a
viscous fluid.
Hvis0
Viscous head in feet or meters. Hvis is the head

when pumping a viscous fluid.
vis
Viscous efficiency in percent. vis is the pump

efficiency when pumping a viscous fluid.
bhpvis -
Viscous brake horsepower. The horsepower

required by the pump for the viscous conditions.
Qw
Water capacity in gallons per minute or liters. Qw is

the capacity when a pump is pumping water.
Hw
Water head in feet or meters. Hw is the pump head

when pumping water.
Water efficiency in percent. w is the pump

efficiency when pumping water.
Specific gravity.
CQ
Capacity correction factor.
CH
Head correction factor.
Efficiency correction factor.
QNW
Water capacity at which the maximum efficiency is

obtained.
29
Pumps
The information from the viscosity correction curve is used in

the following equations:
Q vis = CQ Q W
Hvis = CH HW
vis = C W
For English units:
bhp vis =
Q vis Hvis S
3960 vis
For Metric units:

bhp vis =
Q vis Hvis S
376.5 vis
(Note: Qvis is in m3/hr, Hvis is in meters)

The viscosity correction curve is used by finding the required
viscous capacity at the bottom of the chart and moving upward
to the required viscous head in feet or meters of fluid. For
multistage pumps, the value for the viscous head should be the
viscous head per stage. From the point of viscous head, a
horizontal line is drawn (left or right) to the fluid viscosity line. At
the point at which the line intersects the fluid viscosity line, a line
is drawn straight up to the correction curves at the top of the
plot. The line will intersect with the curves for C, CQ, and the
1.0 QNW curve. Each correction factor value is read by drawing
a line from the point of intersection with the applicable curve to
the scale on the left side of the plot. The correction factors can
then be used in the equations for calculating the equivalent
water capacity and head for a pump.
The following example uses the viscosity correction curve
shown in Figure 10. The specific plot used to determine the
correction factors are shown as a dotted line.
30
Pumps
As the pump is required to deliver 35 liters per second at 28

meters total head of a fluid with a viscosity of 132 centistokes,
the fluid specific gravity is 0.90 at the pumping temperature. To
determine the equivalent characteristics for a pump that pumps
water, the starting point is at the viscous capacity at the base of
the plot. Moving up to the viscous head, a line can be drawn to
the right to intersect with the fluid viscosity. From the
intersection at the fluid viscosity line, a vertical line can be
drawn up to intersect the correction factor curves. The values
for each correction factor can be read from the scale on the left
side of the plot. For the example discussed, the correction
factors are as follows:
C
= Approximately .68
CQ
= Approximately .97
CH
= Approximately .93 (as read from the 1.0

QNW curve)
The values for an equivalent pump using water can be

determined by the calculations as follows:
QW =
Q vis
CQ
35
0.97
= 36 liters per second (130 cubic meters per hour )
=
HW =
Hvis
CH
28
0.93
= 30 meters
=
31
Pumps
A pump would be selected with a water capacity of 36 liters per

second at 30 meters total head. The selection of the pump
should be at or close to the most efficient point for water
performance. To determine the performance while pumping the
viscous fluid, the water efficiency is multiplied by the efficiency
correction factor. For example, if the water efficiency of the
pump selected in the previous example was 81%, the efficiency
of the pump while pumping the viscous fluid can be calculated
by the following:
vis = C W
=0.68 81
= 55%
The brake horsepower required for pumping the viscous fluid

can be determined by using the following equation:
bhp vis =
Q vis Hvis S
376.5 vis
130 28 0.9
376.5 0.55
= 16 KW
=
The viscosity correction curves can also be used to determine

the performance characteristics of a pump that handles a
viscous fluid from a set of performance characteristics of the
pump that handles water.
Using the performance curve for water, the capacity of the pump
at the BEP can be obtained. Using the capacity at BEP for QNW,
the capacities for 0.6 QNW, 0.8 QNW, and 1.2 QNW can be
determined. Using the capacity at BEP and the capacity scale
on the bottom of the performance curve, a horizontal line can be
drawn to obtain the head at BEP for water. From the head at
BEP for water, a line can be drawn horizontally left or right to
the viscosity line of the pumped fluid on Figure 10; the line
should then be drawn vertically through the correction curves.
The values for each correction factor can be read from the scale
on the left side of the plot. The correction factors are then
determined for the other values of capacity (0.6 QNW, 0.8
QNW, and 1.2 QNW). The corrected head value is determined
using each of the correction factors. The efficiency with water at
each of the corrected water capacities is multiplied by the
32
Pumps
efficiency correction factor determined for the corrected water

capacity. The values of head and efficiency can then be plotted
against the corrected water capacities, with the points
connected by a curved line. The resultant plots provide the
performance curves of efficiency versus capacity and head
versus capacity for the viscous fluid. The brake horsepower can
be calculated and plotted using several of the capacity efficiency
and head points for the viscous fluid.
Saudi Aramco Standard SAES-G-005 provides the following
guidance and limitations for calculating head, capacity, and
efficiency for viscous fluids using viscosity correction curves:
Extrapolation of points not on the plot is not recommended.
Correction factors for water are 1:1:1.
The viscosity correction curves can only be used for pumps

of conventional hydraulic design, in the normal operating
range, with open or closed impellers. The viscosity
correction curves are not used for mixed flow or axial flow
pumps or for pumps of special hydraulic design for either
viscous or nonuniform liquids.
Only Newtonian (uniform) liquids should be used. Gels,

slurries, and other nonuniform liquids may produce widely
varying results, depending on the particular characteristics of
the liquids.
Parallel and Series Pump Operation - Two or more pumps can
be configured in a system to increase the range of head and

capacity demand. There are two configurations for installing
multiple pumps in a system: parallel and series. For proper
specification of the pumps and the evaluation of their
performance under various conditions, a system load curve
(discussed later in this module) must be used in conjunction
with composite pump performance curves.
Pumps installed in parallel discharge to a common source or
header, as shown in Figure 11. When the two pumps are
installed in parallel, the head that is produced is the same as for
a single pump. However, at any given value of head, the
capacity for the two pumps is double the capacity for the single
pump provided that each pump is identical. Thus, a new
33
Pumps
head/capacity curve can be drawn for the two pumps in parallel

by adding the capacity of points of equal head from each head
versus capacity curve. The new pump curve and the system
head curve can be used to determine the maximum capacity.
The operation of identical pumps in parallel pumps does not
increase the system capacity in increments of the capacity for
each operating pump. Because the system head curve rises
with an increase in flow, the operation of two identical pumps in
parallel will not produce a discharge equal to twice the capacity
of one pump. If more parallel pumps are placed in service on
the same system, the incremental increase in pumping capacity
becomes smaller.
Figure 11. Parallel Pump Configuration Performance Curves
34
Pumps
A problem that can occur with pumps that are operating in

parallel is shown in Figure 12. If two pumps are installed in
parallel, one pump (pump A) may take more than half of the
total flow, and the other pump (pump B) may take less than half
of the total flow. The pump with the lower flow rate may be
operating below its minimum acceptable flow rate. When this
situation occurs, the head that is produced by the two pumps
will be identical because they are connected to the same
process. The actual head that is produced by pump B at the
target flow rate is lower than the head that is produced by pump
A at the target flow rate. Pump B will decrease its flow rate until
it can produce the same head as pump A, and it is possible that
the pump B flow rate may drop below pump B's minimum
acceptable flow rate. As mentioned previously in the discussion
on drooping and dips of performance curves, the simultaneous
operation of parallel pumps can become a problem if the
unstable region of the head versus capacity curve falls into the
operating range of pump operation.
Figure 12. Parallel Pump Operation with Different Pump Flow Rates
35
Pumps
Pumps are frequently connected in series to supply heads

greater than those of an individual pump.The head/capacity
curve for two pumps operating in series are shown in Figure 13.
The head/capacity curve for a single pump is also shown for a
comparison. When the two pumps operate in series, the heads
that are produced by each pump are added together and, at any
given capacity, the total head can be plotted. Two pumps in
series will generate more discharge pressure than one pump
alone. Through use of the pump curve for two pumps and the
system resistance curve, the maximum capacity for the new
system can be determined.
Figure 13. Series Pump Configuration Performance Curves
36
Pumps
Reduction in Pump Efficiency from Operational Wear - The

operation of a centrifugal pump over a period of time will result
in wear of internal components, such as impellers, wear rings,
interstage seals, shaft end seals, and bearings. Wear of pump
components will affect the efficiency of pump operation. As
pump components wear, two effects may alter the shape of
pump performance curves: 1) a decrease in head produced due
to either worn impellers (cavitation or recirculation) or an
increase in fluid leakage back to the impeller suction or to the
environment, and 2) an increase in pump power required to
overcome mechanical losses. All of these effects will result in a
change in pump performance curves. If a family of pump
performance curves exists for a given pump, information can be
obtained regarding the operational condition of the pump by
measuring the total head of the pump and determining the total
capacity delivered to a system. If a pump is old and has not
been overhauled to replace worn parts, the total capacity
delivered to the system based on the head of a pump as given
by the performance curve will become less accurate because
the as-built head-capacity curves will no longer reflect the
actual pump conditions.
37
Pumps
The major cause of a reduction in pump efficiency in centrifugal

pumps is wear at the pump wear rings. The increase in wear
ring clearance results in an increase in leakage from an impeller
discharge to the impeller suction; the ultimate result is a
decrease in pump capacity. The effect of and the increase in
wear ring clearance is shown in Figure 14. The net capacity of
the pump at any given head is reduced by the increase in
leakage. Leakage past pump wear rings typically increases with
the increase in the pressure differential between the pump
discharge and the pump suction and is not constant to all pump
heads. The difference in leakage rates at different pump heads
is typically negligible and a constant leakage rate is commonly
assumed regardless of head. Figure 14 shows a constant leak
rate value deducted from the pump capacity for a series of
pump heads (HA, HB, HC, and HD), which results in the curve
drawn after the leakage has occurred.
Figure 14. Change in Centrifugal Pump Performance Curves from Wear Ring
Wear Positive-Displacement Pump Performance Curves
38
Pumps
Positive-Displacement Pump Performance Curves

Positive-displacement pump performance curves are different
than centrifugal pump performance curves because a positivedisplacement pump generally discharges a constant capacity
when operated at a constant speed, regardless of the system
pressure or flow resistance. Figure 15 shows a comparison
between the performance curves of a centrifugal pump and a
rotary positive-displacement pump. The capacity of the rotary
pump used in Figure 15 decreases slightly as capacity
increases due to slip. Slip is the portion of fluid that slips back
from the high-pressure side of the pump to the low-pressure
side through the internal clearances in a positive-displacement
pump. The loss of capacity as pump head increases commonly
occurs in positive-displacement pumps. Reciprocating pumps
also exhibit a loss of capacity as head increases primarily due to
suction and discharge valve leakage and loss of fluid through
the clearances between the pump cylinder and the piston rings
or plunger.
Figure 15. Rotary and Centrifugal Pump Performance Curve Comparison
39
Pumps
The performance curve shown in Figure 15 will not provide

adequate data on positive-displacement pump performance
characteristics. Most positive-displacement pump performance
characteristic curves are plotted at a constant speed or a
constant pressure. Figure 16 shows a rotary pump performance
curve for a pump operated at a constant speed. The
characteristics of capacity (Q), efficiency (P), and power (P)
are plotted with regards to the differential pressure across the
pump.Head is not plotted for positive-displacement pumps
because the head produced by any positive-displacement pump
is infinite.
Figure 16. Rotary Pump Performance Curves at a Constant Speed
40
Pumps
Figure 17 shows the performance characteristic curves for the

same rotary pump; however, the plot shown in Figure 17 reflects
the pump characteristics for a constant differential pressure.
The characteristic of capacity, efficiency, and power are plotted
with regards to variable pump speeds.
Figure 17. Rotary Pump Performance Curves at a Constant Differential Pressure
41
Pumps
The type of performance curves used for a positivedisplacement pump will vary based on the application of the
pump: constant speed-variable differential pressure or variable
speed-constant differential pressure.
Performance
Relationships
The relationships between flow, power, and head for a positivedisplacement pump is dependent on pump speed and discharge
pressure. The power of a rotary pump will vary directly with the
pump pressure and speed. Brake horsepower is the power that
is transferred to the pump element by the driver. Brake
horsepower (bhp) is calculated as follows:
bhp =
Q d x Ptd
1714 x p
bhp
= brake horsepower
Qd
= pump flow rate (gpm)
Ptd
= pump differential pressure (psid)
= pump efficiency
Where:
For SI units:
kW =
Q d x kPa td
60 x p
kW
= Kilowatts
Qd
= pump flow rate (m3/min)
Where:
kPatd = pump differential pressure (kilopascals

differential)
d
= pump efficiency
42
Pumps
The pump flow rate of a positive-displacement pump is related

to the displacement and the speed of the pump. With the
exception of pressure-compensated pumps, positivedisplacement pumps are constant-capacity pumps for a given
speed. As the speed of the pump changes, the rate of pump
displacement will change, which results in a change of pump
flow rate. Slip or leakage losses must be taken into
consideration when determining positive-displacement pump
capacity. The capacity of a positive-displacement rotary pump
can be determined by the following equation:
Q = kDN S
Where:
Q
= The capacity of the pump in gallons per

minute or cubic meters per minute
= Conversion factor, 0.004329 for English

units, 0.03471 for SI units
= Pump displacement per revolution in cubic

feet or cubic meters
= Pump speed in revolutions per minute
= Slip in gallons per minute or cubic meters

per minute
Manufacturers' technical data includes information to predict slip

for various combinations of pump speed, pressure, and
viscosity. Generally, slip increases at a higher discharge
pressure and decreases as viscosity increases.
For power pumps, slip is determined from stuffing box losses
and valve loss. Because stuffing box losses are considered
negligible, the value for valve loss is typically used for power
pump slip. Valve loss is the flow of liquid that goes back through
a check valve while it is closing or seating. Valve loss will vary
with pump speed, pressure, viscosity, and check valve design.
Manufacturers technical data commonly includes information
for determining valve loss.
43
Pumps
Curve Variations
Positive-displacement pump performance curves may vary

because of changes in the viscosity of the pumped fluid. Figure
18 shows the effect of viscosity on the performance curves for a
screw pump that operates at 3600 rpm and 1800 rpm. The
pump capacity is higher at higher viscosity because slip is
decreased as viscosity increases.
Figure 18. The Effect of Viscosity on a Screw Pump Performance Curve
44
Pumps
EFFECTS OF CHANGES IN SYSTEM HEAD CURVES ON PUMP

PERFORMANCE
Centrifugal and positive-displacement pump design and
performance characteristics must be matched to the pumping
system. A system head curve is used to show the head versus
capacity requirements of a system served by a pump. The head
versus capacity curve for a system is commonly called a system
curve. The system curve can be plotted on a centrifugal or
positive-displacement pump performance characteristic curve.
The intersection of the system curve and the pump head versus
capacity curve is called the operating point. The operating point
indicates the head and the capacity at which the pump will
operate in the system. A pump is selected based on the
operating point that meets the system requirements for head
and flow. Underestimating the system characteristics could
result in an inadequate pump selection. A Mechanical Engineer
must understand the basis of the system curves to perform the
following:
Ensure that a properly rated pump is selected for a system.
Determine the effect of changes to an existing system on an

existing pump.
This section of the module will discuss the components of the

system head curves and the effect of various pumping system
configurations on a pump operating point.
45
Pumps
Piping System Head

A typical piping system curve is shown in Figure 19. The system
curve consists of total static head and friction losses. The static
head and the friction components of the system curve are
losses to the fluid head and the flow energy that was developed
by the pump.
Figure 19. Basic System Curve
The flow of fluid through a pumping system offers resistance to

fluid flow through changes in differential suction and discharge
pressure, through differential fluid elevation, and through the
friction of the fluid in the pipes. The pump selected for a system
must be capable of overcoming the resistance to flow from
changes in elevation, differential vessel pressures, and friction
while providing an adequate amount of flow and head to meet
system requirements. The resistance to flow from changes in
elevation is referred to as the static head component of a
system curve. The resistance to flow from fluid friction in the
piping system is referred to as the friction head component of
the system curve.
46
Pumps
Static Head
Component
The static head component of a system curve accounts for the

difference in head between a pumps suction and its discharge
from the difference in the fluid elevation and pressure in the
vessels. The head at the pump suction due to elevation and the
head at the pump discharge due to elevation are considered
fixed system heads, which are also called static heads. Static
heads do not change with the rate of flow, but they will vary with
changes in the elevation and pressure of the fluid at the pumps
suction and at its discharge. Figure 20 shows a simple diagram
of a pumping system that illustrates a positive static head
component and the associated system curve. The static head is
considered positive if the increase in head is in the direction of
flow.
Figure 20. Positive Static Head
47
Pumps
A positive static head does not affect the shape or the slope of
the system curve, but the positive static head defines the head
of the system curve with no flow.
Figure 21 shows a simple diagram of a pumping system that
illustrates a negative static head component and the associated
system curve. The static head is considered negative when the
increase in head is in the opposite direction of the flow.
Figure 21. Negative Static Head
In Figure 21, a certain amount of fluid flow will occur by gravity

head alone. The system curve is plotted from the negative static
head value, and it shows that there is a flow rate even at zero
head.
48
Pumps
Static head can also include pressure head. Pressure head is

generated by pressure exerted on top of the surface of a liquid.
In Figures 20 and 21, the surface of the liquid at the suction and
at the discharge was exposed to atmospheric pressure.
Because the surface of the liquid at both the suction and at the
discharge is exposed to the same pressure, the resulting
differential head from the pressure was zero. Figure 22 shows a
simple diagram of a pumping system that illustrates the effect of
pressure head.
Figure 22. Pressure Head
49
Pumps
The surface of the discharge fluid from the pump in Figure 22 is

under pressure. The pressure adds static head to the pump
discharge. The static head can be determined from the pressure
by means of the following equations:
H = P
144
w
H = P
2.31
s
or
Where:
P
= The differential gauge pressure on the fluid

surface in pounds per square inch
= The specific weight of the fluid in pounds

per cubic foot
= The specific gravity of the fluid
= Head in feet
Friction Head
Component
The friction head component is always a variable head

component because the value changes with the flow rate. In the
system example shown in Figure 23, the friction resistance is
caused by the orifice, the heat exchanger, the filter, and by the
fluid friction from the liquid through the pipe.
50
Pumps
Figure 23. System Resistance Example
The friction of a fluid flowing through a pipe is caused by the

viscous shear stresses in the fluid and by fluid turbulence at the
pipe wall. There are two types of flow that will impact the
amount of fluid friction in a pipe: laminar flow and turbulent flow.
Laminar flow occurs in a pipe when the average fluid velocity is
low and the energy head is lost due to the viscosity of the fluid.
Laminar flow is defined as a series of flow layers. The flow
layers nearest the pipe wall have less fluid velocity than the flow
layers in the center of the pipe. The flow layers toward the
center of the pipe have the fastest fluid velocity. The result of
fluid flow layers moving at different velocities increases the fluid
friction. An analogy of laminar flow can be described as multiple
sleeves inside of a tube. Each sleeve is traveling at a different
velocity, and the outer sleeves travel slower than the inner
sleeves. Friction is generated at the outside diameter of each
sleeve. The total friction is the sum of the friction generated
between all of the sleeves and the tube wall.
51
Pumps
The laminar flow layers decrease in thickness as fluid velocity

increases. As the laminar flow layers become thinner, surface
imperfections on the pipe wall begin to increase fluid flow
turbulence. As fluid velocity continues to increase, more
turbulent flow is created. Turbulent flow occurs when the
average fluid velocity in a pipe is high and energy head is lost to
the turbulence generated by the surface imperfections on the
pipe walls. The total amount of fluid friction is less for turbulent
flow than laminar flow. Figure 24 shows a velocity profile of
laminar and turbulent fluid flow through a pipe.
Figure 24. Fluid Velocity Profile
52
Pumps
The friction head component is determined by calculating the

fluid friction at various flow rates through the system pipes and
components. The loss of head from fluid friction (commonly
called head loss) can be calculated using several methods for
both laminar and turbulent flow. One method for determining
head loss uses the following equation known as Darcys
equation:
LV 2
= f
hf
D2g
Where:
hf
= Head loss in feet of liquid
= Pipe length in feet
= Average inside diameter of the pipe in feet
= Average pipe velocity in ft/sec
= Gravitational constant (32.174 ft/sec2)
= Friction factor
The friction factor can be calculated by means of several

methods, or it can be determined from charts or graphs.
The easiest method of determining head loss in pipes and
components is to use head loss charts that have been derived
from the various mathematical methods or by empirical
methods. The value for head loss can be read directly from the
charts. The charts are available from many sources, and they
contain head loss values for viscous fluids at various flow rates.
Charts are available for different pipe, pipe fittings, and pipe
component materials. Head loss charts for fittings are based on
the equivalent length of pipe method used to estimate head loss
through a valve or fitting. The equivalent length of pipe is the
length of straight pipe that would provide the same head loss as
flow through the fitting or valve. The ratio of L/D from Darcys
equation has been experimentally determined for various pipe
components. When the L/D ratio is multiplied by the inside
diameter of a pipe of specified schedule for a pipe component,
the result is an equivalent length of pipe that is used to calculate
the head loss.
53
Pumps
Pump Operating Point

As mentioned previously, the system curve can be plotted on a
centrifugal or positive-displacement pump performance
characteristic curve. The intersection of the system curve and
the pump head versus capacity curve is called the operating
point. The operating point indicates the head and capacity at
which the pump will operate in the system. For the most efficient
operation of a pumping system, a pump should be selected so
that the operating point is close to the BEP for the pump.
The operating point of a pump is typically a dynamic point.
Changes in the static and friction components of the system
curve may cause the operating point to change position. Several
factors affect the control of the operating point: throttling flow,
pump speed, and pump minimum flow requirements.
Throttling Flow
System valves must also be taken into consideration when

determining system curves. The resistance to flow in the pump
discharge piping is the main constituent in the friction head
component. Valves installed in pump discharge piping increase
the resistance to flow, even when the valve is wide open. The
effect of throttling a discharge valve is shown in Figure 25. If a
downstream control valve is throttled from the wide-open
position, the friction head component of the system curve will
increase, and the change in the slope of the system curve will
increase. As the system curve rises rapidly, the operating point
on the pump characteristic curve will shift to a higher value of
head and a lower value of capacity.
54
Pumps
Figure 25. Effect of Discharge Valve Throttling on a System Curve
The rate of the slope change for a system curve due to throttling
a discharge control valve will vary with the flow characteristics of
the valve.
Throttling a pump suction valve will also affect the system curve.
The inlet static head of the pump will be reduced due to the
pressure drop across the valve. A reduction in the inlet static
head will increase the difference in head (H) from the pump
suction to the discharge. An increase in the H across the pump
will raise the static head component of the system curve.
Because throttling a pump suction valve affects the static head
component of the system curve, the shape of the curve (due to
friction) will remain the same, but the curve will be located at a
lower head. The pump curve will intersect the system curve
(operating point) at a lower head and flow rate. Throttling a
pump suction valve is not recommended for centrifugal pumps
because it changes the net positive suction head (NPSH) to the
pump. NPSH is discussed in detail in MEX 211.03.
55
Pumps
Throttling flow control is not used on positive-displacement

pumps because the capacity of a positive-displacement pump is
independent of head. Changing the system head loss through
the use of a throttle valve on a positive-displacement pump
discharge will result in a change in pump head (the operating
point will move up or down the pump curve), but pump capacity
will effectively remain the same (capacity may vary slightly due
to the effect of slip).
Pump Speed
Changing pump speed has a similar effect on the operating

point for both centrifugal and positive-displacement pumps. As
shown by the following pump Affinity Laws, centrifugal pump
capacity and head are affected by pump speed.
Q1 N1
=
Q 2 N2
H1 N1
=
H2 N2
The effect of changing positive-displacement pump speed has a

similar effect on pump flow rate, but the pump head will not be
affected.
56
Pumps
Changing the speed of a centrifugal pump will change the pump

flow rate and head, which moves the operating point on the
system curve. Figure 26 shows the effect of changing pump
speed on the pump operating point.
Figure 26. Effect of Changing Centrifugal Pump Speed on the Pump Operating
Point
57
Pumps
Pump Minimum Flow

Arrangements
Although a constant-speed centrifugal pump will operate over a

wide range of capacities, low flow conditions can cause the
following problems in pump operation:
An increase in the pumped fluid temperature. Increasing the

pumped fluid temperature may cause the fluid to flash to
vapor in the pump. Fluid flashing to vapor in the pump will
result in pump cavitation damage, vibration, or dry running
the pump. Dry running the pump will result in pump seizure.
Cavitation and pump vibration damage can also be caused

by suction or discharge recirculation.
High axial-thrust loads on the pump bearings from the high

head condition at low flow.
Shaft vibration, excessive wearing of the wear rings, shaft

breakage, bearing failure, or seal failure caused by singlevolute pump radial forces.
For axial-flow pumps, driver overload can occur.
Pumping system controls are often installed to prevent pump

operation at low flow while meeting system head and flow
requirements. Typically, the minimum flow rate that can be
tolerated by a pump with a single-suction impeller is 20% to
25% of the design flow of the pump. Minimum flow controls are
typically designed to maintain the pump operating point above
an established low flow setpoint while maintaining the proper
flow to the pumping system. For double-suction pumps,
minimum flows can be considerably higher (40% to 60% of
BEP).
The more common minimum flow controls used in pumping
systems are:
Integral minimum flow control
Variable bypass control
Continuous bypass control
Low flow signal switch
58
Pumps
Integral Minimum Flow Control - An example of an integral

minimum flow control valve system is shown in Figure 27. The
integral minimum flow lift check valve is installed in the pump
discharge. The operation of the lift check valve controls an
integral pilot valve through a mechanical linkage. The integral
pilot valve controls an integral bypass flow control orifice. If the
system head is greater than the head discharged by the pump,
the check valve will close to prevent backflow of fluid through
the pump. The integral pilot valve will bypass pump discharge
through the control orifice to allow a minimum flow back to the
suction source. The integral minimum flow control valve can be
set as an on-off control or modulating control.
Figure 27. Integral Minimum Flow Control
59
Pumps
Variable Bypass Control - The variable bypass control is typically
used on high head pumps. The variable bypass control consists

of a modulating bypass valve, a flow or pressure sensor, and a
control loop. The pressure or flow sensor senses the pump
discharge flow or pressure and signals the control loop. The
control loop compares the flow or pressure signal to the
minimum flow setpoint and then provides a control signal to the
modulating bypass control valve. The modulating bypass control
valve throttles bypass flow from the pump discharge back to the
suction source. The variable bypass control system is capable
of reducing the harmful effects of sudden flow changes while
conserving power by only bypassing flow when necessary.
Continuous Bypass Control - The continuous bypass control is a
simple method of maintaining minimum flow through a pump.

The continuous bypass control system typically consists of a
bypass line from the pump discharge to the suction source and
a metering device. The metering device can be a manual
throttle valve or an orifice. The continuous bypass control is the
least efficient and is typically used on small pumps with low
pressure drops. The function of the continuous bypass is similar
to the operation of the integral minimum flow control.
Low Flow Signal Switch - Low flow signal switches can be used
in two different types of minimum flow systems: minimum flow

shutoff systems and on-off bypass systems. The minimum flow
shutoff system typically consists of a pressure switch or a flow
(differential pressure) switch connected to the pump motor
relay. If the discharge head reaches the pressure switch
setpoint, the relay turns off the pump motor. A similar function
occurs with the flow switch if pump flow approaches the
minimum flow setpoint. Pump restart can be controlled
manually, automatically by a timer, or automatically when
system conditions warrant a pump restart.
The on-off bypass control typically consists of a low flow signal
switch, a transmitter, and a solenoid bypass valve (fails open).
The flow switch (differential pressure) provides a signal to a
transmitter to open the bypass valve when the minimum flow
condition occurs.
60
Pumps
Figure 28 shows the pump performance characteristic curve

and the system head curve for a system that uses a constant
minimum flow orifice. There are two system curves: a normal
operation system curve based on the friction and static head of
the operating system and a bypass system curve. The bypass
system curve is based on the head loss of the bypass piping
and a wide open bypass valve. The use of a minimum flow
bypass valve is the same operating a system with parallel
branch lines. Each branch line has its own system curve based
on the head loss in each branch. The sum of the flows from the
system and bypass curves at a constant head provides a
combined curve. When the bypass valve is open, the operating
point will become the point at which the combined system curve
intersects the pump characteristic curve. The flow rate through
the pump will be the sum of the fluid flow to the system and the
fluid flow through the bypass.
Figure 28. Pump Performance Characteristic Curve and System Head Curve for a
System that uses a Constant Minimum Flow Orifice
61
Pumps
Figure 29 shows the same system as flow rate approaches

zero, the operating point has moved to the left, but the bypass
flow rate is constant. When the system flow rate becomes zero,
the operating point will be located where the bypass system
curve intersects the pump characteristic curve.
Figure 29. Operating Point in Bypass System as System Flow Approaches Zero
The operation of a modulating bypass valve is similar to the

bypass system previously described. The exception of a
modulating bypass valve is that the bypass flow does not stay
constant. The bypass flow is minimized when the system flow
demand is high; the bypass flow is maximized as the system
flow approaches zero. The combined system curve in a
modulating bypass system only changes slightly until the bypass
valve is fully open. As a result, the pump operating point is
maintained in the relatively same location on the pump
characteristic curve until the bypass valve is fully open.
62
Pumps
Typical System Curves for Refineries and Pipelines

The following section provides examples of typical pump
performance and system curves for refinery systems and
pipelines. The examples can be used to evaluate the type of
pumping system that should be installed in different
applications. The four common pump performance and system
curves are as follows:
High static head, low friction head
Low static head, high friction head
Parallel pump operation
Series pump operation
High Static, Low

Friction
Figure 30 shows a typical system curve for a high static head,

low friction head system overlaid on a pump head-capacity
curve. A high static head, low friction head system is typical of
pumping to high elevations or pressures with a low frictional
pressure drop. Note that the characteristic of this system is a flat
curve. If the pump core is also flat, this type of system will be
unstable.
Figure 30. High Static Head, Low Friction Head System Curve
63
Pumps
Low Static, High

Friction
Figure 31 shows a typical system curve for a low static head,

high friction head system overlaid on the same pump capacity
curve previously shown in Figure 30. A low static head, high
friction head system is typical of pumping at the same elevation
or pressure but with many piping turns, valves, and system
components installed in the line, which result in a high frictional
pressure drop.
Figure 31. Low Static Head, High Friction Head System Curve
64
Pumps
Parallel Pump
Operation
Figure 32 shows a system curve overlaid on the head-capacity

curves for two identical pumps arranged in a parallel
configuration.
Figure 32. Parallel Pump Operation Head-Capacity and System-Head Curves
65
Pumps
Series Pump
Operation
Figure 33 shows the same system curve previously shown in

Figure 32 overlaid on the head-capacity curves for the same two
identical pumps arranged in a series configuration.
Figure 33. Series Pump Operation Head-Capacity and System-Head Curves
An evaluation of when to use a parallel pump configuration and

when to use a series pump configuration depends on the shape
of both the system-head curve and the pump head-capacity
curve. If the static head component represents a large portion of
the system head and friction losses are low (high static head,
low friction head), parallel pump operation is a preferable
method of increasing system capacity. If the system head
consists almost entirely of friction (low static head, high friction
head), operating pumps in series will provide more flow through
the system than if the same pumps were operated in parallel.
66
Pumps
Figure 34 shows a graphical representation of exaggerated

characteristics for pumps and systems plotted to percent rated
capacity versus percent rated head. Figure 34 shows two
system curves. Curve 1 is relatively flat, which indicates a low
friction component, and curve 2 is steep, which indicates a high
friction component. Flat head-capacity curves are provided for a
single pump (curve A), for two pumps in parallel (curve B), and
for two pumps in series (curve C). The following examples
illustrate how system and head-capacity curves relate when
specifying pump configurations.
Figure 34. Pump Characteristics and System Head Curve Comparisons

Example 1 - For a system head composed mainly of friction
(curve 2), two pumps operating in parallel would operate at point
2B and would provide 105% of the capacity obtained with a
single pump. The same two pumps in series would operate at
point 2C and provide 128% of single pump capacity. This
67
Pumps
example shows the advantage of series pumps, which are

commonly found in pipeline systems.
Example 2 - If the same two pumps in series were installed in a
system with a flat system curve (curve 1), the operating point
would be at point 1C. The operation of series pumps in a
system with a flat system curve still has better capacity than the
same two pumps installed in parallel, as indicated by point 1B.
However, the advantage is only slight and other factors, such as
the following, must be taken into consideration:
The brake horsepower in a series pump configuration would

total 230% of the rated horsepower for one pump. The
power input will provide 148% of single pump capacity,
which results in a power-to-capacity ratio of 1.55. The brake
horsepower for parallel pump operation is 164% with a
capacity of 138% of single pump capacity, which results in a
power capacity ratio of 1.19. Parallel pumps would provide a
greater advantage over series pumps in terms of cost per
gallon of fluid pumped.
When two pumps are operated in series at point 1C, each

pump must handle 148% of normal capacity. Pumping
greater than 100% of normal capacity may cause problems
in achieving adequate NPSH. For parallel pump operation at
point 1B, each pump would handle only 69% of normal
capacity, which minimizes the problem of inadequate NPSH.
If the pump driver had been selected without any margin

over the power requirement at rated capacity, series pump
operation at point 1C will overload the driver.
Figure 35 shows the same system head curves 1 and 2 but with
a pump that has a steep head-capacity curve. In this scenario,
the capacity advantage of using series pumps is diminished.
The series pump operating point in a high friction system (point
2C) is only 122% of single pump capacity compared with 115%
for parallel pump operation (point 2B). Unlike example 1, the
total power consumption is less for the greater capacity
obtained from series pump operation than it would be for the
smaller capacity of parallel pump operation. The drop in the total
power consumption is caused by the shape of the brake
horsepower curve for pumps with steep head-capacity curves in
series. The brake horsepower curve lowers as capacity
increases.
68
Pumps
Using the flat system curve, parallel operation, with 160% of

single capacity at point 1B, provides the advantage over series
operation, with 134% of single capacity at point 1C.
Figure 35. Steep Head-Capacity Curve

.
69
Pumps
GLOSSARY
best efficiency point (BEP)
The point on the map of head, capacity, and impeller

diameter at which hydraulic efficiency is maximum.
brake horsepower
The quantity of power required to turn the shaft of a

pump. The power loading on the shaft between the
pump and its driver.
capacity
The quantity of fluid actually delivered from a pump

per unit of time. Typical units include gallons per
minute, liters per minute, cubic meters per hour and
cubic meters per minute.
cavitation
The implosion of vapor bubbles in a liquid inside a

pump on the pumping component (e.g., impeller or
plunger).
efficiency
The hydraulic (pressure) energy added to the liquid

divided by the power input to the shaft.
gpm
Flow rate in gallons per minute.
head
The quantity used to express the energy content of a

liquid per unit weight of the liquid, which is referred to
any arbitrary datum in feet or meters.
momentum
In mechanics, the quantity of motion of a body. The

linear momentum of a body is the product of its mass
and velocity. The angular momentum of a body
rotating about a point is equal to the product of its
mass, its angular velocity, and the square of the
distance from the axis of rotation. Both linear and
angular momentum of a body or system of bodies
are conserved if no external force acts on the body
of the system.
Net Positive Suction Head

Available (NPSHA)
Actual pressure at the pump suction minus vapor

pressure of the liquid.
Net Positive Suction Head

Required (NPSHR)
The amount of pressure drop that occurs from the

pump suction flange to the pumping element.
orifice
A device for measuring fluid flow rate in a pipe. This
70
Pumps
device consists of a restriction orifice in the pipe,

pressure taps upstream and downstream of the
orifice, and a gauge to measure the P.
performance curve
Graphs that show the produced head, the required

power, the NPSH required, and the efficiency as
functions of flow rate.
specific gravity
The density of a liquid divided by the density of water

at 60F.
torque
A quantity expressing the effectiveness of a force to

change the net rate of rotation of a body. Torque is
equal to the product of the force acting on the body
and the distance from its point of application to the
axis around which the body is free to rotate. Units of
torque include the foot-pound (or pound-foot), the
dyne-centimeter, and the newton-meter.
71

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

PUMP AND PUMP/PIPING SYSTEM

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Figure 27. Integral Minimum Flow Control.................................................................... 59

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